LECTURE NOTES

On
EEM(4TH SEM)

PREPARED BY:-

HIMANSU BHUSAN BEHERA

Lecturer in Electrical Engg.

UGIE, Rourkela
 Electrical Engineering Material
Conducting materials;
Today’s discussion:
 Introduction
 Resistivity
 factors affecting resistivity
 Classification of conducting materials into low-resistivity and high resistivity materials

Resistivity:
Laws of Resistance:
Let’s take a conductor

(i) The resistance of a substance is directly proportional to the length of the substance. electrical
resistance R of a substance is

If the length of a substance is increased, the path traveled by the electrons is also increased. If electrons
travel long, they collide more and consequently the number of electrons passing through the substance
becomes less; hence current through the substance is reduced. In other words, the resistance of the
substance increases with increasing length of the substance. This relation is also linear.

(ii) The resistance of a substance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the substance.

Where A is the cross-sectional area of the substance.

The current through any substance depends on the numbers of electrons pass through a cross-section of
substance per unit time. So, if the cross section of any substance is larger than more electrons can cross
the cross section. Passing of more electrons through a cross-section per unit time causes more current
through the substance. For fixed voltage, more current means less electrical resistance and this relation
is linear.

(iii) Combining both;

Where, ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant and known as resistivity or specific resistance of the
material of the conductor or substance. Now if we put, L = 1 and A = 1 in the equation, we get, R = ρ.
That means resistance of a material of unit length having unit cross – sectional area is equal to its
resistivity or specific resistance. Resistivity of a material can alternatively be defined as the electrical
resistance between opposite faces of a cube of unit volume of that material.

Unit of Resistivity
The unit of resistivity can be easily determined form its equation;

Factors affecting resistivity:

(a) Temperature
(b) Alloying
(c) Mechanical stress
(d) Age Hardening
(e) Cold Working
(a) Temperature

The resistivity of materials changes with temperature. Resistivity of most of the metals increase with
temperature. The change in the resistivity of material with change in temperature is given by formula
given below

Where,
ρt1 is the resistivity of material at temperature of t1o C
and
ρt2 is the resistivity of material at temperature of t2oC
α1 is temperature coefficient of resistance of material at temperature of t1o C.
If the value of α1 is positive, the resistivity of material is increase.

(b) Alloying
Alloying is a solid solution of two or more metals. Alloying of metals is used to achieve some
mechanical and electrical properties. The atomic structure of a solid solution is irregular as compared
to pure metals. Due to which the electrical resistivity of the solid solution increases more rapidly with
increase of alloy content. A small content of impurity may increase the resistivity metal considerably.
Even the impurity of low resistivity increases the resistivity of base metal considerably. For example
the impurity of silver (having lowest resistivity among all metals) in copper increase the resistivity of
copper.

(c) Mechanical Stressing

Mechanical stressing of the crystal structure of material develops the localized strains in the material
crystal structure. These localized stains disturb the movement of free electrons through the material.
Which results in an increase in resistivity of the material. Subsequently, annealing, of metal reduces the
resistivity of metal. Annealing of metal, relieve the mechanical stressing of material due to which the
localized stains got removed from the crystal structure of the metal. Due to which the resistivity of metal
decrease. For example, the resistivity of hard drawn copper is more as compared to annealed copper.

(d) Age Hardening

Age hardening is a heat treatment process used to increase the yield strength and to develop the ability
in alloys to resist the permanent deformation by external forces. Age hardening is also called
“Precipitation Hardening”. This process increases the strength of alloys by creating solid impurities or
precipitate. These created solid impurities or precipitate, disturb the crystal structure of metal which
interrupts the flow of free electrons through metal/Due to which the resistivity of metal increases.
(e) Cold Working

Cold working is a manufacturing process used to increase the strength of metals. Cold working is also
known as “Work hardening” or “Strain hardening”. Cold working is used to increase the mechanical
strength of the metal. Cold working disturbs the crystal structure of metals which interfere with the
movement of electrons in metal, due to which the resistivity of metal increases.

Classification of conducting materials:

 Low resistivity material
 High resistivity material

Prepared by:
Himansu Bhusan Behera,
Lecturer, Dept of Electrical Engg
 Electrical Engineering Material
Conducting materials;
Today’s discussion:
 QUIZ Discussion
 Low resistivity Material
 Properties
 Applications (Ag, Cu, Au, Al, Steel)
 Stranded Conductor
 Bundled Conductor
 Low resistivity Copper alloys

Low resistivity Material

Material having low resistivity or high conductivity are very useful in electrical engineering
for manufacturing electrical engineering machines or equipment’s. These material used as
conductors for all kind of winding required in electrical machines, apparatus and devices. These
material are also used as conductor in transmission and distribution of electrical energy.

Required Properties in Low Resistivity or High Conductivity Conducting

Material
This following properties are required in high conductivity materials:
1. Highest possible conductivity (ideally zero).
2. Least possible temperature coefficient of resistance (ideally zero).
3. High melting point.
4. High mechanical strength.
5. High ductility, so that can be drawn in the form of wire easily.
6. High corrosion resistance (free from oxidation).
7. Solder ability, so that can be soldered easily to join the conductors.
8. Low cost.
9. Long life or durable.
10. High flexibility.

The above required properties varies with the purpose for which material is being used. Any
impurity whether metallic or non metallic increase the resistivity of metals. Even an impurity
of low resistivity will increase the resistivity of metal. The reason behind this is that the addition
of slight impurity creates imperfections in the crystal lattice which disturb the flow of electrons
through metals.

Some of low resistivity or high conductivity materials and their resistivity with temperature
coefficient of resistance are given in table below:-
Sl No. Metals Chemical Resistivity (µΩ -cm) Temperature
Symbol Coefficients of
Resistance (/ 0C)
1 Silver Ag 1.58 0.0038
2 Copper Cu 1.68 0.00386
3 Gold Au 2.21 0.0034
4 Aluminium Al 2.65 0.00429

Silver (Ag)
Silver is the best conductor of electricity. It is having highest conductivity. It is moldable and
weld able. The main drawback of it that it is very costly, which limits its practical use in
electrical machines / equipment. However, it is still used in precious equipment used for
research where cost of equipment does not matter.

Properties:

1. Resistivity : 1.58 µΩ -cm

2. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC: 0.0038/oC
3. Melting point: 962oC
4. Specific gravity: 10.49 gm /cm3

Copper (Cu)
The extensively used, high conductivity material as conductor for electrical machines or
equipment, is copper. Malleability, weld ability and solder ability are most important
properties of copper. Copper in pure form is having good conductivity. But the conductivity
of standard grade copper is reduced due presence of impurities.

Properties:

1. Resistivity : 1.68 µΩ -cm

2. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC: 0.00386 /oC
3. Melting point: 1085oC
4. Specific gravity: 8.96gm /cm3

Gold (Au)
Gold is a precious and costly metal. It is having good conductivity. Gold is having highest
malleability and ductility among all metals. Due to high cost, its practical use is limited to
precious instruments used for research.

Properties:

1. Resistivity : 2.21 µΩ -cm

2. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC: 0.0034 /oC
3. Melting point: 1064oC
4. Specific gravity: 19.30gm /cm3
Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium is an element which is a silver-white, light weight, soft, non-magnetic and ductile
metal. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon) and most
abundant metal found in earth’s crust. The main ore of aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium is
having low density, high ductility, good corrosion resistance and good conductivity, which
makes it suitable to use as electric conductor for transmission and distribution of electricity.

