CHAPTER 1

REMINDER: CONSTRUCTION OF THE

POLYNOMIAL RING

We present some properties of the ring of polynomials.

In this section, K is a commutative field.

1 The ring of polynomials in one indeterminate with co-

efficients in K

Definition 1.1
A polynomial in one indeterminate with coefficients in K is a sequence (an )n∈N over K
such that all terms from a certain rank onward are equal to 0. We denote by K[X] the
set of polynomials with coefficients in K and in one indeterminate.

In other words, P = (an )n∈N ∈ K[X] means that there exists N ∈ N such that

∀n ∈ N(n > N implies an = 0)

• The polynomial P is written as follows: P = (a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., aN , 0, 0, ...) and the terms
a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., aN are called the coefficients of the polynomial P .

• The zero polynomial is denoted 0K[X] , whose coefficients are all zero 0K[X] = (0, 0, ..., 0, ...).
It is more simply denoted as 0 if there is no ambiguity with the zero element of K.

• A constant polynomial is a polynomial in K[X] of the form P = (a0 , 0, 0, ..., 0, 0, ...).

Definition 1.2
Two polynomials P = (an )n∈N and Q = (bn )n∈N in K[X] are said to be equal, denoted
P = Q, if an = bn f oralln ∈ N.

1
2 Reminder: Construction of the polynomial ring

1.1 Valuation and Degree of a Polynomial

Definition 1.3
Let P = (an )n∈N be a non-zero polynomial in K[X]

1. The degree of P , denoted deg(P ), is the largest natural integer n such that an ̸= 0.
In other words,
deg(P ) = max{n ∈ N, an ̸= 0}.

2. The valuation of P , denoted v(P ), is the smallest natural integer n such that
an ̸= 0. In other words,

v(P ) = min{n ∈ N, an ̸= 0}

Example :

1. Let P = (1, 0, 0, 3, 0, ...) ∈ R[X] We have: v(P ) = 0 and deg(P ) = 3.

2. Let P = (0, 0, 2i, −1, 1, ...)C[X] We have: v(P ) = 2 and deg(P ) = 4.

■
For any non-zero polynomial P ∈ K[X], v(P ) ≤ deg(P ).

Definition 1.4
Let P = (an )n∈N ∈ K[X] be a polynomial of degree p:

1. The constant term of P is a0 .

2. The dominant coefficient of P is ap .

3. The polynomial P is unitary (or normalized) if its dominant coefficient is 1.

4. The polynomial P is called monomial if v(P ) = deg(P ).

2 Algebraic Structures on Polynomials

2.1 Structure of a commutative and integral Ring over K[X]
1. The set K[X] equipped with the operation + has the structure of a commutative group.
Indeed, the addition defined on the set of polynomials in K[X] is an internal operation
on K[X] since the addition +K defined on the field K is an internal operation on
K. Moreover, the addition of polynomials has the following properties (which can be
Reminder: Construction of the polynomial ring 3

deduced from the properties of addition on K):

• It is associative: for all P, Q, R in K[X], we have:

(P + Q) + R = P + (Q + R).

• It has an identity element in K[X]: This is the polynomial 0K[X] because

P ∈ K[X], P + 0K[X] = 0K[X] + P = P.

• Every polynomial P = (an )n∈N ∈ K[X] has an additive inverse in K[X], which is
the polynomial −P = (−an )n∈N .
• It is commutative:
P + Q = Q + P ∀P, Q ∈ K[X].

2. The multiplication of polynomials has the following properties:

• It is associative: for all P, Q, R ∈ K[X]:

(P × Q) × R = P × (Q × R).

• It is distributive with respect to addition:

∀P, Q, R ∈ K[X], P ×(Q+R) = (P ×Q)+(P ×R)and(Q+R)×P = (Q×P )+(R×P ).

• It has an identity element in K[X]: This is the polynomial 1K[X] = (1, 0, 0, ..., 0, ...).
Indeed,
∀P ∈ K[X], P × 1K[X] = 1K[X] × P = P.

• It is commutative:
P × Q = Q × P, ∀P, Q ∈ K[X].

From 1 and 2, we conclude that the set K[X] equipped with the operations + and × forms
a commutative integral ring.

Furthermore, if P = (an )n∈N ∈ K[X] and Q = (bn )n∈N ∈ K[X] are two non-zero poly-
nomials in K[X] of degrees p and m respectively, then the polynomial P × Q = (cn )n∈N is
non-zero. Indeed, its (p + m)-th coefficient cp+m is non-zero since cp+m = ap × bm with ap ̸= 0
and bm ̸= 0 We have thus established that, for all P, Q of K[X],

(P ̸= 0K[X] and Q ̸= 0K[X] ⇒ P × Q ̸= 0K[X] ,

in other words, the ring (K[X], +, ×) is integral.

