Chemical properties-They include the internal properties of a material e.g.

atomic number,
atomic weights, and electrons in the outer shells, acidity and alkalinity of the material
Structural Properties-Deals with the buildup of the material. They include the size, alloys and
composites

Electrical properties of materials

These are properties that determine the ability of a material to allow current to pass through.
There are several of these properties that are used to classify these materials.
They include
Number of free electrons
Bonding
Number of electrons in the outer shell atomic number and group in the periodic table
Forbidden bond size
Energy gap
Resistance
Resistivity
Temperature
Dielectric properties.
1. Number of free electrons
These are the number of electrons that are free in the materials it to conduct electricity.
The more the number of free electrons the more the conductivity of the material.
2. Number of the electrons in the outer shell
From the atomic theory the number of the electrons in the outer shell determines the group of a
material in the periodic table.
If a material has less than 4 then it is classified as a good conductor.
4 electrons will be a semiconductor and more than four electrons is an insulator.
3. Bonding
This is the way the atoms are held together.
It is also how the electrons are strongly held at their position in relation to the nucleus
There are different types of bonding which include
• Ionic

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 • Covalent
• Metallic
This can also determine the classification of the materials
4. Forbidden bond
This appears when dealing with the cross section of an atom of an element
Where this bond is in between the valence and conduction band.

Conduction band

Forbidden band

Valence band

The size of the energy levels determines the electrical properties of the material.
The smaller it is the more the conductivity.
5. Energy Gap(Eg)
This is the energy required to enable an electron to transits from the valence band to the CB.
It is measured in electron volts (eV)
It is related to the forbidden band in that the larger the band the more the energy that will be
required to enable an electron t transits from the VB to the CB
6. Resistance
The opposition of the flow of current by a conducting material
Measured in ohms
By ohms law, it is given by
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

Where
V-Voltage

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I-Current
It depends on the following factors
• Length(m)
• Cross sectional area(𝑚2 )
• resistivity(𝛺𝑚)
• temperature(k)
The more the length the more the resistance
The more the areas the less the resistance proportional.
The more the resistivity, the more the resistance (direct proportionality)
The more the temperature, the more the resistance i.e. for a conductor
𝑇
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

The temperature affects the resistivity in a way that it is given by

𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌0 + 𝛼𝑇

𝜌𝑡 − Total resistivity

𝜌0 − Resistivity at a given temperature

∝ − Constant depends on the material

𝐼 𝑉
𝑅=𝜌 =
𝐴 𝐼
𝑅𝑡 =𝑅0 +∝ 𝑇

For a conductor the current density is given by

𝐽 = 𝜎𝜖

Where

𝜖-electric field
𝐼
𝐽=𝐴

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Conductance: The process of allowing current to pass through the inverse of resistance.
1
𝐺=𝑅

Measured in Mohr’s(𝜇) or siemens(𝑆)

Resistivity (𝝆)

The ability of a current to oppose the flow of a current.

Measured in ohms meters (𝛺𝑚)

It depends on several factors which include

• temperature
• impurities
• plastic deformation
• pressure

The more the temperature the more the resistivity.

There are is a linear relation from -2000C as one increases the temperature

𝜌0 = 𝜌𝑜 + 𝛼𝑇

Impurities

In most cases the impurities increases the resistivity of materials. This feature is discussed under
alloys since two or more materials are physically combined.

This is because of the resulting structure after combination.

For semiconductor materials; Their resistivity will decrease after adding impurities.

Plastic deformation-Deformation is where the atoms are dislocated. It increases the resistivity of
a material since they are not able to move freely.

Pressure this is the process of applying force on a material. This also increases the resistivity of a
material since the atoms will not be in their regular position.

The more the resistivity the less the conductance of a material

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Conductivity(𝝈)

This is the ability of a material to allow current to pass through.

𝑠
Measured in ʊ/𝑀 OR 𝑀

1
𝜎=
𝜌

RESISTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Intrinsic conduction

Equilibrium there is the positive and the negative carrier in these materials at a given temperature

The rate of the combination

𝛾𝑛𝑝

Where

𝑛 − Negative charge carriers

𝑝 − Positive charge carrier

𝑟 − Gamma is a constant.

