Syllabus

EE8703 RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS L T P C

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UNIT I RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE) SOURCES 9

Environmental consequences of fossil fuel use, Importance of renewable sources of
energy, Sustainable Design and development, Types of RE sources, Limitations of RE
sources, Present Indian and international energy scenario of conventional and RE
sources

UNIT II WIND ENERGY 9

Power in the Wind – Types of Wind Power Plants (WPPs)–Components of WPPs-
Working of WPPs- Siting of WPPs-Grid integration issues of WPPs.

UNIT III SOLAR PV AND THERMAL SYSTEMS 9

Solar Radiation, Radiation Measurement, Solar Thermal Power Plant, Central Receiver
Power Plants, Solar Ponds.- Thermal Energy storage system with PCM- Solar
Photovoltaic systems : Basic Principle of SPV conversion – Types of PV Systems- Types
of Solar Cells, Photovoltaic cell concepts: Cell, module, array ,PV Module I-V
Characteristics, Efficiency & Quality of the Cell, series and parallel connections,
maximum power point tracking, Applications.

UNIT IV BIOMASS ENERGY 9

Introduction-Bio mass resources –Energy from Bio mass: conversion processes-
Biomass Cogeneration-Environmental Benefits. Geothermal Energy: Basics, Direct Use,
Geothermal Electricity. Mini/micro hydro power: Classification of hydropower schemes,
Classification of water turbine, Turbine theory, Essential components of hydroelectric
system.

UNIT V OTHER ENERGY SOURCES 9

Tidal Energy: Energy from the tides, Barrage and Non Barrage Tidal power systems.
Wave Energy: Energy from waves, wave power devices. Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC)- Hydrogen Production and Storage- Fuel cell : Principle of working-
various types - construction and applications. Energy Storage System-
Hybrid Energy Systems

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 Notes
Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out by human beings or by
nature, is cause due to flow of energy in one form or the other. The word energy
itself is derived from the Greek word enrgon, which means “in-work” or “work
content”„. The work output depends on the energy input. Energy is one among
the main inputs for the economic development of any country. Within the case
of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in sight
of the ever- increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to satisfy them.
1.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENERGY RESOURCES:

Primary
Based on the
useabality of Energy
Secondary

Conventional
Based on Traditional
Use
Non-Conventional

Renewable
Based on Long Term
Classification Availability
Non-Renewable

Commercial Energy
Resources
Based on Commercial
Application Non-Commercial
Energy Resources

Fossil Fuels,
Nuclear,Hydro.Solar,Wind
Based on the Origin ,Biomass,Geothermal,
Tidal, Ocean energy

Figure 1.1

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1.1.1 Primary and secondary energy resources:
Primary resources:
Resources available in the nature that are available in raw form are called
primary resources.
Ex: Fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas), uranium and hydropower.
Secondary resources:
Secondary energy resources are obtained from primary energy resources by
processing. Processing helps in transformation of primary resources into the
secondary or usable energy form so that it can be utilized by consumers.
Ex: Electricity, steam, hot water, petrol, diesel, LNG and CNG

1.1.2 Conventional and non-conventional energy resources:

Conventional:
Resources that have been used traditionally for may years are called as
Conventional energy resources. These resources are also widely used at present
and likely to be depleted.
Ex: Coal, Petrol, Diesel, Nuclear, CNG and LPG
Non-conventional:
These are alternate energy resources to the conventional energy resources
which are being considered to be used on large scale. The conventional energy
resource are likely to be depleted in about 50–60 years were as non- conventional
resources will not deplete.
Ex: Solar, Wind, Tidal, Geothermal and biogas

1.1.3 Renewable and non-renewable energy resources:

Renewable:
Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially
inexhaustible Or Resources which can be renewed by nature again and again. The
most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the
release of harmful pollutants
Ex: wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric
power.
Non-renewable: Resources which are available in certain finite quantity and
cannot be replenished are called non-renewable.
Ex: Fossil fuel

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1.1.4 Commercial and non-commercial energy resources:
Commercial energy resources:
The secondary usable energy resources such as electricity, CNG, LPG, petrol
and diesel are essential for commercial activities. The economy of a nation highly
depends on its ability to process and transform the natural raw energy sources into
usable commercial energy sources.
Non-commercial energy:
The energy which can be derived directly from nature so as to be used
without passing through any commercial outlet is known as the non- commercial
energy.
1.1.5 Energy resources of different origins:
The energy resources based on their origin can be nuclear, fossil fuel, hydro,
solar, biomass, wind, geothermal, ocean thermal and ocean tidal resources.

1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF FOSSIL FUEL USE:

The conversion of energy from one form to another generally affects the
environment. Hence, without considering the impact of energy on the environment,
the study of energy is not complete. Fossil fuels have been used since 1700s which
has helped the industrial growth and the amenities of modern life. During the
combustion of fossil fuels the emitted pollutants are strongly responsible for smog,
acid rain, global warming and climate change.
The environmental pollution has reached such a high level that it becomes
a serious threat for vegetables growth, wild life and human health. Air pollution can
cause health problems and it can also damage the environment and property. It
has caused thinning of the protective ozone layer, which is leading to climate
change. Hundreds of elements and compounds such as benzene and formaldehyde
are known to be emitted during the combustion of coal, oil, natural gas, engine of
vehicles, furnaces and even fireplaces. Dust storms in desert areas and smoke from
forest fires and grass fires contribute to chemical and particulate pollution of the
air. The source of pollution may be in one country but the impact of pollution may
be felt elsewhere.
1.2.1 Major air pollutants and their sources are listed below:
Carbon monoxide (CO):
This is a colorless, odorless gas that is produced by the incomplete
burning of carbon-based fuels including petrol, diesel and wood. It is also
produced from the combustion of natural and synthetic products such as
cigarettes. It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. It can slow our
reflexes and make us confused and sleepy.

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Carbon dioxide (CO2):
This is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human activities
such as the burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC):
These are gases that are released mainly from air conditioning systems and
refrigeration. When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they
come in contact with other gases, which lead to a reduction of the ozone layer that
protects the Earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the Sun.
Lead:
This is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products,
etc. Lead affects children in particular. It can cause nervous system damage and
digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.
Ozone (O3):
This occurs naturally in the upper layers of the atmosphere. This important
gas shields the Earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the Sun. However, at the
ground level, it is a pollutant with highly toxic effects. Vehicles and industries are
the major source of ground level ozone emissions. Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn,
and water. It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia.
Nitrogen oxide (NOx):
This causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burning fuels including
petrol, diesel, and coal. Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory
diseases in winters.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM):
This consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, and vapour that
can remain suspended for extended periods and is also the main source of haze,
which reduces visibility. The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodge in
our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory problems.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2):
This is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in thermal power plants.
Some industrial processes, such as production of paper and smelting of metals,
produce sulfur dioxide. It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulfur dioxide
can lead to lung diseases.
The major areas of environmental problems may be classified as follows
water pollution, ambient air quality, hazardous air pollutants, maritime pollution,
solid waste disposal, land use and siting impact, acid rain, stratospheric ozone
depletion, global climate change (greenhouse effect).

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1.2.2 Vital Problems Because of Environmental Issues:
Acid Rain:
Acid rain is a widespread term used to describe all forms of acid precipitation
(rain, snow, hail, fog, etc.) Atmospheric pollutants, particularly oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen, can cause precipitation to become more acidic when converted to sulfuric
and nitric acids, hence the term acid rain. Motor vehicles also contribute to SO2
emissions since petrol and diesel fuel also contains small amounts of sulfur.
The sulfur oxides (SO2) and nitric oxides (NO) react with water vapour (H2O)
and other chemicals in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to form sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3).

These are below in above Figure 1.2. The acids formed usually dissolve in
the suspended water droplets in clouds or fogs. These acid-laden droplets are
washed from the air to the soil by rain or snow onto the Earth. This is known as
acid rain.
The soil is capable of neutralizing a certain amount of acid. However, the
power plant, which uses high-sulfur coal, pollutes many lakes and rivers in industrial
areas that have become too acidic for fish to grow. Forests in different regions of
the Earth also experience a slow death due to absorption of acids from acid rain
through the leaves, needles and roots of the trees.

Figure 1.2

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Depletion of Ozone Layer:
It is well known that the natural build up of oxygen in the atmosphere
gradually led to the formation of the ozone layer. This layer is found between 19
and 30 kilometers (km) above the ground. The ozone layer filters out incoming
radiation from the Sun that is harmful to life on Earth. The development of the
ozone layer allowed more advanced life forms to evolve. Most ozone is produced
naturally in the stratosphere, a layer of atmosphere between 10 and 50 km above
the Earth‟s surface, but it can be found throughout the whole of the atmosphere.
The ozone layer plays a natural and equilibrium maintaining role for the Earth
through the absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation (240–320 nm) and absorption
of infrared radiation.
A global environmental problem is the distortion and regional depletion of
the stratospheric ozone layer. This effect due to the emissions of NOx and CFCs,
etc. Ozone depletion in the stratosphere can lead to increased levels of damaging
ultraviolet radiation reaching the ground. This increases rates of skin cancer, eye
damage and other harm to many biological species. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
NOx emissions are produced by fossil fuel and biomass combustion processes and
play the most significant role in ozone depletion. Hence, the major pollutant, NOx
emissions, needs to be minimized to prevent stratospheric ozone depletion.
Global Warming and Climate Change (Greenhouse Effect):
The greenhouse effect is a process by which radiative energy leaving a
planetary surface is absorbed by some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases.
They transfer this energy to other components of the atmosphere, and it is
reradiated in all directions, including back down towards the surface. This transfers
energy to the surface and lower atmosphere, so the temperature there is higher
than it would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming
mechanism.
The greenhouse effect is also experienced on a larger scale on Earth. This
warms up as a result of the absorption of solar energy (shortwave length) during
the day, cools down at night by radiating part of its energy into deep space as
infrared radiation (long wavelength). Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour and trace
amounts of some other gases such as methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxides act like
a blanket and keep the Earth warm at night by blocking the heat radiation from the
Earth, as shown in the Figure 1.3 Therefore, they are called „„greenhouse effect‟‟
gases. In this case, the CO2 is the primary component.
The greenhouse effect makes human life on the planet Earth feasible by
keeping the Earth warm at about 30°C. However, excessive amounts of greenhouse
gases emitted by human being disturb the delicate balance by trapping too much
energy. This causes the average temperature of the Earth to rise and the climate
generally changes at some localities. These undesirable features of the greenhouse
effect are generally referred to as global warming or climate change.

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 Figure 1.3
The excessive use of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products and
natural gas in electric power generation, transportation and manufacturing
processes is responsible for global climate change. The present concentration of
CO2 in the atmosphere is about 416.39 ppm . This is 20 percent higher than the
level a century ago.Under normal conditions, vegetables consume CO2 and release
CO2 during the photosynthesis process, thus keeping the CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere in check. A mature growing tree consumes about 12 kg of CO2 a year
and exhales enough oxygen to support a family of four. However, deforestation and
the huge increase in CO2 production due to the fast growing industrialization in
recent decades have disturbed this balance.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM:

There is a growing concern worldwide on the use of fossil fuels for the
following reasons:
(a)There is ever-increasing use of fossil fuels. (b)Depletion
of fossil fuels is taking place at a rapid pace.
(c)Oil crisis that happened in 1973 during that year Organization of Petrol
Exporting Countries (OPEC) has put restriction on oil production and export,
they also started controlling strategy on oil price resulting in energy crisis
and steep rise in oil prices worldwide.
Owing to above reasons, more importance is being given to the
development of alternative sources of energy such as non-conventional, renewable
and environmental-friendly.