For constant, non-zero polynômials, the elements of K[X] have no symmetries for the law
×. The ring (K[X], +, ×) is therefore not a field.
4 Reminder: Construction of the polynomial ring

3 Polynomial functions

Definition 3.1
The polynomial function associated with the polynomial P is the application of K in
K defined by : x → P (x)

Example :

1. If P = (1, 0, 0, 3, 0, ...) ∈ R[X], then : ∀x ∈ RP (x) = 1 + 3x3

2. If P = (0, 0, 2i,-1, 1,... ) ∈ C[X]then : ∀x ∈ CP (x) = 2ix2 − x3 + x4 : ■

4 Arithmetic in K[X]

4.1 Euclidean Division

Definition 4.1: (Euclidean division)

lets A and B two polynomials for K[X] with B ̸= 0, there exists a unique pair (Q, R)
of polynomials in K[X] such that

A = BQ + R et deg(R) < deg(B)

Determining the couple (Q, R) is to realise the Euclidean division of A by B The

polynomials Q and R are called quotient and remainder respectively.

Example :
Consider the following two polynomials in R[X].

A = X 4 + 2X 3 − X + 6 and B = X 3 − 6X 2 + X + 4

Let’s proceed with the Euclidean division of A by B in R[X]. This gives A = BQ + R

with Q = X + 8, R = 47X 2 − 13X − 26 and deg(R) < deg(B) ■
Reminder: Construction of the polynomial ring 5

4.2 Divisibility in K[X]

Definition 4.2
Let A and B be two polynomials in K[X] We say that B divides A (or that A is
divisible by B) if there exists Q ∈ K[X] such that

A = BQ

We also say that A is a multiple of B or that B is a divisor of A

Definition 4.3
Let P be a polynomial in K[X] such that deg(P ) ≥ 1

1. The polynomial P is said to be irreducible (or prime) in K[X] if it admits only

the divisor polynomials α · 1K[X] and α · P where α ∈ K

2. Otherwise, it is said to be reducible.

Example :
the polynomial P = X 2 + 1 is irreducible in R[X] By on the other hand, it is reducible in
C[X] for it is divisible by the two polynomials X − i and X + i ■

4.3 Zeros or roots of polynomials

Definition 4.4
1. Let α ∈ A and P ∈ K[X], is zero or root of P if P (α) = 0

2. The element of K is a root of P if and only if X − α divides P

3. α is root of order r, or of multiplicity r of P if

(X − α)r

divides P . but (X − α)r+1 does not divide P

6 Reminder: Construction of the polynomial ring

Definition 4.5
Let P (X) be a polynomial with coefficients in K. We say that P (X) is sinded in K if
we can write P (X) as

P (x) = a(X − α1 )β1 ...(X − αk )βk ...(X − αp )βp ,

where a ∈ K − {0}, αi ∈ K and βi ∈ N, (1 ≤ i ≤ p). In other words, P (X) is sinded

in K if it is written as a product of first-degree polynomials with coefficients in K.

The number of roots (counted with multiplicity) of a polynomial of degree p is at most p.

If the polynomial P has exactly p roots (counted with multiplicity), the polynomial P is said
to be scinded.
Example :

1. P (X) = X 3 − 5X 2 + 3X + 9 is sinded in R because P (X) = (X − 3)2 (X + 1).

2. Q(X) = X 2 + 1 is not scinded in R because this polynomial has no roots in R.

3. Q(X) = X 2 + 1 is scinded in C since X 2 + 1 = (X − i)(X + i). ■

Exercise: Factorize in R[X] and in C[X]

P (X) = −X 8 + 2X 4 − 1 andP (X) = −X 5 + X 4 − X 3 + X 2 − X + 1

4.4 polynomials of C[X] and R[X]

Theorem 4.6: (Fundamental theorem of algebra)

A non-constant element of C[X] has at least one complex root. We say that C is an
algebraically closed field.

Fundamental theorem of algebra is also known as the d’Alembert Gauss theorem.

Corollary 4.7
1. The irreducible elements of C[X] are polynomials of degree 1:

2. The irreducible elements of R[X] are polynomials of degree 1 and polynomials of

degree 2 that have two complex roots non-real , which are then conjugated.