Unit III: Bipolar junction Transistors: Transistor Structure, Basic Transistor Operation,

Transistor Characteristics and Parameters, Transistor as an Amplifier and Switch

What is a BJT?
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is a three-terminal
semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify
a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the
collector and the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as
charge carriers.

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was invented by William Shockley and John Bardeen.
While the first transistor was invented 70 years ago but till now it changed the world from
mysterious big computers to small smartphones. The invention of transistor changed the
concept of electrical circuits to integrated circuits (IC). Nowadays, the use of BJT is
decreasing because CMOS technology took place in the design of digital ICs.

Transistor structure:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal circuit or device that amplifies flow
of current. It is solid state device that flows current in two terminals, i.e., collector and
emitter and controlled by third device known as terminal or base terminal. Unlike a
normal p-n junction diode, this transistor has two p-n junctions. The basic symbols of BJT
are n-type and p-type. Electronic current is conducted by both free electrons and holes in
bipolar junction transistor.

Terminals of Bipolar Junction Transistors

There are three terminals in bipolar junction transistors are explained below.
 Emitter − It supplies charge carriers. It is highly doped so that it can inject a large
number of charge carriers into the base. Emitter is always greater than base.
 Base − Base is middle layer in BJT which is thin compared to emitter and collector.
Base is very lighted doped.
 Collector − It collects charge carriers. Its doped between emitter and base means
moderately doped, but it is always greater than emitter and base in size.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistors: A BJT can also be used as a solid state switch in
electronic circuits. There are two types of BJTs −

 NPN Transistor
 PNP Transistor
Symbols of a BJT

NPN Transistor: In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two n-type
semiconductors. The two n-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively
while the p-type semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure below.

PNP Transistor: In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two p-
type semiconductors. The two p-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector
respectively while the n-type semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure
below.
Important Facts about BJT:

 There are two pn-junctions, hence a transistor may be regarded as a combination of

two back-to-back connected diodes.
 The collector region is wider than both emitter and base. The base is much thinner
than both emitter and collector. During the transistor operation, a lots of heat is
generated at the collector, hence the collector is made larger to dissipate the heat.
 A transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The one section is called
the Emitter, the other is called the Collector, and the middle section is called the Base
and forms two pn-junctions between emitter and collector.
 In general, the emitter-base junction of the BJT is made forward-biased, whereas the
collector-base junction is reverse-biased.
 The resistance of forward-biased junction is very small as compared to that of the
reverse-biased junction.
 The emitter is heavily doped so that it can supply a greater number of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) to the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin,
hence it passes most of the charge carriers injected by the emitter to the collector.
The doping concentration of the collector region is moderate.

Basic Working operation of BJT:

The emitter-base junction of BJT is forward-biased, whereas the collector-base junction is

reverse biased. The forward bias of the emitter-base junction causes the emitter current to
flow and this emitter current entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, the collector
current depends upon the emitter current and nearly equal to the emitter current.

Working of NPN Transistor:

With the forward-biased emitter-base junction and reverse-biased collector-base junction,

it can be seen that the forward bias causes the flow of electrons from the n-type emitter
into the p-type base. This constitutes the emitter current (). As these electrons flow
through the p-type base, they tend to combine with the holes.
Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence, only a small number electrons (less
than 5%) combine with the holes to constitute the base current (). The remaining (more
than 95%) electrons cross over the base region and reach to the collector region to
constitute the collector current (). In this manner, the entire emitter current flows in the
collector circuit.
The emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents.
IE=IB+IC
Working of PNP Transistor:

For the pnp-transistor, the forward bias of emitter-base junction causes the flow of holes
in the p-type emitter region towards the n-type base and constitutes the emitter current
(IE). As these holes cross into the n-type base region, they tend to combine with the
electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence only a small number of holes
(less than 5%) combine with the electrons. The remaining (more than 95%) cross the base
and reach into the collector region to constitute the collector current (IC).
In this manner, the entire emitter current flows into the collector circuit. It may be noted
that the current conduction inside the pnp-transistor is due to the movement of holes.
However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still due to the flow of electrons.
Again, the emitter current is the sum of collector current and base current.

IE=IB+IC

BJT operation modes:

There are three modes: Cut-off mode, saturated mode, and active mode in bipolar
transistor junction. We need supply dc voltage to npn or pnp transistors in order to
operate transistor in one of these regions. Transistor operates in any of these regions
based on polarity of dc voltage. Applying dc voltage means biasing of transistor.
Cutoff mode:
In this mode, both junctions are reversed biased so no current flows through the device.
Hence, transistor is in off mode and acts like open switch. This mode is used for switch OFF
application.

Saturated mode:
In this mode, both junctions are forward biased so current flows through the device.
Hence, transistor is in on mode and acts like closed switch. This mode is used for switch
ON application.

Active mode:
In this mode, one junction (emitter to base) is forward biased and another junction
(collector to base) is reverse biased. This mode is used for amplification of current.
Transistor Characteristics and its parameters:

A Transistor has 3 terminals, the emitter, the base and the collector. Using these 3
terminals the transistor can be connected in a circuit with one terminal common to both
input and output in a 3 different possible configurations.