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The importance of non-conventional energy resources is also increasingly felt due
to the following reasons:
The demand of energy is rapidly increasing due to fast industrialization and
population growth. The conventional energy resources are insufficient to meet
such growing demand.
The conventional energy resources are non-renewable and these are depleting
fast.
The conventional energy resources cause pollution, thereby degrading the
environment.
The projects to harness large hydro resources affect wildlife, cause
deforestation and affect nearby villagers due to submerging of a vast area.
Fossil fuels are also used as raw materials in the chemical industry. There is
need to conserve fossil fuels for future generation.
It is important to explore and develop renewable energy resources to reduce
excessive dependence on Non-Renewable resources. The present trend is to
develop Renewable resources to serve as supplement rather than alternative for
Non-Renewable Resources.

1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NON-

RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM:
Advantages:
Cost: At present these are cheaper than Renewable sources.
Security: As storage is easy and convenient, by storing certain quantity, the
energy availability can be ensured for certain period.
Convenience: These sources are very convenient to use as technology for
their conversion and use is universally available.
Disadvantages:
Fossil fuels generate pollutants. Main pollutants generated in the use of these
sources are CO, CO2, NOx, SOx, particulate matter and heat. These pollutants
degrade the environment, pose health hazards and cause various other
problems. CO2 is mainly responsible for global warming also.
Coal is used as raw material for various chemical, pharmaceuticals and paints,
etc. industries. From long-term point of view it is desirable to conserve coal
for future needs.
There are safety and technical issues with nuclear energy. Major problems
associated with nuclear energy are as follows:
The waste material generated in nuclear plants has radioactivity of
dangerous level. Its safe disposal, which is essential to prevent
radioactive pollution, is a challenging task. Also the disposed radioactive
waste is required to be guarded for a long period (till its radioactivity level
comes down to a safe limit) in order to prevent against going in wrong
hands.

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 Possibility of accidental leakage of radioactive material from reactor
Uranium resource, for which the technology presently exists, has limited
availability.
Sophisticated technology is required for using nuclear resources. Only
few countries possess the required expertise to use nuclear energy.
Hydroelectric plants are cleanest but large hydro-reservoirs cause following
problems:
As large land area submerges into water, it leads to deforestation
Causes ecological disturbances such as earthquakes
Affects wild life
Causes dislocation of large population and their rehabilitation Problems
1.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE
ENERGY SYSTEM:
Advantages:
These sources of energy are renewable and there is no threat of depletion.
These persist in nature and are in-exhaustible.
Don‟t have any fuel cost and hence negligible running cost.
Renewable are more site specific and are used for local processing and
application. There is no need for transmission and distribution of power.
Renewable have low energy density and more or less there is no pollution or
ecological balance problem.
Most of the devices and plants used with the renewable are simple in design
and construction which are made from local materials, local skills and by local
people. The use of renewable energy can help to save foreign exchange and
generate local employment.
The rural areas and remote villages can be better served with locally available
renewable sources of energy. There will be huge savings from transporting
fuels or transmitting electricity from long distances.
Disadvantages:
Low energy density of renewable sources of energy need large sizes of plant
resulting in increased cost of delivered energy.
Intermittency and lack of dependability are the main disadvantages of
renewable energy sources.
Low energy density also results in lower operating temperatures and hence
low efficiencies.
Although renewables are essentially free, there is definite cost effectiveness
associated with its conversion and utilization.
Much of the construction materials used for renewable energy devices are
themselves very energy intensive.
The low efficiency of these plants can result in large heat rejections and
hence thermal pollution.
The renewable energy plants use larger land masses.

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1.6 TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEM:

Solar
Ocean
Thermal
Energy Wind
Conversion
(OTEC)
Types of
Renewable
Ocean Energy Biomass
Wave
System

Ocean Tidal Geothermal

1.6.1 Solar Energy:

Solar energy is energy derived from sun in the form of solar radiation. It is
hardness by either direct sources (like solar cooker, solar steam systems, solar
dryer, solar cells, etc.), or indirect sources (biomass production, wind, tidal, etc.).
The output of the sun is 2.8 x 1023 Kw per Year. The energy reaching the earth is
1.5x 108 Kw per Year. It is used for drying, cooking, heating, generating power etc.
Advantages
Almost limitless source of energy
Solar energy is available freely in nature
Does not produce air pollution
Disadvantages
It is available only during daytimes and clear days
Solar energy obtainable also depends on seasonal variations
It requires a large area to entrap appreciable solar energy for the generation
of an economical amount of electricity.

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1.6.2 Wind Energy:
Wind is induced in atmosphere by uneven heating of earth‟s surface by the
sun. The wind energy can be used to run windmill, which in turn will drive a
generator to produce electric power or run water pumps. The energy available in
the wind is about 1.5*107
Advantages
Renewable
It is freely and abundantly available in nature
Relatively inexpensive to generate
Does not produce air pollution
Windmills require minimal maintenance and operating cost
Disadvantages
Only suitable in windy areas
Produces less energy
Wind mill is big, bulky and inconvenient to use as compared to other forms
of energy
1.6.3 Biomass:
Organic material made from plants and animals (microorganisms).
Biomass has an existing capacity of over 7,000 MW. Biomass as a fuel consists of
organic matter such as industrial waste, agricultural waste, wood, and bark.
Biomass can also be used indirectly, since it produces methane gas as it decays or
through a modern process called gasification. Methane can produce power by
burning in a boiler to create steam to drive steam turbines or through internal
combustion in gas turbines and reciprocating engines.

Advantages
It's a Clean & Renewable Energy Source
It Reduces Soil & Water Pollution
Cleaner burning than oil
Abundant
Disadvantages
It is dispersed and land intensive source
Produces smoke
It has low energy density

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1.6.4 Geothermal:
Geothermal energy is energy derived by tapping the heat of the earth itself
like volcano, geysers, hot springs (etc.). These volcanic features are called
geothermal hotspots. Basically a hotspot is an area of reduced thickness in the
mantle which expects excess internal heat from the interior of the earth to the outer
crust. The heat from these geothermal hotspots is altered in the form of steam
which is used to run a steam turbine that can generate electricity.

Advantages
Reliable and Sustainable
Environmentally friendly
It has a good potential to meet the power requirement
Disadvantages
High cost of investment
Emission of greenhouse gases during extraction of heat from ground.
Groundwater is likely to be polluted from gaseous effluents
Components of the plants are liable to be corroded

1.6.5 Ocean Tidal:

Tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained
from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. Tides are defined as the
rise and fall of sea level caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun
on the Earth. They are not only limited to the oceans, but can also occur in other
systems whenever a gravitational field exists

Advantages
It is free from pollution
The tidal basin can also be used for fish farming
It is best suited to meet peak power demands
It is superior to hydel energy as it does not depend on rains
Disadvantages
Tidal power plant is costly compared to thermal and hydel power plants
Limited locations are available for the construction of tidal power stations
Power generation is not continuous and depends on the capacity of tidal
basin

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1.6.6 Ocean Wave:
Wave energy, also known as ocean energy is defined as energy harnessed
from oceanic waves. As the wind blows across the surface of the ocean, it creates
waves and thus they can also be referred to as energy moving across the surface
of the water.

Advantages
Running cost is negligible
Continuous power supply
Disadvantages
Low efficiency
High installation cost

1.6.7 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC):

Ocean thermal energy (OTE) is the temperature differences (thermal
gradients) between ocean surface waters and that of ocean depths. Energy from
the sun heats the surface water of the ocean. In tropical regions, surface water can
be much warmer than deep water. This temperature difference can be used to
produce electricity and to desalinate ocean water

Advantages
Power generation is continuous throughout the year.
Energy is available from nature at no cost.
Disadvantages
It has a small temperature gradient which gives a small thermodynamic
efficiency.
Capital cost is high due to necessity of heat exchanger, boiler and condenser.

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1.7 INDIAN ENERGY SENERIO:

The economic development of the country is strongly depends on its energy

utilization. Presently, India ranks as the world‟s third largest producer. This country
is also the world‟s third largest energy consumer. The total energy production in
India is 371054 MW (as on 30.6.2020) out of which 35.90% i.e 1, 33,368 MW of
energy is generated by renewable energy and 64% i.e 2, 37,686 MW. The
conventional energy production has been dominated by Coal. The graph given
below has shown the total power production as on date.

In 1982, a separate Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources

(DNES) was created in the Ministry of Energy to look after all the aspects relating
to New and Renewable Energy. The Department was upgraded into a separate
Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in 1992 and was
rechristened as Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), in October 2006.

Sector Wise Renewable Energy Mw (As on 31.12.2019)

37505
33712

9861
4672
140

Wind Solar Small Hydo Biopower Waste to

Energy

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1.7.1.1 Solar Energy:
National Solar Mission (NSM), launched on 11th January, 2010, had set a
target for development and deployment of 20 GW solar power by the year 2022.
The Cabinet in its meeting held on 17/6/2015 had approved revision of target under
NSM from 20 GW to 100 GW.
This scheme covered large solar power plants of total 1,000 MW capacity
connected to grid at 33 kV and above - 500 MW capacity each based on Solar
Thermal (ST) and Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) technologies. It included three stages:
(i) Migration Scheme (ii) NSM Phase-I, Batch-I and (iii) NSM Phase-I, Batch-II.

Figure 1.7 Top Ten states in Solar Power Production (As on 31.12.19)
1.7.1.2 Wind Energy:
India‟s wind energy sector is led by indigenous wind power industry and
has shown consistent progress. The expansion of the wind industry has resulted in
a strong ecosystem, project operation capabilities and manufacturing base of about
10,000 MW per annum. The country currently has the fourth highest wind installed
capacity in the world with total installed capacity of 37.50 GW (as on 31st December,
2019)

1.7.1.3 Biomass:
Ministry has been promoting Biomass Power and Biogases Co-generation
Programme with the aim to recover energy from biomass including biogases,
agricultural residues such as shells, husks, de-oiled cakes and wood from dedicated
energy plantations for power generation. A new scheme to support promotion of
biomass based cogeneration in sugar mills and other industries has been notified.

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 The potential for power generation from agricultural and agro-industrial
residues is estimated at about 18,000 MW. With progressive higher steam
temperature and pressure and efficient project configuration in new sugar mills and
modernization of existing ones, the potential of surplus power generation through
biogases cogeneration in sugar mills is estimated at around 8,000 MW. Thus the
total estimated potential for biomass power is about 26,000 MW.
Over 500 biomass power and cogeneration projects with aggregate capacity
of 9186.50 MW have been installed in the country up to December 2019.

1.7.1.4 Green Energy Corridor:

In order to facilitate integration of large scale renewable generation capacity
addition, the Cabinet Committee of Economic Affairs (CCEA) in FY 2015- 16,
approved the creation of Intra-state Transmission System in the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, rich in renewable resource potential and where large
capacity renewable power projects are planned, at an estimated cost of
Rs.10,141.68 crore with Government of India contribution of Rs.4056.67 crore.
The activities envisaged under the project includes establishment of Grid
sub-stations of different voltage levels with aggregate transformation capacity of
approx. 22600 Mega Volt Ampere (MVA) and installation of approx. 9700 circuit
kilometers (ckm) of transmission lines in these eight states. The creation of the
Intra-State Transmission System will facilitate the evacuation of over 20 GW of
power from renewable energy generation stations to load centers. The project is
anticipated to be completed by 2021 with funding mechanism consisting of 40%
Central Grant, 40% KfW loan (Euro 500 million) and the remaining 20 percent as
State contribution

1.7.2 World Energy Scenario:

The decade-long trend of strong growth in renewable energy capacity
continued in 2018 with global additions of 171 GW, according to new data
released by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) on April 2,
2019.
A third of global power capacity is now based on renewable energy.
IRENA‟s annual Renewable Capacity Statistics 2019, the most
comprehensive, up-to-date and accessible figures on renewable energy
capacity indicates growth in all regions of the world, although at varying
speeds.
While Asia accounted for 61% of total new renewable energy installations
and grew installed renewable capacity by 11.4%, growth was fastest in
Oceania that witnessed a 17.7% rise in 2018. Africa‟s 8.4% growth put it in
third place just behind Asia.
Nearly two-thirds of all new power generation capacity added in 2018 was
from renewables, led by emerging and developing economies.

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IRENA‟s analysis also compared the growth in generation capacity of
renewables versus nonrenewable energy, mainly fossil-fuels and nuclear.
While non-renewable generation capacity has decreased in Europe, North
America, and Oceania by about 85 GW since 2010, it has increased in both
Asia and the Middle East over the same period.
Net electricity generation (to the grid) in countries that are not part of the
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) increases
an average of 2.3% per year from 2018 to 2050, compared with 1.0% per
year in OECD countries.
Renewable (including hydropower) are the fastest-growing source of
electricity generation during the 2018 to 2050 period, rising by an average of
3.6% per year. Technological improvements and government incentives in
many countries support their increased use.
By 2050, China, India, OECD Europe, and the United States have almost
75% of the world‟s renewable generation. Growth in these regions results
from both policy and, in the case of India and China, increasing demand for
new sources of generation.
Natural gas generation grows by an average of 1.5% per year from 2018 to
2050, and nuclear generation grows by 1.0% per year. The level of coal-fired
generation remains relatively stable, but its share of electricity generation
declines from 35% in 2018 to 22% by 2050 as total generation increases.
By 2025, in the Reference case, renewable surpasses coal as the primary
source for electricity generation, and by 2050, renewable account for almost
half of total world electricity generation.
With modest growth, hydropower‟s share of renewable generation falls from
62% in 2018 to 28% in 2050 because resource availability in OECD countries
and environmental concerns in many countries limit the number of new mid-
and large-scale projects.
Generation from non-hydropower renewable increases an average of 5.7%
per year from 2018 to 2050. By 2050, China, India, OECD Europe, and the
United States are responsible for more than 80% of the world‟s non-
hydropower renewable generation.
Among renewable energy sources, electricity generation from wind and solar
resources increase the most between 2018 and 2050, reaching 6.7 trillion
and 8.3 trillion kilowatt-hours (kWh), respectively, as these technologies
become more cost competitive and are supported by government policies in
many countries.
By 2050, wind and solar account for over 70% of total renewable generation.

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UNIT-II
WIND ENERGY
 Notes

2.1 POWER IN WIND

Wind has kinetic energy due to its motion. This kinetic energy can be given by,

Where,
= mass of air passing through an area A per unit time
If uo is the speed of free wind in unperturbed state,
the volume of air column passing through an area A per unit time is given by
Auo.
If ρ is the density of air,
the air mass flow rate, through area A, is given as, ρAuo.

Power (Po) available in wind, is equal to kinetic energy rate associated with the
mass of moving air,

i.e.:

(Or)

Power available in wind per unit area:

This indicates that power available in wind is proportional to the cube of wind
speed.
The air density ρ varies in direct proportion with air pressure and inverse
proportion with temperature as:

14
Where,
P is air pressure in Pa,
T is air temperature in kelvin and
R is the gas constant, (= 287 J/kg K).
At the standard value of air pressure, 1.0132 × 105 Pa
(i.e. 1 atmosphere), and at 15 °C, the value of air density,

Assuming the above value of wind density, ρ at 15 °C and at sea level,

the power available in moderate wind of 10 m/s is 613 W/m2.

2.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Chord - Width of the blade or distance from one edge (fore) of the blade to the
other (aft)

Wind Velocity, uo - Velocity of free air in the neighborhood of wind turbine (at
a distance where the disturbances due to rotation of turbine does not reach)

Incident Wind Velocity, u1 - Velocity of air passing through the rotor, i.e. the
velocity at which the wind strikes the blade, which is slightly less than uo

Blade Element Linear Velocity, v - Linear circumferential velocity of the blade

element due to rotation of blade

Relative Wind Velocity, vr - Velocity of air relative to the blade element as both
the air and blade elements move
Angular Speed, ω Angular speed of rotor in rad/s

15
 Angle of Attack (or Angle of Incidence), α - Angle between central line of the
blade element and relative wind velocity vr

Blade Setting Angle (or Pitch Angle), γ - Angle between central line of the
blade element and direction of linear motion of the blade element or angle between
relative wind velocity vr and normal to the plane of blade

Drag Force, ΔFD Incremental force acting on the blade element in the direction
of relative velocity of wind

Lift Force, ΔFL Incremental force acting on the blade element in a direction
perpendicular to the relative velocity of wind

Axial Force, ΔFA - Incremental force acting on the blade element along the axis
of rotation of blade

Tangential Force, ΔFT - Incremental force acting on the blade element

tangential to circular path of rotation

Solidity - Solidity is defined as the ratio of the projected area of the rotor blades
on the rotor plane to the swept area of the rotor.

➢ High-solidity rotors use drag force for rotation and these rotors turns lower
➢ Low-solidity rotors have slender aerofoil blades and these rotors use lift
force for rotation, thus turns faster
projected area of the rotor blades
Solidity = -----------------------------------------
swept area of the rotor

n x blade width
= ----------------------
π r2
Where

n - number of blades
r - radius

16
 A windmill has rotor of 6m with 30 blades. Each blade has width of
0.3m, find the solidity. What is the implication of solidity?
projected area of the rotor blades
Solidity =
swept area of the rotor

n x blade width
=
π r2

Where,

n - number of blades
r - radius
30 x 0.3
Solidity = ------------------- x 100 % = 7.96 %
π x 62

Tip – speed ratio (λ)

It is defined as the ratio of the speed of tip of the rotor blade to the speed of on
coming air.

speed of tip of the rotor blade

Tip – speed ratio (λ) = -----------------------------------------
speed of on coming air

ω*R
Tip – speed ratio (λ) = -----------------------------------------
v0
17
Significance of Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)
The importance of tip-speed ratio can be realized with the following
discussions for a particular wind generator:
1. If the blade set spins too slowly, then most of the wind will pass by the rotor
without being captured by the blades.
2. If the blades spin too fast, then the blades will always be traveling through used
or turbulent wind. This is because the blades will always be traveling through a
location that the blade in front of it just travelled through (and used up all the wind
in that location). It is important that enough time lapses between two blades
traveling through the same location so that new or unused wind can enter this
location. Thus, the next blade that passes through this location will be able to
harness fresh or unused wind.

In short, if the blades are too slow, they are not capturing all the wind they
could and if they are too fast, then the blades are spinning through used or turbulent
wind. For this reason, TSRs are employed when designing wind turbines so that the
maximum amount of energy can be extracted from the wind using a particular
generator.

There are many important conclusions one can draw from analysing TSR.
Following is a few of the most basic and important points:
1. Rotors with many blades (i.e., 11 blades) are generally not a good idea. An 11-
bladed rotor would have an optimal TSR that is very low. This means that an 11-
bladed rotor would operate most efficiently at extremely low rpms. Because nearly
all generators (permanent magnet alternators) are not optimized for extremely low
rpms, there is no advantage or reason to use a rotor with many blades. It should
also be remembered that rotors with more number of blades are capturing used or
turbulent wind at high TSR and are, thus, extremely inefficient if used as a high-
rpm blade set. This is a very important point because many people intuitively think
that more blades equal a faster and more efficient blade set. However, the laws of
physics say that this is not true.
2. If one already has a generator or a motor and it requires high rpm to reach
charging voltage, then the best choice is a two or three-bladed rotor. These rotors
operate more efficiently at high rpm. Further, it is necessary keep the blades as
short as pragmatically possible because shorter blades obviously spin faster than
the longer blades.

18
 The following are the disadvantages of a high TSR:
1. Blade tips operating at 80 m/s or greater are subject to leading edge erosion
from dust and sand particles and would require special leading edge treatments like
helicopter blades to mitigate such damage;
2. Noise, both audible and inaudible, is generated;
3. Vibration, especially in two- or one-bladed rotors;
4. Reduced rotor efficiency due to drag and tip losses;
5. Higher speed rotors require much larger braking systems to prevent the rotor
from reaching a runaway condition that can cause disintegration of the turbine rotor
blades.

Find the tip speed ratio if a 6m diameter rotor has rotation of 20rpm and
the wind speed is 4 m/s. what is the implication of tip speed ratio?

ω*R
Tip – speed ratio (λ) = ---------------------
v0

Where, ω = 2 πN / 60 - angular velocity

R - radius of rotor
v0 - wind velocity – N – rpm

2 πN / 60 * R
Tip – speed ratio (λ) = ---------------------
v0

2 π*20 * 3
λ = ---------------- = 1.6
60 *4
λ = 3 to 10 -- 2 or 3 bladed rotors – rotate faster
λ = 1 to 2 -- more bladed rotors – rotate slowly

19
2.3 TYPES OF WIND POWER PLANTS (WPPs)
The wind has its kinetic energy as it nothing but the flow of atmospheric
air. A wind turbine is a machine which utilizes the kinetic energy of wind to produce
rotational mechanical energy in its shaft.
The rotational motion of the shaft turns an electrical generator to generate
electricity. There are mainly two types of wind turbine available one is the horizontal
axis type another is vertical axis type.
The turbines are also available in different sizes depending upon their
mode of applications.
In many places of the modern world, people use small-sized wind turbines
to charge batteries for auxiliary power supply to boats, caravans etc.
Many electric utility companies use medium-sized wind turbines to supply a
portion of the domestic load when sufficient wind is available so that they can sale
back the surplus demanded power to the electrical grid.
The stock of fossil fuels on that planet is becoming nil day by day, so there
is a significant need for renewable sources of energy to produce electricity to meet
up the on-growing demand for electricity.
The wind power generating station is one of the solutions for that. The wind
power generating stations, use many giant wind turbines to produce required
electricity.
The wind turbines can have either horizon shaft or vertical shaft depending
on their design criteria. The horizontal design is more common as it produces more
power compared to a vertical one.
Wind turbines are broadly classified into two categories.
When the axis of rotation is parallel to the air stream (i.e. horizontal), the
turbine is said to be a Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT), and
when it is perpendicular to the air stream (i.e. vertical), it is said to be a
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT).
The size of the rotor and its speed depends on rating of the turbine.

2.3.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

HAWTs have emerged as the most successful type of turbines. These are
being used for commercial energy generation in many parts of the world. Their
theoretical basis is well researched and sufficient field experience is available with
them.
2.3.1.1. Main Components
The constructional details of most common, three-blade rotor, horizontal
axis wind turbine are shown in Fig. Main parts are as follows:

20
 Figure 2.1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

(a) Turbine Blades

Turbine blades are made of high-density wood or glass fiber and epoxy
composites. They have airfoil type cross-section. The blades are slightly twisted
from the outer tip to the root to reduce the tendency to stall.
In addition to centrifugal force and fatigue due to continuous vibrations
there are many extraneous forces arising from wind turbulence, gust, gravitational
forces and directional changes in the wind, etc. All these factors are to be taken
care off at the designing stage. Diameter of a typical, MW range, modern rotor may
be of the order of 100 m.
Modern wind turbines have two or three blades. Two/three blade rotor
HAWT are also known as propeller type wind turbines owing to their similarity with
propellers of old aero planes. However, the rotor rpm in case of wind turbine is very
low as compared to that for propellers. The relative merits and demerits of two and
three blade rotors are as follows:

(i) Compared to two-blade design, the three-blade machine has smoother power
output and balanced gyroscopic force.
(ii) There is no need to teeter (to be discussed later in this section) the rotor,
allowing the use of simple rigid hub. The blades may be cross-linked for greater
rigidity.
(iii) Adding third blade increases the power output by about 5 per cent only, while
the weight and cost of rotor increases by 50 per cent, thus giving a diminished rate
of return for additional 50 per cent weight and cost.

21
(iv) The two-blade rotor is also simpler to erect, since it can be assembled on ground
and lifted to the shaft without complicated maneuvers during the lift. Three blades
are more common in Europe and other developing countries including India. The
American practice, however, is in favour of two blades.

(b) Hub
The central solid portion of the rotor wheel is known as hub. All blades ate
attached to the hub. Mechanism for pitch angle control is also provided inside the
hub.
(c) Nacelle
The term nacelle is derived from the name for housing containing the
engines of an aircraft. The rotor is attached to nacelle, mounted at the top of a
tower.
It contains rotor brakes, gearbox, generator and electrical switchgear and
control.
Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power generation is not desired.
Gearbox steps up the shaft rpm to suit the generator. Protection and control
functions are provided by switchgear and control block. The generated electrical
power is conducted to ground terminals through a cable.
(d) Yaw Control Mechanism
The mechanism to adjust the nacelle around vertical axis to keep it facing
the wind is provided at the base of nacelle.
(e) Tower
Tower supports nacelle and rotor. For medium and large sized turbines, the
tower is slightly taller than the rotor diameter. In case of small sized turbine, the
tower is much larger than the rotor diameter as the air is erratic at lower heights.
Both steel and concrete towers are being used. The construction can be
either tubular or lattice type.
The tower vibrations and resulting fatigue cycles under wind speed
fluctuations are avoided by careful design. This requires avoidance of all resonance
frequencies of tower, the rotor and the nacelle from the wind fluctuation
frequencies.
2.3.1.2. Types of Rotors
Depending on the number of blades, wind speed and nature of applications,
rotors have been developed in various types of shapes and sizes. These are shown
in Fig.2.2.The types of rotors shown in (a) to (e) are relatively high-speed ones,
suitable for applications such as electrical power generation. Large HAWTs have
been manufactured with two and three blades. A single-blade rotor, with a
balancing counterweight is economical, has simple controls but it is noisier and
produces unbalanced forces. It is used for low-power applications.

22
Those given in Fig. (f) and (g) are low-speed rotors and most suited for water
lifting applications, which require high starting torque. They can capture power
even from very slow winds.

Figure 2.2. Various Types of HAWT

2.3.1.3. Teetering of Rotor
As wind speed rises with height, the axial force on blade when it attains the upper
position is significantly higher as compared to that when it is at lower position. For
one and two blade rotors this causes cyclic (sinusoidal) load on a rigid hub leading
to fatigue.

Figure 2.3. A teetered hub

23
This is greatly relieved by providing a teeter hinge (a pivot within the hub) that
allows a see-saw motion to take place out of the plane of rotation (i.e. vertical
plane). The rotor leans backwards to accommodate the extra force as shown in Fig.
This also reduces blade loads near the root by approximately 40 per cent. The use
of third blade has approximately same effect as a teeter hinge on the hub moments
since the polar symmetry of the rotor averages out the applied sinusoidal loads.
Therefore, teetering is not required when the number of blades is three or more.
2.3.1.4. Upwind and Downwind Machines
In upwind machine, rotor is located upwind (in front) of the tower whereas
in downwind machine, the rotor is located downwind of (behind) the tower as
shown in Fig.2.4 Both types have certain benefits. Downwind machine allows the
use of free yaw system (in low rating machines). It also allows the blades to deflect
away from the tower when loaded. However, it suffers from wind shadow effects of
the tower on the blades as they pass through tower‘s wake, in a region of separated
flow.

For a high solidity tower with limited rotor overhang, the wind speed might
be effectively reduced to zero causing severe impulsive load of periodic nature.
This may be very dangerous as it may excite any natural mode of the
systems if that lies near a rotor Upwind machine on the other hand produces higher
power as it eliminates the tower shadow on the blades. This also results in lower
noise, low blade fatigue and smoother power output.

Figure 2.4. Yaw control in upwind and downwind machines

24
2.3.1.5. Yaw Control System
Adjusting the nacelle about vertical axis to bring the rotor facing the wind is known
as yaw control.
The yaw control system continuously orients the rotor in the direction of wind. For
localities with prevailing wind in one direction only, the rotor can be in a fixed
orientation. Such a machine is said to be yaw fixed. Most wind turbines however,
are yaw active.
In small wind turbines, a tail vane is used for passive yaw control. In large turbines
however, an active yaw control with power steering and wind direction sensor is
used to maintain the orientation.
2.3.1.6. Pitch Control System
Pitch of a blade is controlled by rotating it from its root, where it is connected to
the hub as shown in Fig. 2.5
Pitch control mechanism is provided through the hub using hydraulic jack in the
nacelle. The control system continuously adjusts the pitch to obtain optimal
performance. In modern machines, pitch control is incorporated by controlling only
outer 20 per cent length of the blade (i.e. tip), keeping remaining part of the blade
as fixed.

Figure 2.5. Pitch control

2.3.2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)
VAWTs are in the development stage and many models are undergoing
field trial.
Main attractions of a VAWT are:
(i) it can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need of yaw control.
(ii) gearbox, generator etc. are located at the ground, thus eliminating the heavy
nacelle at the top of the tower. This simplifies the design and installation of the
whole structure, including tower
iii) the inspection and maintenance also gets easier and
(iv) it also reduces the overall cost

25
2.3.2.1. Main Components
The constructional details of a vertical axis wind turbine (Darrieus type
rotor) are shown in fig. The details of main components are as follows,
(a) Tower (or Rotor Shaft)
The tower is a hollow vertical rotor shaft, which rotates freely about vertical
axis between top and bottom bearings. It is installed above a support structure. In
the absence of any load at the top, a very strong tower is not required, which
greatly simplifies its design. The upper part of the tower is supported by guy ropes.
The height of the tower of a large turbine is around 100 m.
(b) Blades
It has two or three thin, curved blades shaped like an eggbeater in profile,
with blades curved in a form that minimizes the bending stress caused by centrifugal
forces-the so-called ‗Troposkien‘ profile.
The blades have airfoil cross section with constant chord length. The pitch
of the blades cannot be changed.
The diameter of the rotor is slightly less than the tower height.
The first large (3.8 MW), Darrieus type, Canadian machine has rotor
height as 94 m and diameter as 65 m with a chord of 2.4 m.

Figure 2.6. Vertical axis wind (Darrieus) turbine

26
2.3.2.2. Types of Rotors
Various types or rotors for VAWTs are shown in Fig.
The simplest being three or four cups structure attached symmetrically to a
vertical shaft.
Drag force on concave surface of the cup facing the wind is more than that on
convex surface.
As a result, the structure starts rotating. Some lift force also helps rotation.
However, it cannot carry a load and is, therefore, not used as power source.
Main characteristic of this rotor is that its rotational frequency is linearly related to
wind speed.
Therefore, it is used as a transducer for measuring the wind speed and the
apparatus is known as cup anemometer.
The Savonius or S-rotor consists of two half cylinders attached to a vertical axis
and facing in opposite directions to form a two-vaned rotor. It has high starting
torque, low speed and low efficiency.
It can extract power even from very slow wind, making it working most of the time.
These are used for low power applications. High starting torque particularly makes
it suitable for pumping applications, using positive displacement pumps.

Figure 2.7. Various types or rotors for VAWT

27
Darrieus rotor is used for large-scale power generation. Power coefficient is
considerably better than S-rotor. It runs at a large tip-speed ratio.
The aerodynamic force on the blade reverses in every revolution causing fatigue.
This along with centrifugal force complicates the design of the blade.
One of the drawbacks of this rotor is that it is usually not self-starting. Movement
may be initiated by using electrical generator as motor.
As the pitch of the blade cannot change, the rotor frequency and thus the output
power cannot be controlled. Rotor frequency increases with wind speed and power
output keeps on increasing till the blades stall.
Hence at high wind speed it becomes difficult to control the output. For better
performance and safety of the blades, gearbox and generator, etc., it is desirable
to limit the output to a level much below its maximum possible value.
Musgrove suggested H shaped rotor where blades with fixed pitch are attached
vertically to a horizontal cross arm.
Power control is achieved by controlled folding of blades. Inclining the blades to the
vertical provides an effective means of altering the blades angle of attack and hence
controlling the power output.

Evans rotor, also known as Gyromill is an improvement over H shaped rotor.

Here, the rotor geometry remains fixed (blades remain straight), but the blades are
hinged on a vertical axis and the blade pitch is varied cyclically (as the blade rotates
about vertical axis) to regulate the power output.
But the need to vary the pitch cyclically through every rotor revolution introduces
considerable mechanical complexity. However, this enables it to self-start.

28
 2.3.3.Types and characteristics of various types of rotors (HAWT &
VAWT) are given in Table.

TIP
SPEED
ROTOR RPM
S.No RATIO TORQUE TYPICAL LOAD
TYPE

Propeller
Electric Power
(1–3 blade)
1 6–20 High Low generation
(Lift)

Electric Power
Sailwing
2 4 Moderate Moderate generation or pump
(Lift)

Chalk multi- Electric Power

3 blade 3–4 Moderate Moderate generation or pump
(Lift)
American
1 Pump
4 multiblade Low High
(Drag)
Dutch type
5 2–3 Low High Pump
(Drag)
Savonious
6 1 Low High Pump
(Drag)
Darrieus Electric Power
7 5–6 High Low
(Lift) generation
Musgrove Electric Power
8 and Evan 3–4 Moderate Moderate generation or pump
(Lift)

Characteristics of various types of rotors

29
2.3.4. Effect of Solidity
High solidity rotors use drag force and turn slower.
Solidity of Savonious rotor is unity and that of American multi-blade rotor it is
typically 0.7.
Low solidity rotors, on the other hand, use lift force. Lift devices usually have
solidity in the range of 0.01 to 0.1.
They have slender airfoil blades. When solidity is less than 0.1, the device will
usually not start up without first being rotated to generate lift.

2.3.5. Horizontal Axis versus Vertical Axis Turbines

Most wind turbines, used at present are of horizontal axis type. They have been
well researched and have gone through extensive field trial.
As a result, well-established technology is available for HAWTs.
Some advantages of VAWT have recently generated considerable interest in this
type of turbine. These are: (i) it can accept wind from any direction without
adjustment, which avoids the cost and complexity of yaw orientation system, (ii)
gearing and generators, etc., are located at ground level, which simplifies the design
of tower, the installation and subsequent inspection and maintenance and
(iii) also they are less costly as compared to HAWTs.
The principal disadvantages of VAWTs are:
(i) many vertical axis machines have suffered from fatigue arising from numerous
natural resonances in the structure,
(ii) rotational torque from the wind varies periodically within each cycle, and thus
unwanted power periodicities appear at the output,
(iii) it normally requires guy ropes attached to the top for support, which could
limit its applications particularly for offshore sites,
(iv) it is noisier than HAWT,
(v) as wind speed increases significantly with height, for the same tower height
HAWT captures more power than VAWT and
(vi) the technology is under development stage and far less is known about them
as compared to HAWTs.

2.3.6. Speed Control Strategies for Wind Turbine

Various options are available for speed control of a turbine. The particular control
strategy depends on the size of the turbine. Small machines use simple, low cost
methods while large machines use more sophisticated methods incorporating pitch
control along with power electronic circuit.

30
These methods may be grouped in the following categories:
(i) No speed control at all. Various components of the entire system are designed
to withstand extreme speed under gusty wind.
(ii) Yaw and tilt control, in which the rotor axis is shifted out of wind direction,
either by yaw control or by tilting the rotor plane with respect to normal vertical
plane when the wind exceeds the design limit.
(iii) Pitch control, in which the pitch of the rotor blades is controlled to regulate the
speed.
(iv) Stall control, in which the blades are shifted to a position such that they stall
when wind speed exceeds the safe limit.

2.3.7.Wind Turbine Operation and Power versus Wind Speed

Characteristics
The power-speed characteristics of a wind turbine have four separate regions as
shown in Fig.
(a) Low Speed Region (Zero to Cut-in Speed)
In this region, the turbine is kept in braked position till minimum wind speed (about
5 m/s), known as cut-in speed becomes available. Below this speed the operation
of the turbine is not efficient.
(b) Maximum Power Coefficient Region
In this region, rotor speed is varied with wind speed so as to operate it at constant
tip-speed ratio, corresponding to maximum power coefficient, CP max. In this range
the nature of characteristics is close to that of maximum power available in the wind
as given by Equation.

The turbine is operated at maximum power output point using pitch control.

Figure 2.8. Power versus wind speed characteristics

31
(c) Constant Power Region (Constant Turbine Speed Region) During highspeed
winds (above 12 m/s), the rotor speed is limited to upper permissible value based
on the design limits of system components. In this region the power coefficient is
lower than CP max. Large machines use pitch control to maintain turbine speed as
constant. Such a machine is known as pitch regulated.
Classical European machines use fixed blades (constant pitch) and the blade twist
and thickness are so designed as to crudely maintain the speed as constant. Such
a machine is known as stall regulated.
This is a simple system requiring only passive technique, as there are no moving
blade surfaces or complicated hardware. However, power capture is somewhat less
due to rounding of power curve.
In case of fixed blades rotor, the flow over the blade stalls. The stall performance
depends on the twist of blade tip from the root and thickness of blade sections. The
lift and drag coefficients change so as to flatten out the peak of the power curve.
Thus the power output of the wind turbine is limited as shown in Fig. Stall regulation
can be used without much problem up to about 25 m diameter rotor. Above this
size severe vibration problems, associated with the stalled flow in high wind speeds,
have been encountered. Thus large HAWTs always have variable pitch control.
At still higher wind speeds, such as gusts, constant speed operation is maintained
by employing additional means such as some kind of braking (e.g. eddy current
braking).
(d) Furling Speed Region (Cut-out Speed and Above)
Beyond certain maximum value of wind speed (around 25 m/s) rotor is shut down
and power generation is stopped to protect the blades, generator and other
components of the system.

Figure 2.9. Power versus wind speed characteristics with stall regulation

32
2.4. COMPONENTS OF WIND POWER PLANTS

Wind energy systems include the following major components:

✓ the rotor and its blades

✓ the hub assembly
✓ the main shaft
✓ the gear box system
✓ main frame
✓ transmission
✓ yaw mechanism
✓ over speed protection
✓ electric generator
✓ Nacelle
✓ yaw drive
✓ power conditioning equipment
✓ Tower

33
INTRODUCTION
Early wind machines ranged in their rated powers from 50 to 100 kW, with rotor
diameters from 15 to 20 meters. Commercial wind turbines now have ratings over
1 MW and machines for the land based and offshore applications have rated power
outputs reaching 5 and even 7-10 MW of rated power for off-shore wind applications.
Larger sizes are mandated by two reasons. They are cheaper and they deliver more
energy. Their energy yield is improved partly because the rotor is located higher
from the ground and so intercepts higher velocity winds, and partly because they
are more efficient. The productivity of the 600 kW machines is around 50 percent
higher than that of the 55 kW machines. Reliability has improved steadily with wind
turbine manufacturers guaranteeing availabilities of 95 percent.
Wind energy systems include the following major components: the rotor and its
blades, the hub assembly, the main shaft, the gear box system, main frame,
transmission, yaw mechanism, overspeed protection, electric generator, nacelle,
yaw drive, power conditioning equipment, and tower.

2.4.1. NACELLE
The nacelle is the housing that protects the main frame and the components
attached to it. This enclosure is particularly important for wind electric systems, but
does not exist in water pumping machines.

Figure 2.10. Wind turbine components inside the nacelle

34
2.4.2. ROTOR DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
Rotor blade design has benefited from airplanes wind technology. It uses the
Bernoulli aerodynamic lift force that an airfoil feels in a moving stream or air. The
shape of the rotor blade and its angle of attack relative to the wind direction affects
its performance. The rotor assembly can be placed in two locations:
Upwind of the nacelle and tower receiving the wind stream unaffected by the tower‘s
presence.
Downwind of the tower which allows yawing or the self-alignment of the rotor in
facing the wind. However this arrangement deflects the wind causing a tower
shadow that consists of a turbulent wind stream reaching the rotor.
The rotors inherent mechanical properties and its design affect its useful service
lifetime. The latter is dependent on the variable loadings and the environmental
conditions during its operation.
The majority of the world's wind turbines have three glass reinforced plastic blades.
The power-train includes a low speed shaft, a step-up gearbox and an induction
generator, with either four or six poles. Gearless wind turbines with multi-pole
generators are increasingly replacing the gearbox-equipped machines. There are
numerous other possibilities, however. Wood epoxy is an alternative blade material
and some machines have two blades.

ROTOR MATERIALS

High speed wind machine rotors usually have blades with an airfoil cross section.
The blades are usually made of wood solid or laminated, fiberglass, or metal. Slower
machines usually use flat or curved metal plates or sails mounted on a spar.

The following materials have been considered for rotor design:

35
 Figure 2.11. Wood epoxy blade design

Figure 2.12. Composite wood epoxy blade construction

Figure 2.13. Fiber Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) blade section

36
Metals:
Aluminum and steel alloys have been used. The mechanical properties of steel are
well known. It has good fatigue strength. However, it is relatively dense so that steel
blades would be rather heavy. Their weight would cause large oscillatory gravity
loads on the rotor components and bearings. As the blades rotate, in their upward
position they press the components causing compression on the bearings, and in
their downward position they pull on the bearings causing tension. Steel has been
used for large turbine rotors using the spar and skin construction method.
For the same weight aluminum has better tensile properties than steel and at some
time was the favored blade construction material in the USA. It is versatile and can
be extruded and used in sheet form. Sheets are supported over ribs or a spar and
riveted into place. For this type of construction, the fatigue strength deteriorates
quickly in service leading to serious consequences when the stress amplitudes and
the number of cyclic loadings are large. These problems can be compounded with
flawed component design leading to catastrophic failure.

Wood:
This includes laminated wood composites. Wood has a natural composite structure
that has a low density, good strength and good fatigue resistance as nature has
developed in tree branches. Small turbine blades of up to 5 meters in length are
usually hand shaped or are machined from prepared lengths of solid wood using the
same technique used in manufacturing airplane propeller blades. These are then
varnished or painted for weather protection and their leading edge protected by an
epoxy resin impregnated tape that is also used on the leading edge of helicopter
blades.
An improved use of wood is to shape the blades from bonded layers of wood sheets
using composites technology. The blades are constructed from vacuum bonded
sheets glued with epoxy resin using a technique also used for the building of racing
boats and yachts. With the use of different types of wood and choosing the
appropriate direction of the grain, a composite wood material can be produced with
a good specific strength as well as flexural and fatigue resistance properties.

Synthetic composites:
These consist of a polyester or epoxy matrix that is reinforced with glass fibers. They
have the benefit of a low density compared to metals and good tensile properties.
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) blades are economical, strong, with moderate fatigue
properties. It is versatile in forming and can be laid up in female half-moulds using
glass fiber mats soaked in a polyester or epoxy resin, before the two airfoil halves
are glued together. Long term fatigue test data are not readily available for wind
turbine so the ultimate fatigue life of such blades is unknown.

37
The filament winding process developed to make projectile sabots and missile bodies
can be used for constructing rotor blades giving good strength and flexibility. A resin
soaked glass strand is wound around a form to make the airfoil shape and the box
shaped reinforcing spar.
Carbon and aramid fibers such as Kevlar reinforced composites offer the best
mechanical properties of all the blade materials. Their high performance is negated
by their costs leads to just a few manufacturers to use them. The aramid class of
materials is a cheaper route than carbon fibers and their material properties are a
compromise between expensive carbon fibers and cheaper glass. One major
advantage of the aramids is that unlike carbon fibers, they are non conducting to
electricity preventing the need for protection against lightning strikes,
electromagnetic interference and reflection, and galvanic corrosion which can occur
at the blade root and hub junction.

New materials:
Turbine blade technology is moving toward the adoption of composite materials.
Hybrid composite would offer a combination of the constitutive materials properties.
A wood and fiber and epoxy laminate would include good strength and fatigue
properties at a small weight. A laminated sheet material designated as ARALL has
been developed in Holland combining aluminum with thin aramid and epoxy layers,
exhibiting good fatigue crack growth and tensile strength properties. Hybrid
composites could compete in the future with conventional blade materials as their
production cost is reduced.
Self-healing and carbon or boron nitride nanotube reinforced materials are worthy
of investigation.

2.4.3. HUB ASSEMBLY AND MAIN SHAFT

The blades are attached by a hub assembly to a main shaft. The main shaft rotates
in bearings supported in the main frame. If the blades are designed for pitch control,
the hub can be fairly intricate. With fixed pitch, attachment is relatively simple
The main frame of the wind machine serves as the point of attachment for various
components, such as the main shaft, transmission, generator, and nacelle. It usually
contains a yaw bearing assembly.

38
Figure 2.14. Rotor blade root and bearing Figure 2.15. Hub with pitch change assembly
assembly

2.4.4. TRANSMISSION MECHANISM

A transmission assembly consisting of a gear box or chain drive is
required to properly match the rotational speed to the desired speed of the electric
generator, or air compressor because the rotational speed of the rotor does not match
that of the pump or electric generator to which it is to be connected.

2.4.5. YAW MECHANISM

Horizontal axis machines must be oriented to face the wind by a process
called yawing. Upwind machines with blades upwind of the tower incorporate instead
a tail vane, small yaw rotors or fantails, or a servo mechanism to ensure that the
machine always faces upwind.
Downwind machines with blades downwind of the tower have the blades
tilted slightly downwind or coned so that they simultaneously act as a tail; this angle
ensures proper orientation.
Vertical axis machines are affected by the wind from all directions and
thus do not need yaw control.

2.4.6. OVERSPEED PROTECTION

Wind machines must be protected from wind gusts. In some machines,
the blades can be turned around their long axis or pitch control and aligned so that
they do not produce any lift, hence no power. Stall control of the blades is also used
to reduce the lift on the blades.
Blades with fixed pitch often use brakes to slow the machine. The brakes
are either aerodynamic such as tip brakes, or mechanical such as disc brakes on the
main shaft. Other machines use various mechanical means to turn the rotor out of the
wind.

39
2.4.7. ELECTRIC GENERATOR
Variable speed machines are common and most generate power using an AC/DC/AC
system. Variable speed brings several advantages. It means that the rotor turns
more slowly in low wind, which keeps the noise level down. It reduces the loadings
on the rotor and the power conversion system is usually able to deliver current at
any specified power factor.
Some manufacturers build direct drive machines, without a gearbox. These are
usually of the variable speed type, with power conditioning equipment.
The electric generator in a wind machine is attached to the main support frame and
coupled to the high speed end of the transmission shaft. Alternating current
generators often run at 1,800 rpm in the USA or 1,500 rpm in much of the world to
maintain system frequencies of 60 Hz and 50 Hz, respectively. The most popular
types are:
For small independent wind systems, Direct Current (DC) generator alternators with
built-in rectifier diodes are often used to change AC to DC.
For larger independent systems, or those that are run in conjunction with a small
diesel electric grid, synchronous generators are common. These machines produce
Alternating Current (AC) and must be able to be regulated precisely, to ensure
proper frequency control and matching.
Wind machines connected to a utility grid may have induction generators. These
induction machines produce AC current, but are electrically much simpler to connect
to a grid than a synchronous generator. They normally require a utility connection
to maintain the proper frequency and cannot operate independently without special
equipment.

Figure 2.16. Wiring of three phase synchronous generator &

Induction three-phase asynchronous generator

40
2.4.8. ELECTRIC POWER CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT, INVERTER

The need for electrical equipment in addition to the generator will depend primarily
on the type of generator. For small DC systems, at least a voltage regulator is
needed. Battery storage is often used to provide energy in times of low winds.
An inverter to convert DC to AC is used if some of the load requires alternating
current.
Because the mains grid operates on AC current, it is important that the current fed
into the mains grid is properly synchronized. This is a key role of the inverter system.
The inverter system is also designed to cut the power to the mains grid in the event
that the mains grid connection is lost. This is a safety feature for the electrical utility
workers.
For grid connected systems, a control panel is needed that will typically include
circuit breakers, voltage relays, and reverse power relays. Synchronous machines
require special synchronizing equipment and frequency relays.

2.4.9. STRUCTURAL TOWER

A structural tower is needed to get the wind machine up into the air, away from the
slower and more turbulent winds near the ground. A wind machine should be at
least 10 m higher than any obstructions in the surroundings such as trees.
Small wind machines towers are typically of truss design or of poles supported by
guy wires. Guy wires are cables attached to the tower and anchored in the ground
so that the tower will not move or shake from the force of the wind.
Large wind machines towers are usually made of steel and the great majority is of
the tubular or conical type. Some towers have been built out of reinforced concrete
sections. Lattice or truss towers, common in the early days are now rare, except for
very small machines in the range 100 kW and below. Guyed pole towers are used
for small wind machines.
Towers must be designed to resist the full thrust produced by an operating windmill
or a stationary wind machine in a storm. Special concern must be given to the
possibility of destructive vibrations caused by a natural frequency mismatch between
the wind machine and tower.

41
2.5. WORKING INTRODUCTION

Wind is a form of kinetic energy created in part by the sun. About two percent of
the sun's energy that reaches the earth is converted to wind energy.
The atmosphere is heated during the day by the sun and at night it cools by losing
its heat to space. Wind is the reaction of the atmosphere to the heating and cooling
cycles, as well as the rotation of the earth.
Heat causes low pressure areas, and the cool of the night results in high pressure
areas. This process creates wind when air flows from high pressure areas into low
pressure areas. Wind energy has been used for hundreds of years.
The windmills of Europe and Asia converted the kinetic energy of the wind into
mechanical energy, turning wheels to grind grain. Today wind-driven generators
are used to convert the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy.
Wind-driven systems consist of a tower to support the wind generator, devices
regulating generator voltage, propeller and hub system, tail vane, a storage system
to store electricity for use during windless days, and a converter which converts the
stored direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC).
Wind energy accounts for 6 percent of renewable electricity generation. The U.S.
wind energy industry achieved unprecedented success in the first year of the new
century, installing nearly 1700 megawatts or $1.7 billion worth of new generating
capacity.
Due to continuing research and better placement of turbines, wind power has
become much more reliable. Virtually all regions of Canada have areas with good
wind resources. Oceans and large lakes, open prairie, and certain hill or mountain
areas often have good winds, and these areas are where Canada‗s current wind
generation facilities are located.
There are commercial wind turbines in five provinces and the Yukon, with plans for
further installations in almost all the rest of the provinces. Natural Resources
Canada estimates that Canada has almost 30,000 megawatts of developable wind
resource.
This compares to the current installed base of 200 megawatts, and would be
enough to supply 15 percent of Canada's electricity supply. The wind energy future
looks bright and there is a growing interest in wind power within the North American
electric industry.
Wind power is a clean and renewable energy source, it produces no pollution and
it doesn‗t harm our earth. Also important is the fact that the price of wind power
is not affected by fuel price increases or supply disruptions—it is a domestic,
renewable energy source. The land used for wind turbines can still be used for other
purposes such as grazing and farmland.

42
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF WIND TURBINE

There is an air turbine of large blades attached on the top of a supporting tower of
sufficient height. When wind strikes on the turbine blades, the turbine rotates due
to the design and alignment of rotor blades. The shaft of the turbine is coupled with
an electrical generator. The output of the generator is collected through electric
power cables.

Figure 2.17. Principles of Wind turbine aerodynamics

When the wind strikes the rotor blades, blades start rotating. The turbine rotor is
connected to a high-speed gearbox.
Gearbox transforms the rotor rotation from low speed to high speed. The high-
speed shaft from the gearbox is coupled with the rotor of the generator and hence
the electrical generator runs at a higher speed.
An exciter is needed to give the required excitation to the magnetic coil of the
generator field system so that it can generate the required electricity. The
generated voltage at output terminals of the alternator is proportional to both the
speed and field flux of the alternator.
The speed is governed by wind power which is out of control. Hence to maintain
uniformity of the output power from the alternator, excitation must be controlled
according to the availability of natural wind power.
The exciter current is controlled by a turbine controller which senses the wind
speed. Then output voltage of electrical generator(alternator) is given to a rectifier
where the alternator output gets rectified to DC.
Then this rectified DC output is given to line converter unit to convert it into
stabilized AC output which is ultimately fed to either electrical transmission network
or transmission grid with the help of step up transformer.

43
An extra units is used to give the power to internal auxiliaries of wind turbine (like
motor, battery etc.), this is called Internal Supply Unit. There
are other two control mechanisms attached to a modern big wind turbine.
Controlling the orientation of the turbine blade.
Controlling the orientation of the turbine face.
The orientation of turbine blades is governed from the base hub of the blades. The
blades are attached to the central hub with the help of a rotating arrangement
through gears and small electric motor or hydraulic rotary system.
The system can be electrically or mechanically controlled depending on its design.
The blades are swiveled depending upon the speed of the wind. The technique is
called pitch control. It provides the best possible orientation of the turbine blades
along the direction of the wind to obtain optimized wind power.
The orientation of the nacelle or the entire body of the turbine can follow the
direction of changing wind direction to maximize mechanical energy harvesting from
the wind.
The direction of the wind along with its speed is sensed by an anemometer
(automatic speed measuring devices) with wind vanes attached to the back top of
the nacelle.
The signal is fed back to an electronic microprocessor-based controlling system
which governs the yaw motor which rotates the entire nacelle with gearing
arrangement to face the air turbine along the direction of the wind.
2.6.SITING OF WND POWER PLANTS:
The power available in wind increases rapidly with wind speed. Therefore main
consideration for locating a wind power generation plant is the availability of strong
and persistent wind. A suitable site should preferably have some of the following
features:
1. No tall obstructions for some distance (about 3 km) in the upwind direction (i.e.
the direction of incoming wind) and also as low a roughness as possible in the same
direction
2. A wide and open view, i.e. open plain, open shoreline or offshore locations
3. Top of smooth well-rounded hill with gentle slopes (about 1:3 or less) on a flat
plain

44
4. An island in a lake or the sea
5. A narrow, mountain gap through which wind is channeled
6. The site should be reasonably close to power grid
7. The soil conditions must be such that building of foundations of the turbines and
transport of road construction material loaded on heavy trucks must be feasible
8. If there are already wind turbines in the area, their production results are an
excellent guide to local wind conditions.

2.6.1. WIND TURBINE SITE SELECTION

The selection of a wind farm site is complex and time consuming, and also it involves
multiple disciplines working on parallel paths.
It is imperative in all of the above-referenced steps that construction expertise be
involved and consulted to achieve maximum use of the approved site.
Wind is the energy resource that drives a wind turbine.
A windmill needs to be placed on a high tower located in wind area. Not just any
wind will do, a wind turbine needs air that moves uniformly in the same direction.
The rotor cannot extract energy from turbulent wind, and the constantly changing
wind direction due to turbulence causes excessive wear and premature failure of
turbine.

This means that turbine must be placed high enough to catch strong winds, and
above turbulent air.
Since the tower price goes up quickly with height, there is a limit to what is practical
and affordable.

45
2.6.2. TURBINE HEIGHT
In general, wind turbines should be
sited well above trees, buildings, and
other obstacles. When the wind flows
over an obstacle like a building or a
tree, the wind is slowed down and
turbulent air is created, and if a wind
turbine is located in this zone of
turbulence, the result will be poor Figure 2.18. Installation of wind turbine
energy production and increased wear
and tear on the turbine. One way to
get above the zone of turbulence is to
put the wind turbine on a tall tower.
Figure.2.18 (Installation of wind
turbine) is an illustration of a simple Likewise, a 20-m tower should only be
rule of thumb that is often used to used when the terrain is very flat with
specify a minimum tower height for a no obstacles in a wide area around; for
residential-sized wind turbine. The example, at the edge of the sea, or on
rule of thumb is to make sure that the top of a cliff with a clear area around
tower is tall enough so that the entire it, or in the tundra.
turbine rotor is at least 10 m above the
For most situations, a 20-m tower will
tallest obstacle within 150 m of the only save a little money up front, while
tower. Because trees grow and towers short selling energy production in the
do not, the growth of trees over the long run.
lifetime of the wind turbine (typically
20-30 years between major rebuilds) To go beyond the rule of thumb, the
should be considered in installation. airflow over any blunt obstruction,
including a tree, tends to create a
This should really be regarded as an
‗bubble‘ of turbulent air of twice the
absolute minimum for a wind turbine;
height of the obstacle, extending 20
at 10 m above an obstacle, there will
still be some amount of turbulence times the height of the obstacle
and additional clearance is highly behind it. Therefore, your 10-m high
desirable. Changes in height of house disturbs the air up to 200 m
obstacles should be kept in mind as away.
well. For example, if the obstacle like
trees that are expected to grow up to
20 m high, it is advisable to use a
33m tower.

46
The tree line with 33 m trees disturbs
the air up to 70 m high at a distance All wind turbines produce some
of 300 m away (see Fig.2.18). Wind amount of sound. Even though there
turbine may be located either upwind are the most quiet wind turbines in the
of the obstructions, or far enough market (Scirocco), they also produce
downwind. Notice from Figure that
sound.
preference should be given to a site
upwind of obstructions, but keep in Some people find its sound soothing,
mind that tall features downwind of since it tells them they are making
the turbine can also influence the wind
energy, while it drives others
going through the blades, as shown in
Figure . absolutely bonkers.

Upwind and downwind are relative to For that reason, it is a good idea to
place wind turbine some distance
the prevailing wind direction, where
away from house, 100 feet is a good
the wind blows from most of the time.
number for minimum separation.
A wind atlas can sometimes tell about
There is also such a thing as too much
prevailing wind direction, and if there
distance, since the length and gauge
is one at all. Some sites have winds
of the wiring that are needed will
that did not read the rule book, and increase. With the ever- increasing
there it is equally likely to blow from price of copper, this makes it more
more than one direction. expensive to install your turbine. This
The Danish Wind Power Association effect can be used as an advantage.
made a very nice, interactive, For obstructions that are not smooth,
calculator that allows one to plug in like a cliff (i.e., a sudden rise in the
various obstacles (for example, a row landscape), it gets trickier. Sharp
of trees), set their height and distance edges create turbulence, as illustrated
to the wind turbine (see Fig.), and in Figure.
visually show what effect this will have
on wind speed and energy. The airflow at the top of the cliff can
be stronger than the average wind
The calculator shows the percentage speed in the area, but close to the cliff
of the wind speed at various distances ‘s edge, it may also be very turbulent,
and heights behind the obstacle. making it a poor site for a turbine. If
there is a cliff edge on land and want
It is necessary to remember that to use it for installing a wind turbine, a
although the effect of obstacles is not 20 m high tower should be used to get
just to diminish wind speeds, but they above the turbulent air. Even if it
also make the air swirl, creating seems that the wind is always blowing
turbulence. Turbulence is an energy hard at the cliff ‘s edge, the lee side
reducers when it comes to wind (downwind of the prevailing winds) of
turbines. Another aspect of proper a bluff object makes for a very poor
windmill installation is the distance wind turbine site.
from occupied buildings.

47
The tree line with 33 m trees disturbs Another aspect of proper windmill
the air up to 70 m high at a distance installation is the distance from
of 300 m away (see Fig). occupied buildings.
Wind turbine may be located either All wind turbines produce some
upwind of the obstructions, or far amount of sound. Even though there
enough downwind. are the most quiet wind turbines in the
Notice from Figure that preference market (Scirocco), they also produce
should be given to a site upwind of sound. Some people find its sound
obstructions, but keep in mind that tall soothing, since it tells them they are
features downwind of the turbine can making energy, while it drives others
also influence the wind going through absolutely bonkers. For that reason, it
the blades, as shown in Figure. is a good idea to place wind turbine
Upwind and downwind are relative to some distance away from house, 100
the prevailing wind direction, where feet is a good number for minimum
the wind blows from most of the time. separation. There is also such a thing
as too much distance, since the length
A wind atlas can sometimes tell about
and gauge of the wiring that are
prevailing wind direction, and if there
needed will increase. With the ever-
is one at all. Some sites have winds
increasing price of copper, this makes
that did not read the rule book, and
it more expensive to install your
there it is equally likely to blow from
turbine. This effect can be used as an
more than one direction.
advantage. For obstructions that are
The Danish Wind Power Association not smooth, like a cliff (i.e., a sudden
made a very nice, interactive, rise in the landscape), it gets trickier.
calculator that allows one to plug in Sharp edges create turbulence.
various obstacles (for example, a row
of trees), set their height and distance The airflow at the top of the cliff can
to the wind turbine (see Fig), and be stronger than the average wind
visually show what effect this will have speed in the area, but close to the cliff
on wind speed and energy. ‘s edge, it may also be very turbulent,
making it a poor site for a turbine. If
The calculator shows the percentage there is a cliff edge on land and want
of the wind speed at various distances to use it for installing a wind turbine, a
and heights behind the obstacle. It is 20 m high tower should be used to get
necessary to remember that although above the turbulent air.
the effect of obstacles is not just to
diminish wind speeds, but they also
make the air swirl, creating
turbulence.
Turbulence is an energy reducers
when it comes to wind turbines.

48
Even if it seems that the wind is always
blowing hard at the cliff ‘s edge, the
lee side (downwind of the prevailing
winds) of a bluff object makes for a
very poor wind turbine site.
Figure 2.19. Wind speed around a cliff
The bluff object will create large
turbulence on its downwind side, and
the average wind speed will drop off
precipitously as well. This leaves no
energy for the wind turbine to harvest.
Weather data usually reports wind
speeds at 10 m above the ground
level, and the spreadsheet can take
care of translating that to a wind
speed at turbine height. In order to Figure 2.20. Airflow at different levels of cliff
understand how changes in tower
height affect the power in the wind for
an unobstructed site, the process is
shown in Figure.
The energy in the wind increases with
the cube of the wind speed (Pa V 3),
and wind speed increases with height.
An increase of just 26% in wind speed
means twice as much power available
in the wind, and your wind turbine will
produce almost twice as much. By
doubling the wind speed, almost eight
times as much power can be
harvested. Therefore, a small
additional investment in tower height
may be well worth it due to the
increased energy production (see Figure 2.21. Wind power versus tower height
Fig.).

49
The airflow that close to the building 1. Hill effect: When it approaches a
is generally very turbulent, leading to hill, wind encounters high pressure
premature failure and poor power because of the wind that has already
production. built up against the hill. This
compressed air rises and gains speed
It is usually noisy too. Every wind as it approaches the crest, or top of
turbine has some amount of vibration the hill. The installation of wind
associated with it, and this too will be turbines on hilltops takes advantage of
transmitted inside the house. this increase in speed.
We know, the thought of bolting a 2. Roughness or the amount of
little turbine to the house, just over friction that earth’s surface
the roof line, to offset your electricity exerts on wind: Oceans have very
use (as that salesman put it) is little roughness. A city or a forest has
appealing. a great deal of roughness, which
slows the wind.
The harsh reality is that it does not
work. Several studies were done, 3. Tunnel effect: The increase in air
involving dozens of roof-top turbines. pressure undergoes when it
They all concluded that those turbines encounters a solid obstacle. The
do not work. increased air pressure causes the
wind to gain speed as it passes
Their energy production is negligible between, for example, rows of
and some were even net users of buildings in a city or between two
electricity (because their inverters mountains. Placing a wind turbine in
draw power, even when nothing is a mountain pass can be a good way
going into the grid). It is necessary to to take advantage of wind speeds
say ‗no‘ to building-mounted turbines. that are higher than those of the
surrounding air.
4. Turbulence: Rapid changes in the
2.6.3. Considerations and speed and direction of the wind,
Guidelines for Site Selection often caused by the wind blowing
When looking for a place for a wind over natural or artificial barriers are
turbine, engineers consider factors called turbulence. Turbulence causes
such as wind hazards, characteristics not only fluctuations in the speed of
of the land that affect wind speed, and the wind but also wear and tear on
the effects of one turbine on nearby the turbine. Turbines are mounted on
turbines in wind farms. tall towers to avoid turbulence
caused by ground obstacles.

The following important factors need

careful considerations:

50
5. Variations in wind speed: Wind obstacles like tall buildings cause
During the day, winds usually blow wind shade, which can considerably
reduce the speed of the wind, and
faster than they do at the night
therefore, the power output of a
because the sun heats the air, setting
turbine.
air currents in motion. In addition,
wind speed can differ depending on 8. Wind shear: It is the
the season of the year. This difference differences in wind speeds at
is a function of the sun, which heats different heights. When a turbine
different air masses around earth at blade is pointed straight upward,
different rates, depending on the tilt of the speed of the wind hitting its tip
the earth towards or away from the can be, for example, 9 miles (14
sun. km) per hour, but when the blade
is pointing straight downward, the
6. Wake: Energy can neither be speed of the wind hitting its tip can
created nor destroyed. As wind passes be 7 miles (11 km) per hour. This
over the blades of a turbine, the difference places stress on the
turbine seizes much of the energy and blades. Further, too much wind
converts it into mechanical energy. shear can cause the turbine to fail.
The air coming out of the blade sweep Choosing the right site for wind
has less energy because it has been turbine is the most important
slowed. The abrupt change in the decision. Further, the location plays
speed makes the wind turbulent, a a vital part in the performance and
phenomenon called wake. Because of efficiency of a wind turbine.
wake, wind turbines in a wind farm are
generally placed about three rotor
diameters away from one another in The following guidelines can be
the direction of the wind, so that the followed to evaluate site for the
wake from one turbine does not installation of wind turbines:
interfere with the operation of the one
behind it.
1. Turbines work best when on
high and exposed sites. Coastal
7. Wind obstacles: Trees, buildings, sites are especially good.
and rock formations are the main 2. Town centers and highly
obstacles in the installation of wind populated residential areas are
turbines. Any of these obstacles can usually not suitable sites for wind
reduce wind speed considerably and turbines.
increase turbulence.

51
3. Avoid roof-mounted turbines as 1. Start-up speed is the speed at
there is no guarantee that these which the rotor and blade assembly
devices will not damage property begin to rotate.
through vibration. 2. The cut-in wind speed is the speed
4. The farther the distance between when the machine begins to produce
the turbine and the power power.
requirement, the more power will be 3. The design wind speed is the
lost in the cable. The distance of the speed when the windmill reaches its
cabling will also impact the overall cost maximum efficiency.
of the installation.
4. The rated wind speed is the speed
5. Turbulence disrupts the air flow when the machine reaches its
that can wear down the blades and maximum output power.
reduces the lifecycle of the turbine. It
is recommended that installing a 5. The furling wind speed is the
turbine may be considered only when speed when the machine furls to
the distance between the turbine and prevent damage at high wind speeds.
the nearest obstacle is more than
twice the height of the turbine, or
when the height of the turbine is more
than twice the height of the nearest
obstacle.
6. Small turbines require an average
wind speed of over 4.5 m/s to produce
an efficient level of electricity.
7. If site is in a remote location,
connecting wind turbine to the
national grid will be very expensive
and it may be worth considering an
off-grid connection instead using Figure 2.22. Wind turbine power output with
battery storage. steady wind speed
2.6.4. Wind Turbine Power Output
Variation with Steady Wind Cut-in speed is the minimum wind
Speed speed at which the wind turbine will
generate usable power. This wind
Figure gives the power output from a speed is typically between 7 and 10
wind turbine variation with steady mph for most turbines. At very low
wind speed. wind speeds, there is insufficient
torque exerted by the wind on the
There are five important characteristic
turbine blades to make them rotate.
wind speeds and they are as follows:

52
However, as the speed increases, the Cut-out speed At very high wind
wind turbine will begin to rotate and speeds, usually around 25 m/s, most
generate electrical power. The speed wind turbines cease power generation
at which the turbine first starts to and shutdown.
rotate and generate power is called The wind speed at which the
the cut-in speed and is typically shutdown occurs is called the cut-out
between 3 and 4 m/s. speed, or sometimes the furling
Rated speed At wind speeds between speed. Having a cut-out speed is a
cut-in and rated, the power output safety feature that protects the wind
from a wind turbine increases as the turbine from damage. Shutdown may
wind increases. The output of most occur in one of the several ways.
machines levels off above the rated In some machines, an automatic
speed. brake is activated by a wind speed
Most manufacturers provide graphs, sensor. Some machines twist or
called ‗power curves,‘ showing how ‗pitch‘ the blades to spill the wind. Still
their wind turbine output varies with others use ‗spoilers,‘ drag flaps
wind speed. As the wind speed rises mounted on the blades or the hub that
above the cut-in speed, the level of are automatically activated by high
electrical output power rises rapidly as rotor rpms, or mechanically activated
shown. However, typically somewhere by a spring-loaded device, which turns
between 12 m/s and 17 m/s, the the machine sideways to the wind
power output reaches the limit that stream.
the electrical generator is capable of. Normal wind turbine operation usually
This limit to the generator output is resumes when the wind drops back to
called the rated power output and the a safe level.
wind speed at which it is reached is
called the rated output wind speed. At As the speed increases above the rate
high wind speeds, the design of the output wind speed, the forces on the
turbine is arranged to limit the power turbine structure continue to rise and,
to this maximum level and there is no at some point, there is a risk of
further rise in the output power. How damage to the rotor.
this is done varies from design to
design; however, typically, with large As a result, a braking system is
turbines, it is done by adjusting the employed to bring the rotor to a
blade angles so as to keep the power standstill.
at the constant level.

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2.7. GRID INTEGRATION ISSUES OF WIND POWER PLANTS

To integrate large amounts of wind power into electricity grid, a number of issues
need to be addressed, including design and operation of the power system, grid
infrastructure issues, and grid connection of wind power.

A. Transient Stability and Power Quality Problems

Consider a grid-connected wind generator system. During a transient fault in the

power network, the rotor speed of the wind generator goes very high, active power
output goes very low, and terminal voltage goes very low or collapses.
The wind speed might be considered constant during a transient fault. According to
grid code requirements, the voltage level should not be less than 85% of the rated
voltage. Usually the wind generator is shut down during these emergency situations.
Recent tradition is not to shut down the wind generator during a network fault but
to keep it connected to the grid through appropriate power electronics control. In
other words, the wind generators should have fault ride-through (FRT) capability.
This clearly indicates that wind generator stabilization is necessary during network
faults.

B. Variability of Wind Power

Wind energy does not suddenly trip the system off. Variations are smoother because
there are hundreds or thousands of units rather than a few large power stations,
making it easier for the system operator to predict and manage changes in supply.
Especially in large, interconnected grids, there is little overall impact if the wind
stops blowing in one particular place. Predictability is key in managing wind power‘s
variability, and significant advances have been made to improve forecasting
methods.
Today, wind power prediction is quite accurate for aggregated wind farms. Using
increasingly sophisticated weather forecasts, wind power generation models, and
statistical analysis, it is possible to predict generation from 5-minute to hourly
intervals over time scales up to 72 hours in advance and for seasonal and annual
periods.

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C. Power, Frequency, and Voltage Fluctuations Due to
Random Wind Speed Variation
Due to random wind speed variation, wind generator output power, frequency, and
terminal voltage fluctuate. In other words, power quality of the wind generator
deteriorates. However, consumers need constant voltage and frequency. Thus,
frequency, grid voltage, and transmission line power should be maintained
constant.

D. Grid Connection Requirements

The major requirements of typical grid codes for operation and grid connection of
wind turbines are summarized as follows:
1. Voltage operating range: The wind turbines are required to operate within
typical grid voltage variations.
2. Frequency operating range: The wind turbines are required to operate within
typical grid frequency variations.
3. Active power control: Several grid codes require wind farms to provide active
power control to ensure a stable frequency in the system and to prevent overloading
of lines. Also, wind turbines are required to respond with a ramp rate in the desired
range.
4. Frequency control: Several grid codes require wind farms to provide
frequency regulation capability to help maintain the desired network frequency.
5. Voltage control: Grid codes require that individual wind turbines control their
own terminal voltage to a constant value by means of an automatic voltage
regulator.
6. Reactive power control: The wind farms are required to provide dynamic
reactive power control capability to maintain the reactive power balance and the
power factor in the desired range.
7. Low-voltage ride-through (LVRT): In the event of voltage sag, the wind
turbines are required to remain connected for a specific amount of time before
being allowed to disconnect. In addition, some utilities require that the wind
turbines help support grid voltage during faults.
8. High-voltage ride-through (HVRT): In the event that the voltage goes
above its upper limit value, the wind turbines should be capable of staying online
for a given length of time.
9. Power quality: Wind farms are required to provide the electric power with a
desired quality, such as maintaining constant voltage or voltage fluctuations in the
desired range or maintaining voltage–current harmonics in the desired range.

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10. Wind farm modelling and verification: Some grid codes require wind farm
owners and developers to provide models and system data to enable the system
operator to investigate by simulations the interaction between the wind farm and
the power system. They also require installation of monitoring equipment to verify
the actual behaviour of the wind farm during faults and to check the model.
11. Communications and external control: The wind farm operators are
required to provide signals corresponding to a number of parameters important for
the system operator to enable proper operation of the power system. Moreover, it
must be possible to connect and disconnect the wind turbines remotely.

Figure 2.23. Typical low-Voltage ride through requirement-U.S

Above Figure, shows typical LVRT requirements in the United States.
Interconnection requirements for wind energy connected to the transmission
networks in the United States are applicable to wind farms larger than 20 MW and
mainly cover the following three major technical topics:
i. LVRT capability: The wind farms are required to remain online during voltage
disturbances up to specified time periods and associated voltage levels. According
to this LVRT specification, the wind turbines should remain connected to the grid
and supply reactive power when the voltage at the point of connection falls in the
gray area. In addition, wind farms must be able to operate continuously at 90% of
the rated line voltage, measured at the high-voltage side of the wind plant
substation transformers.
ii. Power factor (reactive power) design criteria: The wind farms are
required to maintain a power factor within the range of 0.95 leading to 0.95 lagging,
measured at the high-voltage side of the substation transformers.
iii. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) capability: The wind
farms are required to have SCADA capability to transmit data and receive
instructions from the transmission provider.

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D.1 Islanding and Auto Reclosure
Critical situations can occur if a part of the utility network is islanded, and an
integrated distributed generation (DG) unit is connected. This situation is commonly
referred to as loss of mains (LOM) or loss of grid (LOG).
When LOM occurs, neither the voltage nor the frequency is controlled by the utility
supply. Normally, islanding is the consequence of a fault in the network. If an
embedded generator continues its operation after the utility supply was
disconnected, faults may not clear since the arc is still charged.
Small embedded generators (or grid interfaces, respectively) are often not equipped
with voltage control; therefore, the voltage magnitude of an islanded network is not
kept between desired limits, and undefined voltage magnitudes may occur during
island operation.
Another result of missing control might be frequency instability. Since real systems
are never balanced exactly, the frequency will change due to active power
unbalance. Uncontrolled frequency represents a high risk for machines and drives.
Since arc faults normally clear after a short interruption of the supply, automatic
(instantaneous) reclosure is a common relay feature. With a continuously operating
generator in the network, two problems may arise when the utility network is
automatically reconnected after a short interruption:
The fault may not have cleared since the arc was fed from the DG unit; therefore,
instantaneous reclosure may not succeed.
In the islanded part of the grid, the frequency may have changed due to active
power unbalance. Reclosing the switch would couple two asynchronously operating
systems.
Extended dead time has to be regarded between the separation of the DG unit and
the reconnection of the utility supply to make fault clearing possible. Common time
settings of auto reclosure relays are between 100 and 1,000 ms.
With DG in the network, the total time has to be prolonged. A recommendation is
to maintain a reclosure interval of 1 sec or more for distribution feeders with
embedded generators.
The only solution to this problem seems to be to disconnect the DG unit as soon as
LOM occurred. Thus, it is necessary to detect islands quickly and reliably.

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D.2 Other Issues
There are some other problems concerning the integration of DG
besides those already mentioned.
D.2.1 Ferroresonance
Ferroresonance can occur and damage customer equipment or
transformers. For cable lines, where faults are normally permanent,
fast-blowing fuses are used as overcurrent protection.
Since the fuses in the three phases do not trigger simultaneously, it
may happen that a transformer is connected via only two phases for
a short time.
Then, the capacitance of the cable is in series with the transformer
inductance that could cause distorted or high voltages and currents
due to resonance conditions.
D.2.2 Grounding
There are possible grounding problems due to multiple ground current
paths. If a DG unit is connected via a grounded delta-wye transformer,
earth faults on the utility line will cause ground currents in both
directions—from the fault to the utility transformer as well as to the
DG transformer.
This is normally not considered in the distribution system ground fault
coordination. The problem of loss of earth (LOE) for single-point
grounded distribution systems is that whenever the utility earth
connection is lost the whole system gets ungrounded.