Scribd
Upload
37 views24 pages

Algebra 3

Uploaded by

あ『 Killua 』ツ
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
37 views24 pages

Algebra 3

Uploaded by

あ『 Killua 』ツ
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 24
1 Rings of Polynomials 1.1 Concepts In the following, I = R or C + A polynomial P, is an expression of the form. in” + Ogi Xm* + + 4+ VX +a, where n €N, anil the coefficients a,,#€ {0,....n}, are elements of K. + The set of all polynomials with coefficients in K is denoted by KX]. K |X| = { the polynomials with coefficients in K). + A polynomial P € KC[X] is said to be zero polynomial if all the coefficients: fay are 200, 1¢ Pad ay + Ifa, 40 then the degree of P isn, and we note deg P =n, so dog P pand assume the reearrence hypothes is true for all k deg A < deg B. 2 A\BAB\C = AC. 8. A\BA B\A = 3X6 K,such that A= XB Proof, 1, A\B => 3Q © KIN], such thar B = QA, then dey(B) = deg(AQ) = deg A + deg Q, since deg A < dog B. 2 A\BAB\C => 3Q1,Qz € K(X], such that B= QiA and C = QB then C = QQ1A= QA, since A\C, 3B A\BAB\A m+ deg(A) < deg(B) and deg(B) < deg(A), since deg A = deg B. And + A\BAB\A = 3Q),Q: € K[X], such that B= Q)A and A= QB then degQz = deg Q) = 0, since Q2,Q1 are constants, 1.3.2 Division according to increasing powers ‘Theorem 9 Let A and B be two polynomails in K(X] and k € N*. Then, there exists unique Q, RE K |X| such that A= BQ+XMR with, deogQ 1) és irreducible if all the divisors of P are constant polynomials. Definition 16 We say that a polynomial P (deg P > 1) is reducible ¥ there exists Q, RE KN] such that deg Q > 1,deg R > 1 and P= QR. Theorem 17 The only irreducible polynomials of |X] are + The polynomials of degree 1 + The polynomials of degree 2 with the discriminant strictly negative .(S = v8 — 4ae < 0). Corollary 18 ‘The irreducitle polynomials of CLX] are exactly of degree 1 Remark 19 A polynomail is irreducible of R[X}, it can be reducible to CLX] Then, itis clear that if a polynomial is reducible from RIX], then it is necessarily reducible from |X). Example 20 « All polynomials of degree “1” are irreducible in RLX] and in C[X}, + The polynomials X*—1, X4—$ and X* +1 are irreducible én R[X] and inC|X], Actually, X8— Le (X= 1X? +X +1), and X?—F~ (X— V3) (X— Vi). # The polynomial X? +1 és érreducibte in R[X], but it és reducible én C[X] because X41 (X-(X +I. 1.5 Greatest Common Divisor (g.c.d) Definition 21 (y.cxl) Let A and B be two polynomials in K [X] both non-zero, then there exists a unique unitary polynomial D (not both zero) of greatest degree whick divides both A and B. This polynomial is called the greatest common divisor of A and B and we note ged(A; B) = D. Example 22 ed (X* + 3X? +8N +1,X842K? 42N 41) = X41 Definition 23 Two polynomials are said to be coprime if their GCD is 1 1.5.1. Euelid’s algorithm Let A and B be two non-zero polynomials such that deg A > deg B. So, Eu- clid’s algorithm consists of performing Euclidean divisions until obtaining a zero remainder, as follows A= BQ: +R then, we divide B on Rs, we have B= RiQat Ro Now, we divide Ry on Ro, we have Ry = FaQs + Ry, We continue the divisions: Ry on Ry, Ry on Ry ++ until we obtain a zero remainder, as follows Ris = RQuys + Resi: and Re = Resi Ques. ‘The g.cd of A and B is Rus, that is to say the last non-zero remainder. As the g.cd is unique and monic, we take the monic polynomial associated with the last non-zero remainder of Euclid’s algorithm. 