The rate of generation is given by

𝑟𝑛𝑖 2

𝑛𝑖 − Intrinsic concentration

In thermal equilibrium the two are the same

𝑟𝑛𝑝 = 𝑟𝑛𝑖 2

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2

In intrinsic conduction considering negative charge carriers

𝛾𝑛 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛

𝛾𝑛 = 𝑝𝑞 𝜇𝑝

Where

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𝑛 − Negative charge carriers

𝑞 − Electron charge

𝜇𝑛 − Electron mobility

𝑝 = Positive charge carriers

𝜇𝑝 − Hole mobility

Total conductivity

𝜎𝑖 = 𝜎𝑛 + 𝜎𝑝

= 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝑞𝜇𝑝

= 𝑞(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )

1
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑤𝑇

1 1
𝜌= =
𝜎 𝑞(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝)
1 𝐿
𝑅 = 𝑞(𝑛𝜇+𝑝𝜇
𝑝) 𝑊𝑇

1 𝐿
𝑅=
𝑞(𝑛𝜇 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 ) 𝑊𝑇

1
𝑅𝑈 =
𝑞(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑇

This is referred to as sheet resistance

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 Conductance
1 1
G=𝑅 = 1 𝐿
𝑞(𝑛𝜇𝑛 +𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑊𝑇

𝑊
𝐺 = 𝑞(𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝜇𝑝 )𝑇
𝐿

Resistance of a diffused layer (extrinsic semiconductor)

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2 At equilibrium

Taking donors, their concentration is given by

𝑁𝐷

Replacing n with Nd

𝑁𝐷 P=𝑛𝑖 2

𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 + 𝑝𝑞 𝜇𝑝

𝑛𝑖 2
𝜎 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛 + 𝑞𝜇
𝑁𝐷 𝑝
𝜎𝑛𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑝

Taking a uniformly diffused layer of the following structure we can calculate its resistance

Resistance is given by

𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑊𝑇

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 1 1
𝜌= =
𝜎 𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛

1 𝐿
𝑅=
𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑊𝑇

1 𝐿
𝑅=
𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑇 𝑊

Sheet resistance n given by N-types

1
𝑅𝑛 =
𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑇

Similarly for p-type

1 𝐿
𝑅=
𝑁𝑛 𝑞𝜇𝑝 𝑇 𝑊

Conductance (G)

1 1
𝐺= =
𝑅 1 𝐿
𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑇 𝑊
𝑊
𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑇 For N-type material
𝐿

None uniformly diffused layer

No(X)
18
10
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 1015 X

dx Xj

Using the conductance

𝑊
𝐺 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑇
𝐿
𝑊
𝑑𝐺 = 𝑁𝐷 (𝑥)𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
Integrating both sides
𝑤
∫ 𝑑𝑔 = ∫ 𝑁𝐷 (𝑥)𝑞 𝜇𝑛 𝑑𝑥
𝑙

𝑊 𝑋
𝐺 = 𝑞𝜇𝑛 ∫ 𝑁 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0 𝐷

𝑤 𝑥𝑗
= 𝑞𝜇𝑛 ∫ 𝑁 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0 𝐷

𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
̅̅̅

𝑥𝑗 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑁𝐷 (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Resistance

1
𝑅=
𝐺
1
= 𝑤 𝑥𝑗
𝑞𝜇 𝑛 𝐿 ∫0 𝑁𝐷 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
̅̅̅

1 𝐿
𝑅= 𝑥𝑗
𝑞𝜇 𝑛 ∫0 𝑁𝐷 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
̅̅̅ 𝑊

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7. Dielectric properties

Dielectric is a material that affects electric field

The dielectric properties include

• dielectric constant
• dielectric strength
• less tangent

Dielectric constant

This is the ability of a material to affect the electric field

Given by permittivity(𝜀) epsilon

The same as relative permittivity

𝜀
𝜀𝑟 =
𝜀0

𝐹
𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12
𝑀
1 𝐹
= × 10−9
36𝜋 𝑀
Permittivity can be used with the most insulating materials.

There are different formula which apply it including

To put two charges

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2
Where

𝐹 − Force between the point charges

𝑞1 &𝑞2 Pt charge

𝜀 − Permittivity

𝑟-Distance between two charges

Electric field E

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 𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
𝑞𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2

Electric field density (D)

𝑞
𝐷=
𝐴
𝐷
𝜀=
𝜀
𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸

Loss tangent

An electric is not supposed to allow current to pass through if there is a leakage of current, if
loses dielectric (insulating) properties.

This parameter indicates the capability of a material not to leak any current

Given by

1
tan 𝜕 =
𝑤𝑟𝑐

Dielectric strength

Ability of a material to withstand electric field applied across its terminals (two ends).

If the material is not able to withstand the electric field then it breaks down and starts
conducting.