Properties:
1. Resistivity: 2.65 µΩ -cm
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC: 0.00429 /oC
3. Melting point: 660oC
4. Specific gravity: 2.70 gm /cm3

Steel
Steel contains iron with a small amount of carbon added to it. Iron is not that strong but when
carbon is added it assumes very good mechanical property, its tensile strength increases, but
ductility decreases. Steel is classified as below according to carbon contents,
(i) Mild steel ( 0.25 % C)
(ii) Medium steel (0.45% of C)
(iii) High Carbon steel (0.7% of C)

Properties:
1. Resistivity: 0.5 µΩ -m
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance at 20oC: 0.00651 /oC
3. Melting point: 1400-1500oC
4. Specific gravity: 7.8 gm /cm3
Stranded conductors:
Stranded conductors are very much popular in electrical power system for transmission and
distribution line. A stranded conductor is consists of several thin wires of small cross sectional
area called strands as shown in figure below-

As shown in figure above, at the centre of stranded conductor, we are using steel conductor
which provided the high tensile strength to conductor. In the outer layers of stranded
conductor, we use aluminium conductors, which provide the conductivity to stranded
conductor.

Basic, reason of using stranded conductor is to make the conductor flexible. If we use a single
solid conductor. It does not have sufficient flexibility and it is difficult to coil a solid conductor.
Hence, it becomes difficult to transport a single solid conductor of long length over the
distance. To eliminate this drawback, conductor is formed by using several thin wires of small
cross section. These thin wires are called strands. By making the conductor stranded, it
becomes flexible. Which makes stranded conductor suitable to be coiled easily to transport it
over long distance.

Facts about Stranded Conductor

There are some facts to be noted about stranded conductors:-

1. The stranded conductor is having sufficient flexibility, which makes stranded

conductor suitable to be coiled easily to transport it over long distance.
2. For a stranded conductor of same cross sectional area, the flexibility of conductor
increase with increase of number of strands in conductor.
3. The stranded conductor is formed by twisting the strands together in layers.
4. The strands of each layer are laid in helical fashion over the preceding layer. This
process is called stranding.
5. Generally, in successive layer, the stranding is done in opposite direction to preceding
layer. This mean, if the strands of one layer are twisted in clockwise direction, the
strands of next layer will be twisted in anticlockwise direction and so on ‘x’ is number
of layers in conductor.
6. Generally, the total number of strands in any conductor is given by the formulae of,

Where, N is total number of strands in stranded conductor.

 7. Generally the diameter of conductor can be calculated by using the formula of,

Where, D is the diameter of conductor

‘d’ is the diameter of each strand.

Table Representing the Number of Strands, Diameter and Cross-Sectional view of

Stranded Conductor for Different no. of Layers

No of Total no. of strands N Diameter of conductor Cross Sectional View of Stranded

layers ‘x’ = 3x2 – 3x + 1 D = (2x – 1)d Conductor
1 1 d

2 7 3d

3 19 5d

4 37 7d

5 61 9d
Bundled Conductor

We call bundled conductor to those conductors which form from two or more stranded
conductors, bundled together to get more current carrying capacity. Here, we use two or more
stranded conductors per phase. Also, to increase the current carrying capacity of the system, a
bundle conductor also contributes various facilities to the electrical transmission system. A
bundled conductor reduces the reactance of the electric transmission line. It also reduces
voltage gradient, corona loss, radio interference, surge impedance of the transmission lines.

Low resistivity Copper Alloys

(a) Brass

When Copper is alloyed with zinc it is called brass. (60% of Cu + 40% of Zn)
It has high tensile strength but low conductivity than Copper. It is solderable & weldable. It
has resistance to corrosion. It has wide applications as current carrying and structural material
in plug points, socket outlets, switches, lamp holders, sliding contacts of rheostat & starters.

(b) Bronze

Copper when alloyed with tin (8 % to 16 %) and a very small percentage of a third element
like Cadmium, Beryllium, Phosphorous, Silicon etc. is called Bronze. Bronzes are given their
name based on the third element which is added to copper and tin to form the alloy. For
example, when the element is phosphorous, the alloy is called phosphor bronze. If the third
element is silicon or cadmium, the alloy is called Silicon Bronze or Cadmium Bronze
respectively. All bronzes possess high mechanical strength as compared to copper but have
lower conductivity. Tin is more corrosion resistant than zinc. So bronzes are more free from
corrosion than brasses. Cadmium Bronze is used for contacting conductor and commutator
segments. Beryllium Bronze whose mechanical strength is higher than Cadmium Bronze is
used for making current carrying springs, sliding contacts, knife switch blades etc.

(c) Beryllium Copper Alloy

The copper alloy containing beryllium is also called Bronze. It bas high conductivity and
mechanical strength. Its hardening and elasticity property can be changed by giving appropriate
heat treatment. It is used for making current carrying springs, brush holders, coil springs &
sliding contacts.

Prepared by:
Himansu Bhusan Behera,
Lecturer, Dept of Electrical Engg.
 Electrical Engineering Materials
Conducting materials;
Today’s discussion:
• QUIZ Discussion
• High resistivity Material
• Properties
• Applications (Tungsten, Carbon, Platinum, Mercury)

High Resistivity or Low Conductivity Conducting Material:-

Materials having high resistivity or low conductivity are very useful for some electrical
engineering products and applications. These material are used to manufacture the
filaments for incandescent lamp, heating elements for electric heaters and furnaces,
space heaters and electric irons etc.
Example:- tungsten, carbon, manganin, nichrome, mercury, platinum
Required Properties in High Resistivity or Low Conductivity Conducting
Material:-
The following properties are required in high resistivity or low conductivity conducting
material–
• High resistivity.
• High melting point.
• High mechanical strength.
• High ductility, so that can be drawn in the form of wire easily.
• High corrosion resistance mean free from oxidation.
• Low cost.
• Long life or durable.
• High flexibility.

Tungsten
Tungsten is produced by very complicated processes from rare ores or from tungstic
acids. Some facts about tungsten are listed below-

• Very hard.
• Resistivity is twice to aluminium.
• High tensile strength.
• Can be drawn in the form of very thin wire.
• Oxidize very quickly in the presence of oxygen.
• Can be used up to 2000oC in the atmosphere of inert gases (Nitrogen, Argon etc.)
without oxidation.
Properties of Tungsten:

Properties of tungsten are listed below-

• Specific weight : 20 gm/cm3

• Resistivity : 5.28 µΩ -cm
• Temperature coefficient of resistance : 0.005 /°C.
• Melting point : 3410°C.
• Boiling point : 5900°C.
• Thermal coefficient of expansion: 4.44 × 10-9 /°C.

Uses of Tungsten:

1. Used as filament for incandescent lamp.

2. As electrode in X- ray tubes.
3. The great hardness, high melting and boiling points make it suitable for use as
electrical contact material in certain applications. It is having high resistance for
destructive forces produces during operation of electrical contacts.

Carbon
Carbon in widely used in electrical engineering. Electrical carbon materials are
manufactured from graphite and other forms of carbon.

Properties of Carbon:

• Resistivity : 1000 – 7000 µΩ – cm

• Temperature coefficient of resistance : – 0.0002 to – 0.0008 /°C.
• Melting point : 3500°C.
• Specific gravity : 2.1gm /cm3

Uses of Carbon:

Carbon is having following applications in electrical Engineering

1. Used for making pressure sensitive resistors, which are used in automatic voltage
regulators.
2. Used for manufacturing the carbon brushes, which are used in DC machines.
These carbon brushes improve the commutation as well as reduce the wear and
tear.
3. For making filament of incandescent lamp.
4. For making electrical contacts.
5. For making resistors.
6. For making battery cell elements.
 7. Carbon electrodes for electric furnaces.
8. Arc lighting and welding electrodes.
9. Component for vacuum valves and tubes.
10. For makings parts for telecommunication equipment.

Manganin
Composition of Manganin:-

Properties of Manganin:

• Resistivity : 40 µΩ -cm
• Temperature coefficient of resistance : 0.0001 /°C.
• Melting point : 1400°C.
• Specific gravity : 8.4gm /cm³
• High resistance to oxidation

Uses of Manganin:

Manganin is having following applications in Electrical Engineering.

1. Used in making electric heating elements and in electric furnaces.

2. As the manganin is having very low temperature coefficient of resistance,
therefore it is used to make the standard resistances and in measuring
instruments.

Platinum:

Properties:

1. Platinum is greyish white metal which is non-corroding. It is malleable and ductile and
is resistant to most chemicals.