2X — X84.N? 4X1 and B = 2X? - oxe —X3 4X? 4X —1[9x7— —2Nt 43s XPEK +2 2x3 +X? =2X3+3X? ax? +X AX? + 7X -1 Example 24 A 2x4 —X5+X7+ XN -1 = (2x" - 3X) (X? + X +2) +(7X—1), x =x ¥ ~ % and 2x? -3x =2N? 44 TEx an —EX=i “3 gx? —ax) = ox Sn and Then ged (A,B) = 382Ra = 1 Theorem 25 (!* Bézout's Theorem) Let A end B be two non-xero polynomials in K[X]. If D = pged(A,B), then there exist two polynomials U, V © K(X} such that AU + BV = D. Example 26 Find a Bézout relation from the example presented previously: B= RiQa + Ry em B~ Qs = fa eo B= (A~ BQs)Qs = Re > Qa + (1+ Q1Q2)B = Ra = D, that is to say U = -Q, = -X 2, et V = (1+Q1Qa) = 14 (X —2)(X +2) =X? -3 1.5.2 Coprime polynomails Theorem 27 (2! Bé:out's Theorem) Two polynomials A and B are coprime if and only if there exist two polyno- mials U and V such that AU + BV = 1 Theorem 28 (Gauss’s Theorem) If a polynomial divides a product of two polynomials and it és prime with one of the factors, it divides the other. (A\BC and ANB=1)=9 A\C 1.6 Factoring a polynomial into irreducible Theorem 29 Let P € K(X] be a non-constant polynomial, then there exist k EN* and irreducible polynomials P,, Py,» , Pk of K[X], such that P= APM pe... par where, 8 € K* andl o4,03,+++ say €N'. The polynomials Py, Pay++, Py are unique up to permutation, Example 30 1, Decompose P = X* +X! +1 into irreducible factory in RIX], mClX]. a WORX], we have XEN + 1m (Xt +1 - Xb (XE + XPY(Xt +1 - X?) also (X84 14 NF) = (X74 1)? = KF = (X72 4.14-X)(X741- xX) and X= N41 = (X74 1)?=3x? = (xX? +14 VEN)(X? +1- VEX), ‘Then Pow (XP 4X + (X48 =X + 1X8 + VEN + 1X? = VEN +1). b In C[X],we can search for the roots of P in C|X], we have N4H14X AP 41% XP 414 VX X84 1- Vi 2, Deconpose P= X* +1 into irreducible factors in R[X] and in C[X] @ In C[X]. We will search for the compier roots of the form e®, as Jollows (ef) 41-0 ot = We can choose B= (2+ 1px, keZer oat Which implies, ay = ef, So, the factorization of X° +1 is X41=(0 41) (Ke) (X -e¥) (x ~e#) (xe) In R(X]; Acconting to the previous method on C, we have XS4L = (X41) (K - ae) (K - as) (X -aU)(X - a4) = (X41) (X? — [as + a] X + Aas) (X? — [ag +] X + AGaa) = (x41) (x? = 2006 (F) x= 1) (a7 - 2008 (9% = (X41)(K +21) (X + aa) (X +25) (X +24) -1). with ayy the rots of (X#~2e08 (4) X—1), and ars. the roots of (X? ~ 2cos ~ 1), since X € {-,21,22,25,24} the roots, then X9+1 is reducible in R 2 Rational fractions + A rational fraction in IK is written F inK, with Q 40. + Wo say that the representative £ of F is imeducible, if the polynomials P and Q are coprime, , where P and Q are polynomials + Every rational fraction has a unique imredueible repres Example 31 + 2 ‘The rational fraction F = sf2s¥"., accept on iereducible form F = xis 2.1 Roots and poles of a rational fraction We call roots (aero) of the rational fraction # = & (supposed to be irreducible) the roots of the numerator P, and poles the roots of the denocninatoe + Wo call dogree of the rational fraction o() Example 82. ‘The rational fraction F = yS*a¥p, accept the rovts 0,1, -1 and accept the poles 1,2. f the relative integer 4 P~denQ 2.2 Decomposition into simple clements Definition $3 We say that £ with P< Q 0 ie a simple