This is sometimes called intrinsic breakdown

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The relation between the electric field applied the breakdown voltage and the thickness of the
material is given by
𝑣𝑏𝑟 𝑣
𝐸𝑏𝑟 = In 𝑚
𝑡

𝐸𝑏𝑟 -breakdown electric field

𝑣𝑏𝑟 − Breakdown voltage

𝑡 − Thickness of the material

The units are volts per metre.But in most cases given by

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
,𝑘 𝑚𝑚, or 𝑚 𝑚
𝑚𝑚

All the above properties result into classification of materials in terms of electrical behavior.

The classifications are given by

• conductors
• insulators
• semiconductors

Conductors

They allow current to pass through

Characteristics

• have free electrons

• have metallic bonds
• fall in groups 1-3 of the periodic table
• have very small or no forbidden band since VB & CB overall sometimes
• have a very small or no energy gap
• Temperature increase increases resistance of the material at 00C these materials act as
super conductors.
• The resistivity of these materials ranges between 10−4 − 10−𝑛 𝛺𝑚

They don’t exhibit dielectric properties

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Example

All metals

Aluminum 0.0265Ω-𝜇𝑚

Copper-0.0172 Ω-𝜇𝑚

Insulators

Materials that do not allow current to pass through

Characteristics

• No free electrons
• Have covalent(ionic bonds)
• Fall in group 5-8
• Have a large forbidden band
• Have a very large energy gap
• Increase in temperature in some cases reduces resistance but to a very small extent. In
most cases temperature doesn’t affect the resistance of the insulators
• Resistivity ranges from 105 − 1017 𝛺𝑚
• The slow dielectric properties

Examples

Rubber and its products (PVC)

Plastic, polyethene and ceramic

𝑆𝑖 02

Semi-conductors

Materials that partially allow current to pass through

Characteristics

Moderate number of free electrons

Have covalent bonds from crystalline structure

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Fall in group four

They have a medium sized forbidden band

Have a moderate energy gap

e.g. <3eV

Increase in temperature decreases resistance. Negative temperature coefficient. At 00C a

semiconductor behaves as insulators.

Resistivity ranges from between 10−5 − 105 𝛺𝑚

They exhibit some dielectric properties (minimal levels)

Examples include

Carbon

Silicon

Germanium

Compounds e.g. N-type-type, Gallium Arsenic (GaAs)

Gallium Phosphide (GaP)

There are two categories

Intrinsic

Pure

Have crystalline structure

Silicon is commonly used because it is readily available also has a stronger electrical strengths
minimal leakage current

Germanium better in solar panels

Extrinsic

Have impurities-have been doped

Two types N-types

P-types

Other materials include

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 • Super ionic conductors
• Dielectric
• Ferroelectrics
• Thermoelectric
• Piezoelectric
• Electrostrictions
• Magnetic electric

Superionic conductors

Are solids that show electrical properties similar to electrolytes?

Electrolytes liquids that conduct through electrolysis

Conduct through electrolysis

Are materials are comely used in power generation for low level voltage and current ex is in a
cell

Dielectric

Materials that affect the electrical field

They are also called insulators

Mica ceramic, air, depletion layers etc.

𝐴
𝑐=𝜀
𝑑

Ferroelectric

These are the materials that show spontaneous polarization.

Polarization-This is a phenomenon where a material exhibits electrical properties i.e. positive

and negative

The electrical dipoles i.e. positive and negative orient themselves in a way that the material will
have two polarities i.e. positive and negative

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Example is an electrolyte capacitor that has permanent polarities i.e. positive which means they
need to be conducted in a specific way in a circuit

These materials when exposed to an electric field their polarization will change.

The behavior can be analyzed using hysteric curve (loop)

P
Cohesive force

Polarization

The curve describes the behavior of a ferroelectric material when exposed to electric field.

After the material gets polarized one can be able to reduce the polarization to zero by using a
coercive force

Occurs below a temperature called the Curie temperature

Above the Curie temperature materials shows a linear relation then between polarization and
applied electric field
P

Polar electric relationship above curie temp

The rate of polarization depends on the electric susceptibility of the material

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𝑥𝜀 − Electrical susceptibility

𝑐 − Curies constant

𝑇 − Current temperature

Pyro electric

This is a property of a material which enables it to respond to heat changes

When heat is applied to the material produces some voltage due to the orientation of the dipoles

These materials can be used to save heat energy.

Thermoelectric

This is a property where a material transforms variations of temperature to electric energy

A temperature gradient will result to voltage.

These materials are used to serve temperature

Specific applications being in thermometer, very small voltage generations changes in

temperature

Electrostriction

A concept where when electric energy is applied to a material it undergoes deformation.

This property is not reversible (Deformation cannot result to electric energy)

This can be applied in sensors. Electrochemical systems (MEMS)

Piezo electric

At times retrieved to as pressure electricity

This is a concept where when pressure is applied to a material it results to electric energy
(voltage)

For this case, the reverse is possible where applications of the electric energy across the material
will cause deformation

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Example is quarts which are commonly used in applications that require change of electric
energy to mechanical or pressure and vice versa.

Also commonly applied in MEMS

Electromagnetic material

These are materials that when exposed to electric energy they result to magnetic energy and vice
versa.

For instance passing current through a conductor will result to magnetic induction.

Several principles have been in different applications related to this concept which includes
Flemings rules, faraday, Lenz’s and Maxwell’s equations

Bio electromagnetism

This is a concept that deals with the response of living organisms to electric magnetic properties.

Magnetism

Sources of magnetic properties i.e.

• Orbiting
• Spins
• Nucleus

Terminologies

Magnetic induction/magnetic flux density(𝐻)

Magnification

Magnetic susceptibility

Magnetic dipole

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Factors that affect the magnetic properties of materials

• Temperature
• Impurities
• Pressure
• Permeability
• Deformation
• Length
• Number of turns

NB-Relate everything to what was done in an electrical.

Classification of magnetic materials

• Diamagnetic
• Paramagnetic
• Ferromagnetic
• Antiferromagnetic
• Ferromagnetic
• Magneto-striction

Differentiate between hard and soft magnetism

Etching

1. Magnetic induction/Magnetic flux density

Presence of magnetic field in a vacuum is related to the field.

𝛽 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻

𝛽 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐻

Field strength

2. Magnetic field 𝛽

𝛽 = 𝜇𝐻

3. Magnetization
𝑚 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
4. Magnetic susceptibility-magnitude of magnetization is proportional to applied field as
follows
𝑚 = 𝑥𝐻

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 5. Magnetic dipoles-Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic material which is to
electronic dipoles.

Strength of magnetic dipole=pole strength×distance between poles (magnetic moment)

Sources of magnetic moments

Orbital magnetic moment of electrons. Spin magnetic moment of electrons

1. Diamagnetism

Weak form of magnetism exhibited by substances with a negative magnetic susceptibility.

Substances that magnetize in a direction opposite to that of an applied electric field. Benzene,
Silver, Gold and copper

H=0 H

Induction
ferro

para

Vacuum

diam

Magnetic field(H)

2. Para magnetism

Exhibited by substances which when placed in a magnetic field are magnetized parallel to the
field to an extent proportional to the field.

H=0

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 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑠 ×
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
Net magnetic moment per atom= 𝜇𝛽

3. Ferromagnetism-Exhibited by certain metal alloys and compounds of transition.

All ferromagnetic materials exhibit para magnetic behavior above their ferromagnetic curie
point.

Materials exhibit special form of ferromagnetisms below Curie temperature called

ferrimagnetism

H=0

4. Antiferromagnetic-originates when spin moments of neighboring atoms arte ordered in

antiparallel arrangement e.g. manganese oxide
Magnetic moments cancels one another as a result solid as a whole possess a number of
magnetic current

5. Magneto-striction changes in length of a substance when magnetized.

6. Ferrimagnetism-e.g. ceramics-ferrites

Atoms may be antiferromagnetically coupled but with different magnetic moments giving rise to
net magnetic moment and could not result to magnetization

Temperature on a magnetic field

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Saturation magnetization decreases with increase in temperature

Domain and hysteresis

Domain region of small volume where there is a mutually alignment in the same direction of all
magnetic moments
B

Hysterisis loop

H H

Magnetic flux density vs. magnetic field strength for a Ferro that is subjected to forward and
reverse saturations

Soft magnetic material

Low loss and high permeability. Easily magnetized and demagnetized. iron, low carbon and steel

Hard magnetic material

Utilized in permanent magnets

Etching

Process of removing unwanted sections that have been exposed to photo lithography.

a. Wet etching

Use of a sole which can react with exposed part removing it

b. Dry etching

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Use of ions or gases to remove unwanted sections

Dielectric-This is a material that affects the electric field

a. Dielectric constant-Ability to affect the electric field

b. Loss tangent-Capacity of a material not to leak any current
c. Dielectric strength-Ability of a material to withstand electric field applied across its
terminals

Categories of dielectrics

• Simple dielectrics
• Paradielectrics
• Ferro electrics

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