2. Platinum is a heavy metal having:-

• specific weight of 21.4 gm/cm²
• melting point is 1775°C.
• resistivity is 0.1 x 10-6 ohm metre
• temperature coefficient is 0.00307 per degree C.

3. Platinum can be drawn into thin wires and strips.

4. It does not oxidize in air and has no tendency to arc.

Uses of Platinum:

1. Platinum finds application as a heating element in laboratory ovens and The furnaces.
Platinum-rhodium thermocouple is used for measurement of temperature up to 1600°C.
2. Platinum is also used as electrical contact material and as material for grids in special
purpose vacuum tubes.
3. An important application platinum is as material for contacts. Materials used for making
contacts have to withstand arcing and space-over whenever contacts are separated.
When materials are used for this purpose they may have to operate under very severe
conditions particularly when they are subjected to frequent make and break operations.
Hence they deteriorate with time are because of
a. corrosion
b. erosion

(Corrosion is the oxide form in material when they are exposed to water & atmosphere. Generally, it
can be avoided by high contact to contact pressure which will break up oxide films.)

(Erosion is caused by fusing & wearing of the working surface of the contact during any operation. It
will cause growth to appear on any contact & cavity in other.)

Mercury

Properties:

1. Mercury is a heavy silver white metal having

• Specific weight is 13.55 gm/cm².
• boiling point is 357°C
• Resistivity is 0.95 x 10-6 ohm-metre
• Temperature coefficient is 0.00027/⁰C
2. It is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature.
3. Mercury is poisonous.

Uses of Mercury:

In the field of electrical engineering mercury finds application in

1. mercury arc rectifiers,
2. gas filled tubes,
3. liquid contact material in electrical switches.
4. An important example of mercury being used for making and breaking contact is
Buchholz relay used for transformer protection.

Prepared by
Himansu Bhusan Behera
Lecturer, Electrical Engineering
 Electrical Engineering Material

Conducting materials;
Today’s discussion:
• QUIZ Discussion
• SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
• Super conducting materials
• Applications

Superconductivity was discovered by Dutch Physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911 in

Leiden. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913 for his low-temperature research.
Some materials when they are cooled, below certain temperature their resistivity get abolished
means they exhibit the infinite conductivity.
The temperature at which the metals change from normal conducting state to superconducting
state, is called critical temperature/transition temperature. An example of superconductors, is
Mercury. It becomes superconductor at 4k. In superconducting state the materials expel the
magnetic field. A transition curve for mercury is shown in figure below-
The transition from normal conducting state to superconducting state is reversible. Moreover,
below critical temperature the superconductivity can be abolished either by passing sufficient
large current through conductor itself or by applying sufficient strong external magnetic field.
Below critical temperature/transition temperature, the value of current through conductor itself
at which the superconducting state abolished is called critical current. As the temperature
(below the critical temperature) reduces the value of critical current increase. The value of
critical current increase with decrease in temperature. The value of critical magnetic field also
depends on temperature. As the temperature (below the critical temperature) reduces the value
of critical magnetic field increase.

Superconductor Metals:
Some metals when they are cooled below their critical temperature exhibits the zero resistivity
or infinite conductivity. These metal are called superconductor metals. Some metals showing
superconductivity and their critical temperatures/transition temperature are listed in table
below:-

Chemical Critical/Transition Temperature

SL Superconductor
Symbol TC(K)

1 Rhodium Rh 0

2 Tungsten W 0.015

3 Beryllium Be 0.026

4 Iridium Ir 0.1

5 Lutetium Lu 0.1

6 Hafnium Hf 0.1

7 Ruthenium Ru 0.5

8 Osmium Os 0.7

9 Molybdenum Mo 0.92

10 Zirconium Zr 0.546
11 Cadmium Cd 0.56

12 Uranium U 0.2

13 Titanium Ti 0.39

14 Zinc Zn 0.85

15 Gallium Ga 1.083

16 Gadolinium Gd 1.1

17 Aluminium Al 1.2

18 Protactinium Pa 1.4

19 Thorium Th 1.4

20 Rhenium Re 1.4

21 Thallium Tl 2.39

22 Indium In 3.408

23 Tin Sn 3.722

24 Mercury Hg 4.153

25 Tantalum Ta 4.47

26 Vanadium V 5.38

27 Lanthanum La 6.0

28 Lead Pb 7.193
Applications of Superconductivity
In modern field of technology the superconductivity is widely used in different fields of
technology. Some of these applications are listed below-

1. Medical: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), Ultra-Low Field Magnetic Resonance

Imaging (ULF-MRI), Magneto-encephalography (MEG) and Magnetic Source Imaging
(MSI), Magneto-cardiography (MCG) etc.

2. Electrical field: Generators, motors, transformers, relays, magnetic energy storages

(SMES), superconducting magnets, HTS Induction Heater, Fusion etc.

3. Electronics: SQUIDS (superconducting quantum interference device), High Speed

computing, Quantum computing, Sensors, filters, circuitry, radar etc.

4. Transportation: Magnetically levitated trains, Marine Propulsion (magneto-

hydrodynamic), Marine Propulsion (motor) etc.

5. Physics: Particle Accelerators, Magnets, Plasma / fusion research etc.

Prepared by HIMANSU BHUSAN BEHERA

Lecturer, department of Electrical Engineering
 Electrical Engineering Material
Semiconductors;
Today’s discussion:
 Semiconductors
 Electron Energy
 Energy Band Theory
 Insulators, Semiconductors and Conductors

Conductors:
a) Conductors are materials that have very low values of resistivity, usually in the micro-
ohms per metre. This low value allows them to easily pass an electrical current due to
there being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure. But
these electrons will only flow through a conductor if there is something to spur their
movement, and that something is an electrical voltage.

b) When a positive voltage potential is applied to the material these “free electrons” leave
their parent atom and travel together through the material forming an electron drift,
more commonly known as a current. How “freely” these electrons can move through a
conductor depends on how easily they can break free from their constituent atoms when
a voltage is applied. Then the amount of electrons that flow depends on the amount of
resistivity the conductor has.

c) Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as Copper, Aluminium, Silver
or non-metals such as Carbon because these materials have very few electrons in their
outer “Valence Shell” or ring, resulting in them being easily knocked out of the atom’s
orbit. This allows them to flow freely through the material until they join up with other
atoms.
d) Generally speaking, most metals are good conductors of electricity, as they have very
small resistance values, usually in the region of micro-ohms per metre (μΩ.m).
e) While metals such as copper and aluminium are very good conducts of electricity, they
still have some resistance to the flow of electrons and consequently do not conduct
perfectly.
f) The energy which is lost in the process of passing an electrical current, appears in the
form of heat which is why conductors and especially resistors become hot as the
resistivity of conductors increases with ambient temperature.
Insulators
a) Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of
materials, generally non-metals, that have very few or no “free electrons” floating about
within their basic atom structure because the electrons in the outer valence shell are
strongly attracted by the positively charged inner nucleus.
b) In other words, the electrons are stuck to the parent atom and cannot move around freely
so if a potential voltage is applied to the material no current will flow as there are no
 “free electrons” available to move and which gives these materials their insulating
properties.
c) Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally
not affected by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood
becomes charcoal and changes from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good
insulators are marble, fused quartz, PVC plastics, rubber etc.
d) Insulators play a very important role within electrical and electronic circuits, because
without them electrical circuits would short together and not work. For example,
insulators made of glass or porcelain are used for insulating and supporting overhead
transmission cables while epoxy-glass resin materials are used to make printed circuit
boards.
Semiconductors:
a) Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide
(GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a
“conductor” and an “insulator”. They are not good conductors nor good insulators
(hence their name “semi”-conductors). They have very few “free electrons” because
their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice”
but electrons are still able to flow, but only under special conditions.
b) The ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity can be greatly improved by
replacing or adding certain donor or acceptor atoms to this crystalline structure thereby,
producing more free electrons than holes or vice versa. That is by adding a small
percentage of another element to the base material, either silicon or germanium.
Electron Energy
The energy of an electron is of the same order of magnitude (is in the same range) as the energy
of light. The lines in the spectrum of an element represent changes in the energy of electrons
within the atoms of that element.
1. The energy of an electron depends on its location with respect to the nucleus of an atom. The
higher the energy of an electron in an atom, the farther is its most probable location from the
nucleus. Notice that we say probable location. Because of the electron's small size and high
energy, we are limited in how precisely we can mark its position at any instant. We can only
describe regions around the atom's nucleus within which the electron may be found.