element iff dey P< eg Q, xed (PQ) = 1, Q is an irreducible polynomial Simple element in C : A simple clement in C is « fraction of the form iar: whereae Ctbe Cand ne Nt. Simple clement in R: A simple element in R is a fraction which can have the following forms arty, where we C',be Cand nen, 2 qyrttthae where a,b,a,9 € Rand a? ~ 48 <0, and a,b non-zero at the same tine, 10 Example 34.1. Gh. xin 2 ete, why are simple elements in C and in R aeBege: cecterye retiiics are simple cloments in R 2.2.1 General method of decomposition + A rational fraction, of irreducible form F = §, with deg P > degQ, is written uniquely, in the form: FoE+S withdeg h sm) such that: R voce (X=ay La =a) = wht + peta (in RIX) Example 41 F(X) = Corollary 42 Let @ denominator Q and sh (X =a)" a polyromait Any rational fraction with ly negative degree is uniquely decomposed into: RGR @ Lew with Wie TP deg Ry { 4 © For find b, we multiply G by (X +1)? a 4x oe +t ase Oc 4 PG = ae na tbe Se By replacing X with -1, we obtain b= —1, then d= 1 This method makes it possible to find the coefficient of the highest degree term of each polar part. © For jind the coefficients a and c, we multiply G by X: ox ox X+10 (X41) ax a a (x -1) By rescarch for the limit of XG(X) in +00, we obtain: lim_2G(e) ate, then a This method makes it possible to find the sum of the lowest degree coefficients of all the polar parts. Eventually, we obtain:(a, b,¢,d) = @- 2-1 Xe Gay Example 44 + Decomposition into simple elements xXS41 war By divide successively on X ~2: Moh = (X-aXt4aNsa+9 X41 _Xt42NGa | o aa Kat ea and X?42X 44 (X — 2X +4) +12 X?42X44 X44 2 way a = X44 1 6 + X44=(X-2)46 = ont FAs (X46 oP eat 4 Finally, 1 6 12 9 Pox at et opt Example 45 : In C[X] BX+1 a X41 Xi Xi Multiply both sides of the equality by (X —i) and replacing X by i, we obtain 7 Multiply both sides of the equality by (X +i) and replacing X by -i, we obtain gs We conclude, SX41_ 3-1 3+i Ky 2(x4a | 2X 2.4 Practical decomposition methods Study plan: a We put # = 8 in breductle form by simpliying by the GOD of the numerator P and the denominator Q. b We obtain & and R using the Euclidean division of P by Q. € We factor B into irreducible polynomials. 4 We write the literal form of the decomposition into simple elements of F, or of §, © We determine the coefficients using various methods, 3 Exercises solved Exercise 46 J. Find the polynomials P of degree 3, such that P(0) = 1, PA) = -1,P(-D) PC) =5. 2 Under what condition on a,,e R, the polynomial X# + aX? +bX +c is divisible by X? + X - 29 9. Find the polynomials of degree 2 such that P? divides P. 4: (TP) Find the polynomials P of degree 3, such that P(O) = 0 and P(X +1) = P(X) = X 15, 4. The following statements are true or false: (a) A polynomial of degree 3 is always reducible in RIX). (0) P is irreducible in B[X], if and anty if deg P = 1 (6) A polynomial P ERX] of degree & accept at least one real rot. Solution 47 1, P = aX? + 0X? + eX +d where a,b,c and d satisfy the following equations: d=t atbtetd= =I -atb-c+d=3 Bat db+detde 5 then, Wx+1 xt 2. The rest of the divivion of X44 aX? +6X + by X? +X —2is R= (b-a-5)X + 20+ e+. For it to be zero it ts necessary that bm a+b ande= —2a—6. 