The three types of configurations are

Common Base (CB) configuration
Common Emitter (CE) configuration
Common Collector(CC) configuration

Common Base (CB) configuration: The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken
as common terminal for both input and output of the transistor. The common base
connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as shown in the following figure.

As the name suggests the configuration is of the common terminal base this remains
common for both the input and the output circuit connections. The voltage is applied at the
junction of the emitter and the base. Here the emitter and the base are referred to as the
input side and the collector is known for the output side of the circuit connection.

Characteristics of Common Base (CB) Configuration:

The emitter to base voltage VEB can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R1. A series
resistor RS is inserted in the emitter circuit to limit the emitter current IE. The value of the
emitter change to a large value even the value of a potentiometer slightly changes. The
value of collector voltage changes slightly by changing the value of the potentiometer R 2.
The input and output characteristic curve of the potentiometer explains below in details.

Input Characteristic: The curve plotted between emitter current IE and the emitter-base
voltage VEB at constant collector base voltage VCB is called input characteristic curve. The
input characteristic curve is shown in the figure below.

The following points are taken into consideration from the characteristic curve.

1. For a specific value of VCB, the curve is a diode characteristic in the forward region. The
PN emitter junction is forward biased.
2. When the value of the voltage base current increases the value of emitter current
increases slightly. The junction behaves like a better diode. The emitter and collector
current is independent of the collector base voltage VCB.
3. The emitter current IE increases with the small increase in emitter-base voltage VEB. It
shows that input resistance is small.

Output Characteristic Curve: In common base configuration, the curve plotted between
the collector current and collector base voltage VCB at constant emitter current IE is called
output characteristic.
Transistor parameters:

input impedance (hib):

It is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or emitter voltage (V BE) to the
corresponding change in input current or emitter current (IE), with the output voltage or
collector voltage (VCB) kept at constant.

Dynamic output resistance (hob): Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of
change in output voltage or collector voltage (VCB) to the corresponding change in output
current or collector current (IC), with the input current or emitter current (IE) kept at
constant.

Forward Current gain (α): It is defined as the ratio of output current or collector current
(IC) to the input current or emitter current (IE).
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal
is taken as common terminal for both input and output of the transistor. The common
emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction
is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current
is the base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC here.

Characteristics of Common emitter (CE) Configuration:

The characteristic of the common emitter transistor circuit is shown in the figure below.
The base to emitter voltage varies by adjusting the potentiometer R 1. And the collector to
emitter voltage varied by adjusting the potentiometer R2. For the various setting, the
current and voltage are taken from the milli ammeters and voltmeter. On the basis of these
readings, the input and output curve plotted on the curve.
Input Characteristic

The curve plotted between base current IB and the base-emitter voltage VEB is called Input
characteristics curve. For drawing the input characteristic the reading of base currents is
taken through the ammeter on emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-emitter current.
The curve for different value of collector-base current is shown in the figure below.

Output Characteristic

In CE configuration the curve draws between collector current IC and collector-emitter

voltage VCE at a constant base current IB is called output characteristic. The characteristic
curve for the typical NPN transistor in CE configuration is shown in the figure below.
In the active region, the collector current increases slightly as collector-emitter VCE current
increases. The slope of the curve is quite more than the output characteristic of CB
configuration. The output resistance of the common base connection is more than that of
CE connection

Transistor parameters:

Dynamic input resistance (ri):

Dynamic input resistance is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or base voltage
(VBE) to the corresponding change in input current or base current (IB), with the output
voltage or collector voltage (VCE) kept at constant.

Dynamic output resistance (ro):

Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage or collector
voltage (VCE) to the corresponding change in output current or collector current (I C), with
the input current or base current (IB) kept at constant.

Current gain (α):

The current gain of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as the ratio of output current
or collector current (IC) to the input current or base current (IB).
Common Collector (CC) Configuration:

The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both
input and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The
input current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.

Sometimes common collector configuration is also referred to as emitter follower, voltage

follower, common collector amplifier, CC amplifier, or CC configuration. This configuration
is mostly used as a voltage buffer.

The input supply voltage between base and collector is denoted by VBC while the output
voltage between emitter and collector is denoted by VEC.

Input Characteristic Curve: The input characteristic of the common collector

configuration is drawn between collector base voltage VCE and base current IB at constant
emitter current voltage VCE. The value of the output voltage VCE changes with respect to the
input voltage VBC and IB With the help of these values, input characteristic curve is drawn.
The input characteristic curve is shown below.
Output Characteristic Curve:

The output characteristic of the common emitter circuit is drawn between the emitter-
collector voltage VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB. If the input current
IB is zero, then the collector current also becomes zero, and no current flows through
the transistor.

The transistor operates in active region when the base current increases and reaches to
saturation region. The graph is plotted by keeping the base current I B constant and varying
the emitter-collector voltage VCE, the values of output current IE are noticed with respect to
VCE. By using the VCE and IE at constant IB the output characteristic curve is drawn.
Transistor parameters:

Dynamic input resistance (ri): Dynamic input resistance is defined as the ratio of change
in input voltage or base voltage (VBC) to the corresponding change in input current or base
current (IB), with the output voltage or emitter voltage (VEC) kept at constant.

Dynamic output resistance (ro): Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of
change in output voltage or emitter voltage (VEC) to the corresponding change in output
current or emitter current (IE), with the input current or base current (IB) kept at constant.
The output resistance of common collector amplifier is low.

Current amplification factor (γ): The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio
of change in output current or emitter current IE to the change in input current or base
current IB. It is expressed by γ.
Transistor as an Amplifier: A transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device,
and the terminals are E(Emitter), B (Base) & C (Collector). The transistor can work in three
different regions like active region, cutoff region & saturation region. Transistors are
turned off while working in the cut-off region and turned on while working in the
saturation region. Transistors work as an amplifier while they work in the active region.
The main function of a transistor as an amplifier is to enhance the input signal without
changing much.

Amplifier: Amplifier circuit can be defined as, a circuit which is used to amplify a signal.
The input of the amplifier is a voltage otherwise current, where the output will be an
amplifier input signal. An amplifier circuit which uses a transistor otherwise transistors is
known as a transistor amplifier. The applications of transistor amplifier circuits mainly
involve in audio, radio, optical fiber communication, etc.

Now consider the npn transistor with the input signal applied between its base and emitter
terminals, while the output being collected across the load resistor RC, connected across
the collector and the base terminals, as shown by Figure.

For accurate amplification, always remember that the input is connected in forward-biased
whereas the output is connected in reverse-biased. For this reason, in addition to the
signal, we apply DC voltage (VEE) in the input circuit as shown in the above circuit.

Generally, the input circuit includes low resistance as a result; a little change will occur in
signal voltage at the input which leads to a significant change within the emitter current.
Because of the transistor act, emitter current change will cause the same change within the
collector circuit.

At present, the flow of collector current through an Rc generates a huge voltage across it.
Therefore, the applied weak signal at the input circuit will come out in the amplified form
at the collector circuit in the output. In this method, the transistor performs as an amplifier.
In most of the electronic circuits, we use commonly NPN transistor configuration which is
known as NPN transistor amplifier circuit. Let us consider a voltage divider biasing circuit
which is commonly known as a single stage transistor amplifier circuit.

If designed properly, this amplifier can provide excellent signal characteristics. The circuit
diagram of a single stage common emitter RC coupled amplifier using transistor is shown
in Fig.

 Capacitor Cin is the input DC decoupling capacitor which blocks any DC component
if present in the input signal from reaching the Q1 base. If any external DC voltage
reaches the base of Q1, it will alter the biasing conditions and affects the
performance of the amplifier.
 R1 and R2 are the biasing resistors. This network provides the transistor Q1’s base
with the necessary bias voltage to drive it into the active region. The region of
operation where the transistor is completely switched of is called cut-off region and
the region of operation where the transistor is completely switched ON (like a
closed switch) is called saturation region. The region in between cut-off and
saturation is called active region.
 Cout is the output DC decoupling capacitor. It prevents any DC voltage from entering
into the succeeding stage from the present stage. If this capacitor is not used the
output of the amplifier (Vout) will be clamped by the DC level present at the
transistors collector.
Transistor As a switch: A transistor can be used for switching operation for opening or
closing of a circuit. This type solid state switching offers significant reliability and lower
cost when compared to conventional relays.

Both NPN and PNP transistors can be used as switches. Some of the applications use a
power transistor as switching device, at that time it may necessary to use another signal
level transistor to drive the high-power transistor.

NPN Transistor as a Switch:

 Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching operation
is performed. When a sufficient voltage (VIN > 0.7 V) is applied between the base and
emitter, collector to emitter voltage is approximately equal to 0. Therefore, the
transistor acts as a short circuit. The collector current VCC / RC flows through the
transistor.

 Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor operates
in cutoff region and acts as an open circuit. In this type of switching connection, load
(here an LED is used as a load) is connected to the switching output with a reference
point. Thus, when the transistor is switched ON, current will flow from source to
ground through the load.
Example of NPN Transistor as a Switch:
Consider the below example, where base resistance RB = 50 KΩ, collector resistance RC =
0.7 KΩ, VCC is 5V and the beta value is 125. At the base, an input signal varying between 0V
and 5V is given. We are going to see the output at the collector by varying the V I at two
states that is 0 and 5V as shown in figure.

 Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the input. This causes the base
current to be zero and as the emitter is grounded, emitter base junction is not
forward biased. Therefore, the transistor is in OFF condition and the collector
output voltage is equal to 5V.

When VI = 0V, IB = 0 and IC =0,

VC = VCC – (IC * RC)
= 5V – 0
= 5V
 Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base current can be
determined by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

When VI = 5V,
IB = (VI – VBE) / RB
For silicon transistor, VBE = 0.7 V
Thus, IB = (5V – 0.7V) / 50 KΩ
= 86 µA, which is greater than 56.8 µA
 Therefore, as the base current is greater than 56.8 micro ampere current, the
transistor will be driven to saturation i.e., it is fully ON, when 5V is applied at the
input. Thus, the output at the collector becomes approximately zero.