2. In describing these regions of space, we also recognize that the energy of an electron is
quantized. A property is quantized if it is available only in multiples of a set amount.

Illustration:

If you are pouring a soft drink from a can, you can pour out as much or as little as you like.
However, if you are buying a soft drink from a machine, you can buy only a certain amount.
You cannot buy a half or a third of a can of soda; you can buy only a whole can or several cans.
Soft drinks dispensed by a machine are available only in multiples of a set volume, or quantum.
Thus, the dispensing of soft drinks by machine has been quantized.

Energy can also be quantized. If you are climbing a ladder, you can stop only on the rungs; you
cannot stop between them. The energy needed to climb the ladder is used in finite amounts to
lift your body from one rung to the next. To move upward, you must use enough energy to
move your feet to the next higher rung. If the available energy is only enough to move partway
up to the next rung, you cannot move at all because you cannot stop between rungs. Thus, in
climbing the ladder, your expenditure of energy is quantized. If you are going up a hill instead
of a ladder, your energy expenditure is not quantized. You can go straight up the hill or you
can zigzag back and forth, going up gradually. You can take big steps or little steps; no
limitations are placed on where you can stop or on how much energy you must use.

Let us apply the analogy of the ladder and its rungs to an atom and its electrons. In climbing
the ladder, you can place your feet only on the rungs.

Likewise,

3. An atom has only certain places, set distances from the nucleus called energy levels, where
electrons may be found. Unlike a ladder, which has a limited length, the energy levels of an
atom extend infinitely out from the nucleus and the energy levels are not evenly spaced. As the
distance from the nucleus increases, the levels get closer together and contain more-energetic
electrons (Figure 5.4). The energy of an electron in one of the levels at a considerable distance
from the nucleus is greater than that of an electron in a closer level.

FIGURE 5.4 Energy levels. The energy levels in an atom

are similar to the rungs of a ladder, but they get closer
together as they get farther from the nucleus.

4. For an electron to move from one energy level to the next higher level, it must gain the right
amount of energy. If less than that amount is available, the electron stays where it is. Electrons
always move from one level to another; they cannot stop in between. Thus there are certain
regions of space within an atom where an electron can be and other regions where an electron
cannot be.
Electron Volt (eV)

An electron revolving around the nucleus of an atom has potential energy, centrifugal energy,
rotational energy & magnetic energy. All of which together determine the total energy or the
energy level of the electrons. This value is measured in electron volts, expressed as eV.

The electron volt is defined as that amount of energy gained or lost when an electron moves
with or against a potential difference of one volt.
Energy Band Theory:
a) According to Bohr’s theory, each and every shell and subshell of atoms contain a
discrete amount of energy. An atom has different energy levels. When atoms are
brought closer to each other, electrons at outermost shell interact with each other. This
bonding force between electrons is called as an inter-atomic interaction.
b) This interaction causes the change in energy levels of electrons at the outermost shell.
This change will give rise to energy band theory, and hence electrons will not be at the
same level, the levels of the electrons are changed to a value which is higher or lower
than that of the original level.
c) Each substance consists different amount of electron energy present in the energy
bands, based on these different energy levels. Energy band are then further classified
as:
 Valence band
 Forbidden Energy Gap
 Conduction Band

These Band can be explained as

Valence Band:

a) At absolute zero temperature, there are the different range of energies present in the
solid and the band which is formed by the highest range of energy is called valence
band this band is filled with valence electrons.
b) Valence band can also be explained as, when atoms are brought closer together to form
a solid, the discrete energy levels are disturbed because of quantum mechanical effects,
and many electrons in the group of the individual atom occupy a band of levels in the
solid, this band of levels called as valence band. This band is formed by the electrons
at an outermost shell.
c) It is located below the Fermi level. Electrons in the valence band have lower energy
than the electrons in the conduction band. In atoms, the electrons present in the valence
band is loosely bound to the nucleus. The electrical conductivity of a solid depends on
the capability to move the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band.
Forbidden Energy Level:

a) Forbidden energy gap is also known as Fermi energy level. It is the electronic energy
band where there is no electron state exists due to quantization energy. The band
obtained by separating conduction band and valence band is called as forbidden energy
band or forbidden gap.
b) In solids, the electrons do not stay in forbidden gap as there is no energy state in this
region. With the help of forbidden gap, we can determine the major factor, i.e., the
electrical conductivity of the solid.

Conduction Band:

a) The energy band formed by the energy levels of the free electrons is called conduction
band. The conduction band is an empty band or partially filled band, but when the
external field is applied to the electrons in the valence band, the electrons jump from
the valence band to the conduction band and becomes free electron.
b) Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than the electrons in the valence
band. In the conduction band electrons are not bound to the nucleus of the atom.
c) Conduction band can also be defined as empty states which are broadened into a band
of levels. This band is placed above the Fermi level. It is the lowest range of vacant
electronic state.

So accordingly:

Prepared by:
Himansu Bhusan Behera,
Lecturer, Dept of Electrical Engg
 Electrical Engineering Material
Semiconductors;
 Excitation of atoms
 Semiconductor materials
 Covalent bonds
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
Excitations of Atoms:
(a) When each electron in an atom is in its normal orbit, we call it as unexcited state. To move
an electron further away from the nucleus, extra energy is required.
(b) Excitation of atoms can be done in following methods.
 Light
 Heat
 Electrostatic
 Magnetic
 Kinetic
(c) So when a required amount of energy will be provided, an atom will leave lower state and
will go to a higher energy state.
(d) The required energy to move an atom from one state to another state, varies from material
to material. If in one material, an atom needs 1.9eV, the in another it will take 3.5eV.
(e) By applying light, heat, electro static source a valence electron can be moved from its
unexcited state to ionization state. At this stage, all attractive force from the nucleus is leased
& the electron will be in between atom & conduction stage. This electron is known as free
electron & the atom is known as positively ionized atom.
(f) If by any means, the free electron will not be used in chemical reaction or movement for
conduction, it will lose that extra energy and it will again come back to the atom to make it
neutral again.

Semiconductor Materials:
a) The electrical characteristic of semiconductor comes between conductor & insulator.
Thus it will obviously possess a valence ring of FOUR rather than EIGHT electrons for
best insulator & 1-2 electrons for the best conductor.
b) The best two material used for semiconductor are silicon (Si) & germanium (Ge).
c) In Si, K & L shells are full but M contains only four electrons. According to 2n2
formula, it should have 18 electrons, but as it is the outer most shell, it should not
contain more than 8 electrons.
d) Similarly in Ge, K,L,M are full but N has 4 electrons in outer most shell.
Covalent Bond:
A covalent bond results when each atom, in order to fill its valence ring with 8 electrons, share
electrons with neighbour atoms. This sharing of electrons is known as covalent bonds.

Ideally material having 8 electrons in outer shell must be act as inert or refuse to do any kind
of chemical reaction. This should be the best quality for an insulator. As in insulator we don’t
want the electrons to come out of the valence shell & help in conduction. But this doesn’t
happen. Because:
I. Insulator must have a perfect crystal structure. But in covalent bond, the structure is not
crystal, it has so many individual crystals in imperfect manner. The extra atoms are not
properly locked in place and there are missing atoms in some parts of the structure.
II. Due to impurities there may be extra electrons which cannot lock into the covalent bond
structure. Impurities also be the reason why electrons are missing in a structure.
III. Outside energy like heat, light, electro static source can harm the structure.
The above reasons lead the material to become imperfect insulator. Fortunately this helps to
discover a good semiconductor.
Semiconductor material can be classified as
 Intrinsic semiconductor
 Extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor:
Semiconductors that are chemically pure, in other words, free from impurities are termed as
intrinsic semiconductors. The number of holes and electrons is therefore determined by the
properties of the material itself instead of the impurities. In intrinsic semiconductors, the
number of excited electrons is equal to the number of holes; n = p. They are also termed as
undoped semiconductors or i-type semiconductors. Silicon and germanium are examples of i-
type semiconductors. These elements belong to the IV th Group of the periodic table and their
atomic numbers are 14 and 32 respectively.

Silicon 1s2 2s22p6 3s2 3p2

Germanium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2

We notice from the electron configurations of both the elements that they have four electrons
in their outermost shell or valence shell. As the temperature of the semiconductor is increased,
the electrons gain more thermal energy and thus break free from their shell. The process of
ionization of the atoms in the crystal lattice creates a vacancy in the bond between the atoms.
The position from which the electron gets dislodged has a hole which is equivalent to an
effective positive charge. The hole is then occupied by a free electron, as a result of which the
latter vacant position becomes a hole and the former becomes a neutral position. This way the
hole or the effective positive charge is transferred from one position to another. In an intrinsic
semiconductor, the number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
When the temperature of an intrinsic semiconductor is T=0K, it behaves like an insulator.
When the temperature is increased further, (T>0), the electrons get excited and move from the
valence band to the conduction band. These electrons occupy the conduction band partially,
leaving a correspondingly equal number of holes in the valence band.

Extrinsic semiconductor:
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with specific impurities. The
impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for
electronic devices such as diodes and transistors.
While adding impurities, a small amount of suitable impurity is added to pure material,
increasing its conductivity by many times. Extrinsic semiconductors are also called impurity
semiconductors or doped semiconductors. The process of adding impurities deliberately is
termed as doping and the atoms that are used as an impurity are termed as dopants. The
impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for
electronic devices such as diodes and transistors.
The dopant added to the material is chosen such that the original lattice of the pure
semiconductor is not distorted. Also, the dopants occupy only a few of the sites in the crystal
of the original semiconductor and it is necessary that the size of the dopant is nearly equal to
the size of the semiconductor atoms.

Prepared by:
Himansu Bhusan Behera,
Lecturer, Dept of Electrical Engg
 Electrical Engineering Material
Semiconductors;
Today’s discussion:
 Minority & Majority charge carrier
 P-type semiconductor
 N-type semiconductor

Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier
whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but
opposite in polarity.

Mobility of Electrons and Holes

In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is mainly because of their
different band structures and scattering mechanisms.
Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence band. When an electric field is
applied, holes cannot move as freely as electrons due to their restricted movement. The elevation of electrons
from their inner shells to higher shells results in the creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes
experience stronger atomic force by the nucleus than electrons, holes have lower mobility.
The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more if;

 Effective mass of particles is lesser

 Time between scattering events is more
For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons is 1500 cm2 (V∙s)-1 and the mobility of holes is 475
cm2 (V∙s)-1.
The bond model of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below. Here, when one of the free electrons
(blue dots) leaves the lattice position, it creates a hole (grey dots). This hole thus created takes the opposite
charge of the electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers moving in the lattice.

Concept of Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

Band Theory of Semiconductors
The introduction of band theory happened during the quantum revolution in science. Walter Heitler and Fritz
London discovered the energy bands.
We know that the electrons in an atom are present in different energy level. When we try to assemble a lattice
of a solid with N atoms, then each level of an atom must split up into N levels in the solid. This splitting up
of sharp and tightly packed energy levels forms Energy Bands. The gap between adjacent bands
representing a range of energies that possess no electron is called a Band Gap.

Conduction Band and Valence Band in Semiconductors

Valence Band:
The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as the valence band. It is the
highest occupied energy band. When compared with insulators, the band gap in semiconductors is smaller.
It allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction band on receiving any external energy.

Conduction Band:
It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive (holes) or negative (free electrons)
charge carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of current. The conduction band possess
high energy level and are generally empty. The conduction band in semiconductors accepts the electrons
from the valence band.

What is Fermi Level in Semiconductors?

Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the valence and conduction bands. It is the highest occupied
molecular orbital at absolute zero. The charge carriers in this state have their own quantum states and
generally do not interact with each other. When the temperature rises above absolute zero, these charge
carriers will begin to occupy states above Fermi level.
In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled states. Thus, accommodating more
electrons at the lower energy levels. However, in an n-type semiconductor, the density of states increases,
therefore, accommodating more electrons at higher energy levels.

Properties of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or circumstances. This unique property
makes it an excellent material to conduct electricity in a controlled manner as required.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of external energy (thermal
agitation). It causes a certain number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the
conduction band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied energy states, i.e. holes. Conduction due to
electrons and holes are equally important.

 Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

 Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
 Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
 Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes

Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with Temperature?

The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to their difference in charge
carrier density.
The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge carriers
increases rapidly with increase in temperature, making the fractional change i.e. the temperature coefficient
negative.

Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it works as a
conductor.
2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping to make
semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
3. Lesser power losses.
4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-
versa.

Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as:

 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor

Classification of Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is made up of only a
single type of element.

Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic Semiconductors (a) In absence of electric field (b) In
presence of electric Field
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic semiconductor elements. They have
four valence electrons (tetravalent). They are bound to the atom by covalent bond at absolute zero
temperature.
When the temperature rises, due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded and become free to move through
the lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position (hole). These free electrons and holes contribute
to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The negative and positive charge carriers are equal in
number.
The thermal energy is capable of ionizing a few atoms in the lattice, and hence their conductivity is less.

The Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures

 At absolute zero kelvin temperature: At this temperature, the covalent bonds are very strong and
there are no free electrons and the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
 Above absolute temperature: With the increase in temperature few valence electrons jump into
the conduction band and hence it behaves like a poor conductor.

Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

The energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below:
(a) Intrinsic Semiconductor at T = 0 Kelvin, behaves like an insulator (b) At t>0, four thermally
generated electron pairs
In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons as well as holes. The total
current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to thermally generated electrons and the hole current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of electrons to exist in conduction band
decreases exponentially with increasing bandgap (Eg)

n = n0e-Eg/2.Kb.T
Where,

 Eg = Energy bandgap
 Kb = Boltzmann’s constants

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a small number of suitable
replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is
called DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the doped semiconductor.
An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into:
N-Type Semiconductor
 Mainly due to electrons
 Entirely neutral
 I = Ih and nh >> ne
 Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi) then,
four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus the impurity atom donates a free electron for conduction in
the lattice and is called “Donar“.
Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative charge carriers
increase. Hence it is called n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive ion. As conduction is due to
a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the MAJORITY CARRIERS
and holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.

P-Type Semiconductor
 Mainly due to holes
 Entirely neutral
 I = Ih and nh >> ne
 Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the three valence
electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are ready to accept
bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are increased. Hence, it is
called p-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative ion. As conduction is due to a
large number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are MAJORITY CARRIERS and electrons are
MINORITY CARRIERS.

Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

Density of electrons is equal to the Density of electrons is not equal to the density of
density of holes holes

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as well as on the

amount of impurity
 No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent impurity

Applications of Semiconductors
Let us now understand the uses of semiconductors in daily life. Semiconductors are used in almost all
electronic devices. Without them, our life would be much different.
Their reliability, compactness, low cost and controlled conduction of electricity make them ideal to be used
for various purposes in a wide range of components and devices. transistors, diodes, photo sensors,
microcontrollers, integrated chips and much more are made up of semiconductors.

Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday life

 Temperature sensors are made with semiconductor devices.
 They are used in 3D printing machines
 Used in microchips and self-driving cars
 Used in calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices.
 Transistor and MOSFET used as a switch in Electrical Circuits are manufactured using the
semiconductors.

Industrial Uses of Semiconductors

The physical and chemical properties of semiconductors make them capable of designing technological
wonders like microchips, transistors, LEDs, solar cells, etc.
The microprocessor used for controlling the operation of space vehicles, trains, robots, etc is made up of
transistors and other controlling devices which are manufactured by semiconductor materials.

Importance of Semiconductors
Here we have discussed some advantages of semiconductors which makes them highly useful everywhere.

 They are highly portable due to the smaller size

 They require less input power
 Semiconductor devices are shockproof
 They have a longer lifespan
 They are noise-free while operating

Prepared by:
Himansu Bhusan Behera,
Lecturer, Dept of Electrical Engg
 Electrical Engineering Material
Semiconductors;
Today’s discussion:-
Applications of Semiconductor materials:-
 Rectifiers
 Temperature-sensitive resisters or thermistors
 Photoconductive cells
 Photovoltaic cells
 Varisters
 Transistors
 Hall effect generators
 Solar power

Advantages of using Si:-

a) The main advantages of semiconductors based on the Si are;
b) long life cycle,
c) small volume,
d) light weight,
e) simple production,
f) great mechanical strength,
g) low supplying power,
h) economical production

Rectifiers:-

a) P-type & N-type materials are joined together to form a junction called the P-N
junction. When external voltage is applied across the two materials a flow of current
results if the positive and negative terminals of the voltage source are connected
respectively to the extreme ends of the P- and N-type materials.

b) Voltage applied in this way is called forward biasing the P-N junction. If the applied
voltage is reversed i.e. the positive of the supply voltage is connected to the N side and
the negative of the supply voltage is connected to the P side, there is no flow of current.
This is called reverse biasing. So the P-N junction offers high conductivity when
forward biased and no conductivity when reverse biased.

c) Thus semiconductors can be used as rectifiers. Semiconductor P-N junction diodes have
almost replaced thermionic values as rectifiers. Modern P-N junction rectifiers use
germanium or silicon as the semiconductor material.

Why Si is chose ahead of Ge?

I. Germanium rectifiers were invented earlier than silicon rectifiers. It is easier and
simpler to produce germanium mono-crystals. Germanium has a melting point of 958°C
and silicon 1,415°C. Molten silicon combines readily with practically all chemical
 elements and, is therefore, very difficult to purify and maintain free from impurity. All
this would favour the use of germanium.

II. However, owing to vital economic and technological advantages especially in heavy
current application silicon rectifiers find wider industrial application. She Germanium
and Silicon semiconductors find wide use in both high frequency and supply frequency
circuits particularly as non-controlled rectifiers let e.g. diodes and controlled rectifiers
(e.g. transistors and silicon controlled rectifiers).

III. Germanium and silicon rectifiers can operate at high current densities and reverse
voltages with efficiencies of about 98 %. A serious shortcoming of the germanium
rectifiers is their limited working in temperature from -50° to + 70°C. Continuous
operation at temperatures over + 60°C causes thermal ageing and deterioration of
electrical characteristics. At low temperatures there is a considerable drop in the
permissible re-Iwo: verse voltage. Silicon rectifiers can operate at temperatures up to
200°C. Silicon diodes have an advantage over germanium diodes in high frequency
electronic circuits as they are more sensitive to weak signals.

d) A silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) may be considered as a combination of two

transistors one n-p-n type and the other p-n-p type. The regenerative or, action of the
device depends on the current gain of the two separate transistors. The sum of the
current gains of the two transistors should approach unity for this. Since Ge does not
exhibit such property, only Si is used as base material for developing Silicon Controlled
Rectifiers (SCRs) of Silicon rectifiers are available for very high PIV rating, of the
order of 25 kV and current rating of the order of 1000 amps. But frequency response is
poor (i.e. at high frequency the depletion capacitance becomes prominent and this
causes distortion of the rectified wave shape). Silicon rectifiers are normally used in
power rectifying devices.

Temperature-sensitive Resisters or Thermisters:-

a) Increasing the temperature of semiconductor materials causes their resistance to

decrease. This property has found application in devices called thermisters.

b) Thermisters are thermally sensitive resistors. They are made from oxides of certain
metals such as copper, manganese, cobalt, iron, zinc. Often a mixture of several oxides
is used because it can be arranged to give them the required properties.

c) Thermisters find application in temperature measurement and control. They sense

temperature variations and convert these variations into an electrical signal which is
then used to control heating devices. Other applications of thermisters include
measurement of radio frequency, power, voltage regulation and timing and delay
circuits.
Photoconductive Cells:-
The resistance of semiconductor material is low under light and increases in darkness. This
phenomenon in used in photoconductive cells where a semiconductor material is connected in
series with voltage source. The resistance of the semiconductor varies with the intensity of light
and thus the current in the circuit is controlled. Photoconductive cells can be seen in
applications which require the control of s certain function or event according to the colour or
intensity of light. Some of their applications are those of door openers, burglar alarms, flame
detectors, smoke detectors and control for street lights.

Photovoltaic Cells:-

Photovoltaic cells are devices that develop an emf when illuminated. Thus they convert light
energy directly into electrical energy. No outside source of electrical energy is required to
produce current flow as a photoconductive device.

Varisters:-
The resistance of semiconductors varies with the applied voltage. This property is used in
devices called varisters. Use of varisters are made in voltage stabilizers and motor speed
control.

Transistors:-
a) The resistance of semiconductors depends to a large extent on the magnitude of electric
field. The current in a semiconductor does not follow Ohms law and increases for more
rapidly than the voltage.

b) This property has been used in the device called transistor. A transistor is a two junction
three terminal device, the two junctions being formed by joining P, N and P material or
N, P and N materials as shown in figure.

c) Transistors have replaced the vacuum and gas tubes in performing many jobs including
amplification of signals and switching circuits.
Hall Effect Generators:-

a) When a current flows through a semiconductor bar placed in a magnetic field, a voltage
is developed at right angles to both the current and the magnetic field. This voltage is
proportional to the current and the intensity of the magnetic field. This is called the hall
effect.

b) Consider the semiconductor bar shown in figure, which has contacts on all four sides.
If a voltage EF is applied across the two opposite contacts A and B, a current will flow.
If the bar is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field B, as shown in the figure, electric
potential EH is generated between the other two contacts C and D. This voltage EH is a
direct measure of the magnetic field strength and can be detected with a simple
voltmeter.

c) The hall effect generator may be used to measure magnetic fields. It is capable of
measuring magnetic field strengths that have a strength 10-6 of the magnetic field of
the earth.

Solar Power:-
a) Sun is a vast source of energy. There have been lot of research work in the recent years,
as a result of which many practical devices have been developed which are in operation
today.

b) One of its important applications is the conversion of solar power into electrical power.
This phenomenon is called the photo voltaic effect. Solar cell is the most important
photovoltaic device which directly converts the solo radiations (light energy) into
electrical energy.

c) Solar cell is basically a thin disc of P-N junction with a large surface area. A very thin
layer of P-type material of the order of few microns is diffused on the upper surface of
the disc to form a shallow p-n junction. This is then enclosed in a glass container with
the top surface filled with silicon grease to prevent losses by reflection.
 d) When light rays fall on the surface of this arrangement electrons start flowing from n-
plate to the p-plate by means of the photoemission process. This gives rise to a potential
difference and constitutes flow of an electric current.

e) The output depends on the intensity of the sun ray. As the cell turned away from the
sun, the output decreases approximately as the cosine of the angle of incidence. The
rise in temperature causes a sharp fall in conversion efficiency. The optimum
temperature for getting a steady state conversion about 600o C.

f) The presence of moisture or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere affects adversely to the
performance of a solar cell. The overall efficiency of a solar cell is 10-12%. The total
voltage or current required can be increased by series/parallel connections of solar cells
thus developing solar batteries popularly known as tank.

g) Applications of solar cells are small power source such as in watches, calculators,
telephones in rural areas, solar water heater, solar pump, space research work etc.

Merits of Semiconductor material in Electrical field:-

1. They are much smaller in size and light in weight.
2. When used as rectifiers and transistors they do not require a heater or filament as is
required in electron tube rectifiers and valves.
3. They consume low power resulting in high efficiency.
4. They have long life and hardly show ageing effects.
5. They are almost shock proof.
6. They operate on low voltage.

Prepared By
Himansu Bhusan Behera
Lecturer, Dept of Electrical Engineering
 Electrical Engineering Materials
Insulating Materials
 Introduction
 General properties of Insulating Materials
 Insulating Materials – Classification
 Properties
Introduction:-
a) An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current. Insulating materials
include paper, plastic, rubber, glass and air. Vacuum is also an insulator, but is not
actually a material.
b) Most electrical conductors are covered by insulation. Magnet wire is coated with an
extremely thin layer of insulation so that more turns or larger wire may be used in the
winding of transformers etc.
c) Insulators are generally rated at hundreds of volts, but some that are used in power
distribution are rated as high as hundreds of thousands of volts. Insulators support
and/or keep electrical conductors from making unintended contact with each other.

Definition:-
What is an Electrical Insulator?
a) An electrical insulator (also referred to as an insulator) is used in an electrical system
to prevent unwanted flow of current to the earth from its supporting points. The
insulator plays a vital role in the electrical system. An electrical insulator is a very high
resistive path through which practically no current can flow.

b) In transmission and distribution systems, the overhead conductors are generally

supported by supporting towers or poles. The towers and poles both are properly
grounded. So there must be an insulator between tower or pole body and current-
carrying conductors to prevent the flow of current from conductor to earth through the
grounded supporting towers or poles.
**Does Insulator is always reliable?
The main cause of failure of the overhead line insulator is flashover, which occurs between line
and earth during abnormal overvoltage in the system. During this flashover, the huge heat
produced by arcing causes puncher in the insulator body. Viewing this phenomenon the
materials used for electrical insulator has to possess some specific properties.**

General Properties of Insulators:-

The materials generally used for the insulating purpose is called insulating material. For
successful utilization, this material should have some specific properties as listed below.
1. It must be mechanically strong enough to carry the tension and weight of conductors.
2. It must have a very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High
Voltage transmission systems.
3. It must possess high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current to the earth.
4. The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.
5. It should not be porous.
6. There must not be any entrance on the surface of the electrical insulator so that the
moisture or gases can enter it.
7. There physical as well as electrical properties must be less effected by changing
temperature.

Classification of Properties:-

1. Electrical properties

2. Visual properties

3. Mechanical properties

4. Thermal properties

5. Chemical properties

6. Ageing

Electrical Properties:
A. Insulation Resistance:-
Insulation resistance-is the property, by the virtue of which, a material resists flow
of electrical current. It should be high as possible. Insulation resistance is of two types:

 Volume resistance
 Surface resistance.

The resistance offered to the current, which flows through the material is
called volume resistance.
 The resistance offered to the current, which flows over the surface of the insulating
material is called surface resistance. Factors that affect the insulation resistance are-
temperature variations, exposure to moisture, voltage applied, aging.

B. Dielectric Strength- is therefore the minimum voltage which when applied to an

insulating material will result in the destruction of its insulating properties. It can also
be defined as the maximum potential gradient that the material can withstand without
rupture, or without loosing dielectric properties. This value is expressed in volts or
kilovolts per unit thickness of the insulating material. This value is greatly affected by
the conditions under which the material is operated. Factors affecting the dielectric
strength are temperature and humidity.

C. Dielectric Constant- Every insulating material has got the basic property of storing
charge (Q), when a voltage (V) is applied across it. The charge is proportional to the
voltage applied i.e. Q α V, or Q = CV. Where C is called the capacity or capacitance of
the material across which the voltage is applied. Every insulating material behaves as a
capacitor. Capacitance is different for different insulating material. The property of
insulating materials that causes the difference in the value of capacitance, with the
physical dimensions remaining the same is called dielectric constant or permittivity (∈)
and ∈ = C/Co, where C is capacity in presence of Dielectric and Co is the capacity in air
or vacuum or in the absence of dielectric.

D. Dielectric loss and Loss angle: When a perfect insulation is subjected to alternating
voltage, it is like applying alternate voltage to a perfect capacitor. In a perfect capacitor
the charging current would lead the applied voltage by 900 exactly. This means that
there is no power loss in the insulation. In most insulating materials this is not the case.
There is a definite amount of dissipation of energy when an insulator is subjected to
alternating voltage. This dissipation of energy is called dielectric loss. Factors affecting
dielectric loss are - Frequency of applied voltage, humidity, temperature rise and
voltage.

The dielectric phase angle is θ and δ = 900 - θ is the dielectric loss angle as shown in
the fig. below.
 Also I is the phasor sum of Id and Ic , where Ic is the conduction current which is in
phase with the applied voltage and Id is the displacement current which is in quadrature
phase with applied voltage.

Visual Properties:-
A. Appearance
B. Colour
C. Crystallinity

These properties are not of any significant importance from engineering point of view.
But these factors like appearances, colour, smooth to surface count to some extent
towards the customer selection.

Mechanical Properties:-
The properties affecting the selection of later are many but we shall consider only those
which are of comparatively great importance.

a. Mechanical Strength: Most solid insulators have to withstand various loads during
manufacture as well as during operation when used in an equipment. Strength
requirement is very basic although the magnitude may differ for different applications.

The mechanical strength of insulating materials depends upon a number of factors given
below
(1) Temperature rise: Temperature rises as a result of heat generation in the conductor
and the dielectric loss in the insulator. High temperatures can adversely affect the
mechanical strength of insulating materials. When selecting insulating materials, this
factor should be kept in view and where high temperatures are involved an appropriate
insulating material capable of withstanding this should be chosen.
(2) Climatic effects: Humidity can also adversely affect mechanical strength of insulating
materials. Therefore, non-hygroscopic materials should be selected where necessary.
Insulating materials are likely to be subjected to various types of mechanical stresses
i.e: tension, compression, resistance to abrasion, tear, shear and impact. What
type is going to be important will depend on the specific application.

b. Viscosity: Viscosity in liquid dielectrics will affect manufacturing processes. For

example, in paper insulated cable the temperature at which the oil will penetrate
through paper will depend on its viscosity. The method to be used to purify the
insulating oil used in transformers and other applications will depend upon the
viscosity of the oil.

c. Porosity: High porosity insulating materials will increase the moisture holding
capacity and consequently adversely affect electrical properties. Therefore normally it
is not desired to have a dielectric of high porosity. However, in certain applications
porosity is advantageous and is therfore desirable as for example when paper is to be
impregnated with oil.

d. Solubility: In certain applications insulation can be applied only after it is dissolved in

some solvent. In such cases the insulating material should be soluble in certain
 appropriate solvents. An insulation should not dissolve and he washed out in fluids it
comes in contact with during operations. If the insulating material is soluble in water
then moisture in the atmosphere will always be able to remove the applied insulation
and cause break down.

e. Machinability and Mouldability: These properties are important from the point of
view of economic mass production.

Thermal Properties:-
It is already mentioned that one of the major functions of insulation is heat transfer.
Consider an underground cable under operation. This cable is recommended for
operation with certain limitations of voltage and current. Suppose voltage is increased. If
the involved insulating material is able to withstand the higher voltage stress, the change
will cause increase of dielectric losses that will increase heat generation.

Ultimately the temperature of the insulation will further increase. If the insulator starts
losing its insulating properties, ultimately breakdown will occur. Secondly, if load
current in the cable is increased, I2R losses will increase, resulting once again in increased
heat generation and failure as mentioned. This example signifies that in an apparatus heat
transfer function decides:

 The voltage rating and up to what safe limit the voltage can be raised and for
how much period without break down;
 Loading and overloading current limitation;
 Ambient temperature and maximum temperature an insulation can withstand.

Temperature affects such diverse and important properties as electrical properties,

mechanical strength, hardness, viscosity, solubility etc. This makes thermal properties
very important. It will now be appreciated why a complete classification of insulating
materials on the basis of their operating temperatures has been done. Various thermal
properties are discussed below

1. Melting points, Flash Points, Volatility: Melting point assumes importance in specific
cases like non-draining compound impregnated paper insulated cable etc. It is desired
that in the entire operating temperature range of cables the impregnating compound
must not melt to avoid migration of oil. Flash point will impose restriction in
manufacturing processes to avoid possible hazards of apparatus catching fire. Volatility
assumes importance from the fact that when a trapped gas is evolved from a volatile
insulating material subjected to voltage stress, the break-down is very rapid. A volatile
material cannot be a good insulator.

2. Thermal Conductivity: Heat generated due to I2R losses and dielectric losses will be
dissipated through the insulator itself. How effectively this flow of heat takes place,
depends on the thermal conductivity of the insulator. An insulator with better thermal
conductivity will not allow temperature rise because of effective heat transfer through
it to the atmosphere. This property assumes grout importance in high voltage apparatus
where thickness of insulation is more.
 3. Thermal Expansion: An insulator with a high coefficient of expansion possess
problems. Repented load cycles of an apparatus cause corresponding expansion and
contraction of the insulator lending to the possibility of the formation of voids in it.
When there are two insulating materials involved to form an insulation system different
coefficients of expansion of the two will further increase the formation of voids. Those
voids have been found to be the major cause insulation breakdown.

4. Heat Resistance: This is a general property which desires that, dielectric should
withstand temperature variation within desirable limits, without damaging its other
important properties. If an insulator has favourable properties at ambient temperature
but is not able to retain these properties to desirable extent at higher temperature but is
not able to retain these properties to desirable extent at higher temperatures up to which
it has to operate, it is not a good insulator. On the contrary an insulator which is capable
of withstanding high, temperatures without deterioration of its other properties can be
used for operation for such higher temperatures. This means that the current loading
can be increased thus making the apparatus capable of handling more power. This
favours economy.

5. Classification of Insulating Materials on the Basis of Operating Temperatures: In

view of the important part played by the thermal properties mentioned above it is
obvious why the classification of dielectrics is made on the basis of operating
temperatures.

6. Effect of Temperature Increase on Life of Insulator: There is always some

recommended operating temperature for an insulator. The operating temperature has a
bearing on the life of the concerned apparatus. A thumb rule suggested by many experts
is that life of insulation is halved for each 8 to 10°C rise above the recommended
operating temperature for a given apparatus.

Chemical Properties:-
1. Chemical Resistance: Presence of gases, water, acids, alkalis and salts affects different
insulators differently. Chemically a material is a better insulator if it resists chemical
action. Certain plastics are found approaching that condition. Consequently their use is
very such on the increase. Plastics have replaced paper insulation in many applications
because of the former being chemically' inert and hygroscopic. However, chemical
resistance requirements of insulations used in underground cables which are likely to
operate under severe chemical condition due to water, salt, acids or alkalis will be more
demanding than those of the insulations used in motor winding. In high voltage
installations "Ozone-resistance assumes great importance because of richness of Ozone
in the s rounding atmosphere produced by the ionization of air.

2. Hygroscopicity: Many insulators come in contact with atmosphere here either during
manufacture or operation or both. The contact of insulation atmosphere is often so
complete that even the less chemically aggressive atmosphere can prove a threat to the
smooth running of apparatus. Moisture due to high humidity atmosphere can affect
insulators in two ways:
  It acts on the surface of insulation.
 It may be absorbed by the insulation.

Moisture thus absorbed affects all the electrical properties adversely. However there
are insulating materials like paraffins, polythene, polytetra-flouroethylen (PTFE) which
are non-hygroscopic.

3. Effect of Contact with Other Materials: Insulation remains invariably in contact with
different types of materials like air, gases, moisture, con-ducting materials and
structural materials. Unlike gases and moisture whose effect on insulation has already
been considered, the conducting and structural materials have little effect due to contact
with the insulation. There are some cases as rubber in contact with copper, where
chemical action takes place. To avoid this chemical action a coating of tin is applied to
Cu before putting a rubber insulation. Ionisation is also come in contact with structural
material as for example, in an oil filled capacitor. In capacitor using synthetic insulation
oil, the oil react with the inner walls of the tank causing iron particles to mix with the
oil. This can adversely affect the insulating property of oil.

Ageing:-
Ageing is a long time effect of
 Heat,
 Chemical action,
 Voltage application.

These factors decide the natural life of an insulation and thus of an apparatus.

Prepared by:
Himansu Bhusan Behera
Lecturer, Electrical Engineering.
 Electrical Engineering Materials
Insulating Materials
Classification
 Fibrous Material
 Impregnated fibrous material
 Non-resinous material
 Insulating liquids
 Ceramics
 Mica & Mica products
 Asbestos & its products
 Glass
 Natural & Synthetic rubbers
 Insulating resins & their products
 Laminates, Adhesive, Enamels & varnishes

Fibrous materials:

They are derived from animal origin or from cellulose, which is the major solid
constituent of vegetable plants. The majority of materials are from cellulose.
This includes paper, wood, card- board, cotton, jute and silk.

Impregnated fibrous material:

The fibrous materials are impregnated with suitable impregnated oil, varnish,
and epoxy - resin to improve its thermal, chemical and hygroscopic properties.

Non-resinous materials:

Solid or semisolid insulations which are directly available in nature and are
organic based come under this class. These materials are mineral waxes,
asphalts, bitumen and chlorinated naphthalene.
Insulating liquids:

Apart from working as insulation, they fulfil other important requirements like
they offer good heat dissipation media, they used for extinguishing arcs in
certain applications like circuit breakers. They include vegetable oils, fluorinated
liquids, mineral insulating oils and synthetic liquids.

Ceramics:

They are materials made by high temperature firing treatment of natural clay and
certain inorganic matters. They are used as dielectric in capacitors, as insulators
etc.

Mica and mica products:

It is an inorganic mineral and one of the best natural insulating materials

available. Mica is used as a dielectric in capacitors, as insulator. Some of the
mica products are glass- bonded mica, synthetic mica, mica paper, manufactured
mica.

Asbestos and asbestos products:

These are strong and flexible fibres. It finds extensive use in electrical equipment
as insulation because of its ability to withstand very high temperatures. Some of
the asbestos products are: asbestos roving, asbestos paper, asbestos tapes and
asbestos cement.

Glass:

Glass is an inorganic material made by the fusion of different metallic oxides. It

is normally transparent, brittle and hard. Glass finds its use in electrical industry
because of its low dielectric loss, slow ageing and good mechanical strength.
Glass is used in electrical-bushings, fuse bodies, insulators, radio and television
tubes.

Natural and synthetic rubber:

Natural rubber is obtained from the milky sap of rubber trees. It finds limited
applications because it is rigid when solid, sticky when warm and gets oxidised,
when exposed to atmosphere. Synthetic rubber are of various types such as
butadiene rubber, butyl rubber, chloroprene and silicon rubber which are
obtained by the polymerisation. Synthetic rubber, are used as insulating material
for wires and cables. It is also used as jacketing material for cables.

Insulating resins and their products:

Plastic or resins are of two types - one derived from plant and animals the other
synthetic obtained from chemical reactions. Natural resins are used as binder
material. It is used as thickening agent for manufacture of mineral insulating oils.
Synthetic resins are used as insulation, manufacture of switches and instrument
mountings, electrical bushings, radio and television cabinets etc.

Laminates, adhesives, enamels and varnishes:

Laminates are multiple, thin layers or sheets of insulating materials like that of
mica, paper, cloth, glass etc bonded together. Adhesives, is a class of material
compositions required to carry out bonding between two or more solid surfaces.
Adhesives are used in the manufacture of laminated boards, coil winding
cylinders, rods, tubes and special shaped insulators. Enamel is a fusible insulated
coating of some organic base material, which is generally applied on conducting
surface. Enamel finds extensive use in coating wires used for the windings of low
rated motors, transformers, various types of instruments, etc. Varnish is a liquid,
which when applied to a surface dries resulting in hard shining coating which is
resistant to air and water. Lacquer is used for protecting wood and metal surface
from external weather conditions.