4. The vest of the division of P = aX? + bX +0 by Pl =20X +h is # So the condition is 4. (TP) P = 4 (X"— 2x? + x) 4. True or False (a) Is true, because the degree of P is odd number. (0) (deg P = 1) = (P ix irreducible in R[X]), is true. And (P is inves dducible in [X])=> (deg P = 1), is false. (e) Is true, because the graph of polynorail of degree odd always pass by the aris (2) Exercise 48 Let the polynomial P(X) =X" +X" +1 1, Show that P does not admit real mots. 2. P is itan irveducible polynomial of BX]. 6 Solution 49 1, We consider the function XH P(X) =X EXEL So, we have PY(X) =BX7 + 4X4 = X9(8X444), then, P(X) = 0.4 X* (8X4 +4) =0 => X 3>0, then graph of P(X) does not pass by the axis (Or). Since, Pi0) 2 As P does not accept any real root but it is of degree 8, then it is the product of polynomials of degree 2, therefore it is reducible from RIX]. Exercise 50. (ge of polynomials) 1. Determine the D = ged the following polynomials: (o) A= X3— Xt X —2 and B= X*— 2X4 4X?-X—2, (b) A= XO 43X44 KOA NE LIN 41 and B= X84 ON 4X42, 2. Find U and V of the previous D, such that AU + BV D. Solution 51 1. The ged of polynomials: (a) gea(A,B) = X -2, (0) ged\A,B) = X78 +1. 2 Determination of U and V such that AU + BV =D: (a) A(-3xX — 4) 4+ B(3x! — Lx?_1x 4) =x -2, (b) A(-1) + B(X 41) = X8 41 Exercise 52 1. Are the following polynomials irreducible in R[X] or in c[xye PUX)=XS4X441, QU)= X41 2 Factor these polynomials on |X], on CLX] Solution 58.1. The polynomials P and Q are irveducibles in B[X] and én |X|, See the erercices I and 2 2. Decompose P= X*+X* +1 into irreducible factors in R[X], in CLX]. 4) IRIN}, we have NPE N+ Le (X44 1? Xt (XL XX +1 X7) also (XE ELAM) = (XP + 1)? — XP = (+14 X)(X? + 1X) ond NEON HL we (XE PBX (XE HL + VANY(N? +1 - VEX), Then Pa(XPEX 41K? - N+ 1[NB + VON + 1A? - VEX +1). b) In C[X],we can seareh for the roots of P in C[X], we have XH14X = X*41-X Xt414+V8X = X?41-V8xX = Then r= (et2X8) (0. £8) (x 108) 08) (082) (49 4. Decompose Q = X° +1 into irreducible factors in R[X] and in C[X). 4) In C[X]. We will seerch for the complex roots of the form e', as follows (c%)! +1 = 0 ep el = 1 = eth, be, We can choose 50 = (2k+ 1) mn kEZ ome 18 Which émplies, ay et, ase, aye So, the factorication of X" +1 és XP +1 = (X41) (Xe) (xe F) (xe) (xe), 4) In RIX]: According to the previous method on C, we have m= 7, 2207, a =e™ then NOH 1 = (X41) (X ~ AH) (K ~ a5) (K —AG)(X — 04) = (X41) (X?— [ay + Wa] X + BGs) (XN? — [og + Wa] X + Tia) = (6419(92 200 (§) x =1) (420m (F) #1) (X41) (X py) (NX + xy) (A ry) (X tay) with 1,2 the roots of (X? = 2eos(#) X= 1), and rs.te the roots of (X2 — Qeox (82) X— 1), since X € {121,259 24} the roots, then X° +1 is reducible im BLN}, NOL = (X 4+ 1) (x? 2008 (F) x-=1) (« ~ to (32) x= 1) Exercise 54 Let A and B be t wo polynomails such that : A(X) = X98 4X4 — X9— 3X7 42X42 and BUX) =X? +1. 1. Show that (X +1) divides A(X) 2. Factor A and B on RX}, on CIX]. 3. Determine the D = ged(A,B) Solution 55 1, show that (X +1) divise A(X). (X41) divise A(X) ee (-1) is a root of A(X) 9 A(-1) = 0. Then A(—1) = (1) + (-1)* ~ 8(-1)" ~ 3(-1)2 42(-1) 42 = 0, 40 (X +1) divise A(X). 2, Factor A and B on R[X}, on C[X]. (a) Factorisation of A(X). Ais divisible by (X +1) then by Euclidean division of A on (X +1) we obtain the quotient Q(X) = X*—3X? +2 we assume ¥ = X?, then Q(Y) = ¥? BY +2. Catewlation: A: A = 1, then the roots of Q() are Yi = 1 and Yq =2. 80 QUY) = (Y ~1)(¥ -2). Done Q(X) = (X? = 1) (X? ~ 2). Also X#—1=(X-1)(X +1) and X22 = (x - v2) (x + v2). Finally the factorization of A on B[X] and C[X| ix: A(X) = (X41)? (X = 1) (X - v2) (X +2) (0) Factorization of B(X): We nate (-1) is a root of B(X), then by Euclidean division of Bon (X +1) we obtain the quotient K(X) = X?—X+1 Caleulation: A: then the reots of K(X) in C[X] are Xi = 14 and Xq = 144. go K(x) = (x - Hp) (x - Ep). Finally the factorization of B on C[X] és poy -erva(s- =p) (x4 And the factorization of B on RX] is B(X) = (X+1)(X?-X 41). 8. Determine the D = ged|A, B): Acconting to the factorizations of A and B: AUX) = A(X) = (X41)? (X= 1) (X= v2) (x + V9) BUX) = (X +1) (47-41). We obtain D=ged(A, BY=X41 20 Exercise 56 1. Decompose the following fractions into simple elements in RIX], and inC{X}. x2 Fo(X) = . nm) = Ty R(X) = 3X9 + XP+X+1 BOD = Faroese Aix) = Ett cp) 2, Calculate the following integral [incon Is Solution $7 1, Decompose F,(X) into simple elements in RLX], and in e|x). nay. 2? a (X) = wy (1™). Decomposition: Determine a,b, and e of the real numbers such that XP+X+ « b c (yp "X-1* yy then (X 1) F(X) = XF+X $1 (X17 +(x 1) +0™ and XP4N+1 aX? + (b-20)X +a-b+3 {es 27s. So eee a1 1" baa Finally, M+N+1 1 (=a XT (xy? x 2, Decompose F(X) into simple elements in R[X], and in CX]. BENE N41 noe Oo ax +2 21 (1). Determination of the integer part: by using Euclidean division of BNE XP EN HL by X7—3N 42, we obtain BX3+N24 X41 BX +2 in (2%) . Denominator factorization: Factor the polynomial X? R X?-3X 42=(X-1)(X-2) (3). Decomposition: Determine a and b of the real numbers such that Multiply both sides of the equality by (X ~ 1), we have 1X19 B(X—1) a+ And also, Jor X =1, we obtain a WX =13 6X -13_ a(X—2) (X-2) Sax 4a” X= X-1 Jor X = 2, we obtain b= 19, Finally, +b, eos 2) ON" 4 N74 N41 x-2 Minar g ONT x= 8 Decompose Fz (X) into simple elements én RIX], and in C[X] (o) InRIX]: 2x41 BOD" [Tors ery (1"8) Decomposition: Determine a.e and b of the real numbers such that a b ROO~ e+ Qo EET 2 then XF,(X) (x1) F(X) (574.441) R(X) Finally, Fa(X)= (0) In SIX]: We have XP4X41 (1°) Decomposition. that XP4N41 By idemiification we find d+e=0, andd then We conclude, 1 XtaXe1 = (x Determine d,and ¢ of the real numbers such 2VEX 43+ VB oxt4t (EXT ot (a1 XI 2xt +1 +X +H) (x-1) x 2X'+1 x For iv3 7): 2 2i 28x — 314 JB 23 Finally R(X) = tod $i X* -0) ofxeae 3 VN 4. Calewlate the integral ’ 8 gx 4 xt [nvoe- BX84 XTX 2 according to (2) we find X?-3X 42 [peu - [[ (x97 Jas = [X747X —Bin(X 1) + 19In(X —2)]} ~ wn (®) 3.1 Additional exercises Exercise 58 Let A and B be t wo polynomaits such that: A(X) = X84 X4 =X? ~ 3X7 + IN 42 and BX) =X? +1, 1. Show that (X + 1) divides A(X), 2, Factor A and B on R|X), on C[X). 4. Determine the D = gca(A,B) Exercise 59 Are the following polynomials irreducible én R{X] or in C[X]? P(X) = X* 41, Q(X) =X" =-1, R(X) = X*- X41 Pactor these polynomials on RIX), on C[X] Exercise 60 For n €N, show that the polynomial P(X) = nx" ~ in bX", is divisible by (1X). Exercise 61 (ged! of polynomials) + Determine the D = ged the following polynomials: LAGX4XO+N EL and B= X84X7 41, 2 A= Xo4X4 ~ land B= X*—4X +1. © Find U and V of the previous D, such that AU + BV = D u

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy