Unit One: Developmental Needs of Learners and Implications for Practice

Introduction
This unit deals with concept of growth and development, stages of development, determinants of,
dimensions of development in general and relates these with the developmental profiles of the students
and their implications for learning. The major domains of development we need to study as secondary
school teachers are changes of the body and its different parts (i.e. physical development), the growth
of the mind (i.e. cognitive development), improvement of relations with others (i.e. social
development), changes in emotional control (i.e. emotional development), understanding and
acceptance of moral values (i.e. moral development), and changes in identity (i.e. personality
development). As high school teachers, we need to develop grasp of the salient features of these
changes, how they affect students‟ learning, and how we can facilitate learning to occur in a better
way.
Unit Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, the students shall
 Understand concepts of growth and development, dimensions, stages, and determinants of development
 Understand major developmental changes, factors affecting these changes
 Explain the implications of these changes for classroom teaching and learning
 Appreciate the importance of developmental changes in structuring the teaching act
 Use these changes as a foundation to design, plan , and conduct the teaching and learning act

Unit Contents
1.1. Physical development 1.3. Moral development
1.2. Cognitive development 1.4. Gender development

The Adolescent Period (short preview)

Adolescent is a period of transitions from childhood to early adult hood, starting at the approximately,
10 to 12 years of age and ending at about 18 to 22 years of age. Adolescence begins with rapid
physical changes–dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body counter and the development
of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of breast, development of pubic and facial hair, and
deepening of the voice. At this point in development, the pursuit of independence and identify are
prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent on outside of the family.
1.1. Physical Development
Activity 1.2 Brainstorming: What is physical development?
One of the distinguishing developments experienced at the adolescent period is related to physical
development. Physical development, as you might have seen in your previous courses, is a
development related the changes in height, weight, body muscles and other body changes. The changes
could be explained either quantitatively like in terms of changes in weight (kilograms) or qualitatively
such as the changes in the strengths of body muscles. However compared to other developmental
aspects, the physical development is easily measured with simple tools such as a scale or a tape
measure, other developmental dimensions are more difficult to quantify. During adolescent growth
spurts, the arms and legs also lengthen and eventually become proportional to the rest of their body.
However, teens may suddenly feel awkward and uncoordinated during this time because growth does
not always occur at a perfectly proportional rate. And, there seems to be differences in the physical
development among the male and female children.
1.1.1. Differences in the Physical developments: male and female adolescents
Research evidenced that, the body mass of boys greatly increased during adolescence due to the rising
levels of male hormones, such as testosterone, that cause an increase in muscle mass. In general, boys'
straight-lined, square bodies become broader at the shoulders and more tapered at the waist, forming

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the familiar triangular shape of adult males. Particularly, the arms and the legs of the body become
strong and bulkier. However, this is not always true. Heredity, nutrition, and muscle-building exercise
can influence muscular development of the children which ultimately lead the differences in body
development among male children. For example, adolescents that play sports, lift weights, or routinely
workout in other ways are likely to gain muscle mass.
What do you think is the consequences of the differences in physical development among the boys?
Like what the male counter parts, teen girls continue to develop muscle mass while also adding body
fat. During adolescence, it is consistently confirmed that girls' percentage of body fat will increase,
relative to muscle mass. This additional fat is deposited in their body's midsection (hips, buttocks, and
chest). Girls' straight-lined, square bodies become wider and broader at the hips, buttocks, and chest,
forming the familiar hour-glass shape of adult females. The emergence of such manifestations in the
female body has many implications. Often, it is consistently confirmed that teen girls feel
uncomfortable or upset during this growth phase because of the increase in body fat. Girls should be
encouraged to view this change to their body composition in a positive light: as yet another indication
they are becoming young women. While girls may feel "fat" during this maturation process, it may be
helpful for them to understand that some additional body fat is necessary for women to have healthy
pregnancies and in order to nurse babies.
1.1.2. Some manifestations of physical developments in the Adolescent period
1.1.2.1. Improved motor skills: As adolescents continue to mature they become better able to move
their bodies with greater skill and precision. And, the development of the motor skills could be either
gross motor skills or fine motor skills. The difference between the gross and fine motor skills is that in
the gross motor skills there is large muscle movements of the body (e.g. muscles used while running),
where as in the fine motor skills there is a development in the tiny and precise muscle movements (e.g.
muscles used while keyboarding or texting). Relative to boys, adolescent girls make only modest gains
in their gross and fine motor skills until approximately 14 years of age. After this point, they generally
do not experience any additional improvement in their motor skills unless they are specifically training
for a sport or hobby which requires these skills. In contrast to girls, the motor skills of adolescent boys
continue to improve, particularly gross motor skills. Adolescent boys rapidly gain physical speed,
jumping strength, throwing strength, and endurance throughout the entire period of adolescence, even
into their early 20's.
1.1.2.2. Primary sexual characteristics: The development in the sexual characteristics is one of the
physical developments observed in the adolescents. Particularly, the change in height, body
composition, and motor skills, the sexual reproductive system triggers many changes during the
transition from childhood to adulthood. Young teens develop both primary and secondary sexual
characteristics that are brought about by hormonal changes. Primary sexual characteristics refer to the
reproductive organs themselves; e.g., the ovaries and testes. Secondary sexual characteristics refer to
other characteristic indicators of adult male and female bodies (e.g., body hair). The development of
primary sexual characteristics indicates youth have become capable of adult reproductive functioning
(i.e., the ability to make babies).
The development of both primary and secondary sexual characteristics begins during late childhood
and continues throughout early adolescence. However, it is important to remember that youth
experience these changes at different rates and times. For more information about the biological and
hormonal changes that trigger these changes, and for suggestions about guiding young teens through
this process, please refer to the article on Puberty in the Middle Childhood series.
For females, the most significant primary sexual characteristic is the first menarche, or first menstrual
period. The first menarche indicates girls have begun to ovulate; i.e., to release mature eggs that can
become fertilized by male sperm through sexual intercourse. The average age for the first menstrual
period is 12 years, but girls can reach menarche at any age from 10 to 15 years old and still be
considered "normal."

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For males, the primary sexual characteristics include an enlargement of the penis and testes, and the
first spermarche; i.e., the first ejaculation of mature sperm capable of fertilizing female eggs through
sexual intercourse. The average age of first spermarche is 13 years, but it can occur anytime between
the ages of 12 and 16 years. On average, the testes will begin to enlarge at about 11 years of age, but
this growth can occur anytime between 9 and 13 years. On average, the penis begins to enlarge around
age 12, but this growth can begin at any age between 10 and 14 years. The penis reaches its adult size
at about age 14, but this can occur anytime between the ages 12 and 16.
1.1.2.3. Secondary sexual characteristics: Like primary sexual characteristics, secondary sexual
characteristics are brought about by the hormonal changes associated with the maturing reproductive
system and include changes in body hair and changes in voice quality. Young adolescents will notice
hair growing in new places on their bodies, such as their underarms and groins. While this process
began during late childhood, this hair continues to thicken and darken during the teen years. Teen guys
will notice their facial hair continues to grow more quickly and more thickly, and they may notice hair
growing on their chest and stomach. This hair may continue to grow thicker until middle or late
adolescence.
Teen guys will also notice their voices begin to deepen between ages 12 to 15 years. This happens as
their vocal cords grow longer, and their larynxes, or voice boxes, grow larger. The enlarged voice
organs cause deeper voice tones. Adolescent guys will notice their "Adam's apples," grows larger
during this period. This is because the enlarged larynxes push out the piece of cartilage in front of the
larynx. Everyone has this piece of cartilage, but it's not noticeable in females because of their smaller
voice boxes. This change can be unnerving for many guys because at the beginning of this change,
their voices may crack, or unexpectedly squeak during speech. This can cause unwanted attention and
can be embarrassing. Male adolescent voices can continue to gradually deepen well into late
adolescence.
1.1.2.4. Perspiration: As mentioned, the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics
begins during Puberty and is brought about by the increase of certain hormones. This hormonal
increase triggers many other changes as well. For instance, most teens will notice that their
perspiration becomes more odoriferous which can be quite unpleasant. While most people believe that
the perspiration itself is the cause of this unpleasant odor, it's actually bacteria feeding on the
perspiration that create the unpleasant odor.
Interestingly, perspiration arises from two different types of glands: the eccrine glands and the
apocrine glands. When most people think of perspiration, they typically think of a hot summer day, or
a strenuous workout. This type of perspiration is caused by the body becoming too warm. To correct
for this, the body begins to perspire to cool down. Perspiration coats the skin with moisture and creates
a cooling effect. This enables the body to maintain a safe, core body temperature (approximately 98.6
degree Fahrenheit). This type of perspiration is produced by the eccrine glands. These sweat glands are
found all over the body and open directly onto the skin's surface. The sweat that is produced from these
glands is composed of mostly water and salts. Bacteria don't grow very well in this type of sweat
because salt inhibits the growth of bacteria. Therefore the sweat that comes from these glands is
odorless. Since this protective cooling function is essential regardless of size or age, both children and
adults produce this type of odor-free perspiration. However, during puberty teens also begin to perspire
from the apocrine glands. Unlike the eccrine glands which are found all over the body, these glands are
found within hair follicles, so there are more of these sweat glands in places like the scalp, underarms,
and groin, where hair follicles are grouped more closely together. These glands become activated
during emotional responses such as excitement, happiness, fear, worry, and anger. The sweat produced
by the apocrine glands is milky in appearance, and is loaded with many different substances that
provide food for bacteria to grow. In addition to food, bacteria need a dark, moist climate in order to
survive. Therefore, the underarms, groin, and scalp where hair is concentrated, provide the ideal
climate for the growth of bacteria. It is these bacteria that put off the offensive odor that people
associate with perspiration. Daily bathing removes both the bacteria and its food source.

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 1.1.3. Implications for Teaching
What do you think are the implications of physical development of the adolescents to the teaching and
learning?
 Because the rate of physical development is so varied during adolescence, it often becomes a source of
difficulty and discomfort for youth
 And there could be children whose physical development is delayed due to some reasons. And this is
usually the source of frustrations for the children.
1.2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
What do you think is cognitive development?
Cognitive development, unlike the physical development, mainly emphasis the development in
thinking, reasoning, language and other cognitive processes of the human being. Particularly, the
cognitive developmental approaches place a special emphasis on how individuals actively construct
their thinking. They also focus heavily on how thinking changes from one point in development to
another. There are many theoreticians that explain the cognitive development of human beings. Jean
Piaget is amongst others. Therefore, the section below discusses the stages of cognitive development of
the adolescent period.
1.2.1. Jean Piaget stages of cognitive development
Piaget's identified five characteristic indicators of adolescent cognitive development. These are: 1)
formal operations, 2) hypothetico-deductive reasoning, 3) propositional thought, 4) the imaginary
audience, and 5) the personal fable. Therefore, the section below goes though these stages and
ultimately attempt is done to see the implications of these stages in to teaching learning processes.
1.2.1.1. Formal operations
This stage is shortly termed as the „what if ….‟ .According to Piaget it is used to describe the mental
ability to imagine a hypothetical situation and to be able to determine a likely outcome, without
needing to actually observe or enact the scenario.
For instance, suppose a 7-10 year old child is asked, "What if there was a hungry dog in the kitchen
and Mother dropped a hotdog on the floor. What do you think would happen?" Most children at this
age will correctly guess that the dog ate the hotdog, particularly if they have any experience with dogs.
Piaget called this type of mental operation a "concrete operation" because the mental operation
represents a tangible, concrete circumstance that the child can easily imagine since it is anchored to
things that can be seen and touched in the real world: It is concrete.
According to Piaget, the adolescent years are remarkable because youth move beyond the limitations
of concrete mental operations and develop the ability to think in a more abstract manner. Piaget used
the term "formal operations" to describe this new ability. Formal operations refer to the ability to
perform mental operations with abstract, intangible concepts such as "justice" or "poverty" and to be
able to estimate or describe the effect of these intangible concepts.
1.2.1.2. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought
In addition to the ability to perform abstract mental operations, teens become more scientific and
logical in the way they approach problems. Piaget called this methodical, scientific approach to
problem-solving, "hypothetico-deductive reasoning." Youth can now consider a problem, or situation,
and can identify the many variables that may influence or affect the outcome. They can also estimate
the most likely outcome if one or more variables are changed or manipulated. This ability has very
practical applications because it enables youth to select the most logical or sensible solution to a
problem.
To illustrate the value of hypothetico-deductive reasoning, consider the following example: A teenage
boy, Aaron, decided he'd like to surprise his Mom and bake her some cookies. Unfortunately, the first
batch didn't turn out so well- the cookies were burnt. In order to solve this problem Aaron will
mentally review the ingredients he used, and the steps he took to bake the cookies. Aaron will consider
the variables that typically cause burnt cookies such as omitting a key ingredient, an improper oven
temperature, or leaving the cookies in the oven too long. Next, Aaron will imagine changing each
individual variable in order to determine the most likely cause of the burnt cookies, and he will
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subsequently decide what he needs to do differently. For instance, Aaron may decide that the most
likely cause of the burnt cookies was that he left them in the oven too long. So, for the next batch of
cookies Aaron will set the timer for a shorter period of time. After the second batch is finished, he will
then evaluate if this solved the problem or whether he needs to change a different variable. However, if
Aaron's younger brother James were to try and solve the burnt cookie problem, James would try to
change several variables all at once, by adding more milk, changing the baking time, and changing the
oven temperature. This is because younger children cannot think about possible solutions to the
problem without trying out the solutions, and younger children do not know how to solve problems in
a logical and methodical manner by changing one variable at a time.

1.2.1.3. The imaginary audience and the personal fable

Not only do adolescents become more scientific and logical, but they also become better students of
observation and interpretation. By observing other people's behavior, expressions, comments, and
appearance they can interpret this information and make reasonable guesses about what another person
may be thinking, wanting, needing, or feeling.
Unfortunately, these new cognitive abilities appear at the same time that younger adolescents are
struggling with insecurities about their changing appearance, changing identity, and changing life
experiences. All of these factors combine to create what Piaget called the "imaginary audience." Teens
may mistakenly believe that everyone around them is watching and judging them, scrutinizing their
every move, and can become painfully self-conscious as a result. The concept of an imaginary
audience helps parents to understand why their teenagers spend eons in front of the bathroom mirror
just to run to the store for a short task, or become incredibly embarrassed over a seemingly minor
mistake. Therefore, the imaginary audience provides an example of the inter-relationship between
cognitive, emotional, and social development.
While the ability to use abstract thought and keen observational skills enables youth to become more
attuned to others and more sensitive to people's needs, it can also lead to some new social and
emotional difficulties when youth use their new cognitive abilities to compare themselves to others.
Youth may feel exceptionally unique and different from other people, including their own peers. Piaget
called this the "personal fable." Many teens believe they have unique abilities, or conversely, unique
problems, different from anyone else in the world. Some youth feel as though they are better, smarter,
or stronger than others. This personal fable can lead to some devastating consequences because these
youth may take dangerous risks when they over-estimate their abilities and believe they can "handle
it," or mistakenly believe they are supreme and that bad things cannot happen to them. This is why it is
important for adult caregivers to continue to monitor youths' behavior, choices, and decisions.
Conversely, other youth may feel as though they are dumber, weaker, and inferior to others. This kind
of personal fable can lead to feelings of sadness, frustration, and loneliness. If these negative thoughts
and feelings continue to strengthen, youth can become depressed or hopeless, which can lead to other
dangerous behaviors such as drug use, unsafe sexual activity, or even suicide. Once again, these youth
need their caregivers love, guidance, and support to help them through these difficult circumstances.
More specific information about emotional development can be found later.
From birth onward, the human brain continues to develop and mature. For adolescents, the amount of
information they can process continues to increase, but the rate of increase is not as great as it once
was during the middle childhood years. Likewise, their overall fund of information continues to build.
Memorization capabilities further expand. Youth can now recall a large amount of detailed
information such as lengthy, complicated, driving directions. Likewise, they can remember and apply
patterns or formulas such as when solving a complex calculus problem. Youth also use sophisticated
memorization strategies such as mnemonics to remember dates (e.g., "Columbus sailed the ocean blue
in fourteen hundred and ninety two"), or a musical tune or rhyme to help them to remember lengthy
lists (e.g., singing the names of 50 states). Furthermore, as youths' capacity for memorization increases,
the brain develops more efficient methods of organizing information allowing for more rapid and
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accurate information storage, and subsequent retrieval. This enables youth to recall information more
easily, and to apply the information in useful ways.
1.2.2.Piaget and Education
What are some applications of Piaget cognitive development to education?
Indeed, Piaget was not an educator, but has contributed many works that enhance the development of
education. Therefore, this section will try to elucidate some of the applications of the cognitive
development to teaching and learning.
Take a constructivist approach: Piaget believed that children learn more when they active and
seek solutions for themselves. He opposed teaching methods that treat children as passive
receptors. Instead students learn better by discovering, reflecting on them, discussing on them,
rather than blindly imitating the teacher or doing things by rote.
Facilitate rather than direct learning: effective teachers design situations that allow students to
learn by doing. These situations promote students‟ thinking and discovery.
Turn the classroom in to a setting of explorations and discovery:
1.3. Moral Development
1.3.1. Meaning of moral development
Moral development is another perspectives used to describe human development. Accordingly, it has
been the interest of psychologists and educationists. And, although there are many scholars interested
on the area, it seems that Lawrence Kohlberg and Jean Piaget are the prominent ones. Lawrence
Kohlberg has modified and expanded Jean Piaget's work to form a theory that explained the
development of moral reasoning.
Jean Piaget, after making an extensive study on children aged from 4 to 12, concluded that children go
through two distinct stages of moral development. These include
 From 4 to 7 years of age, children display heteronymous morality, the first stage of moral
development in Piaget’s theory. Children think of justices and rules as unchangeable
properties of the world, removed from the control of the people.
 From 7 to 10 years age, children are in transition, showing some features of the first stage of
moral reasoning and some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and some stages of the
second stage.
 From about 10 years age and older, children show autonomous morality, the second stage of
moral development. They become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and in
judging an action, they consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences.
Lawrence Kohlberg, against of the stages mentioned by the Jean Piaget, come to outline six stages of
moral development. Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a
continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. In his Stages of Moral Development, Kohlberg
states that human beings progress from a Preconventional Level of moral development (in which they
refer to rules imposed by others) to a Post conventional Level of moral development (in which they
refer to rules imposed from within them).

Focus: "The Heinz Dilemma"

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A series of
moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to determine the
reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario. The following is one example of the dilemmas
Kohlberg presented"
Heinz Steals the Drug: "In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There
was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging
ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small
dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money,
but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his
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wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I
discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the
man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was wrong or
right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The responses were then classified into
various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development.
1.3.2. Levels and Stages of moral development
1. Pre-conventional Morality
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment፡ The earliest stage of moral development is especially
common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this
stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to
avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange፡ At this stage of moral development, children account for
individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz
dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz‟s needs.
Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships፡ Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this
stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order፡ At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider
society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following
the rules, doing one‟s duty and respecting authority.
Level 3.Postconventional Morality
Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights፡ At this stage, people begin to account for the
differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a
society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 - Universal Principles፡ Kohlberg‟s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal
ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of
justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
1.3.3. Identification with Role Models that affects moral development of adolescents:
1. Parents: The first positive role model that any child should have is a parent. Nevertheless, many
parents fail to realize the value of modeling positive behavior to their children. They may try to instill
certain standards of behavior in their children, but children are more likely to imitate the behavior they
observe in a parent than to listen to any regulations that a parent hopes to impose (see Reference 2). As
a child grows into adolescence, his role models may be as diverse as musicians, friends or even
politicians. While his choice of role models may appear to be reckless or misguided, he is likely to
seek role models who demonstrate behavior that is consistent with the types of behavior modeled by
his parents or caregivers.
2. Peer Pressure: Peer pressure is often considered to be a negative force in the life of a teen.
Indeed, most teens will not choose to engage in negative behaviors such as smoking or premarital sex
unless coaxed to do so by her peers. Still, peer pressure often exerts a positive influence on the life of a
teen. Often, teens will provide support to one another in times of stress. For example, if a teen is
considering committing suicide, her friends will usually be the first to tell her that life is worth living.
1.3.4. Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:
 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned with
moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our
actual actions.

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 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out that
Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when making
moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring and other interpersonal feelings may play an
important part in moral reasoning.
 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic cultures emphasize
personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern
cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.
1.4. Gender Development
1.4.1. Some Basic Concepts
1. Gender Stereotyping: are general impressions and beliefs about females and males. For example,
men are powerful; women are weak. Men are good at mechanics; women are good nurses.
2. Masculinity and Femininity: Masculinity is a set of qualities, characteristics or roles generally
considered typical of or appropriate to a man. Whereas Femininity is a set of qualities, characteristics
or roles generally considered typical of or appropriate to a female/women.
Early adolescence is another transitional point that seems to be especially important in gender
development. Young adolescents have to cope with the enormous changes of puberty. These changes
are intensified by their expanding cognitive abilities, which make them acutely aware of how they
appear to others. Relations with others change extensively as dating relationships begin and sexuality
experienced. As female and male experiences the physical and social changes of early adolescence,
they must come to terms with new definitions of their gender roles. During the early adolescence,
individuals develop the adult physical aspects of sex.

2. Learning and Behavior Development

Introduction:
Learning is an important dimension of development. The meaning, principles, outcome, and
implications of learning and a variety of theories including behavioral and cognitive theories are sub
topics of the unit. The way teachers understand what learning implies affect teaching approaches. The
choice of teaching approaches has effects on the quality of learning. Thus, teachers have to understand
clearly from the different theories what teaching implies, design and try out different teaching
approaches and evaluate how they facilitate effective learning.

2.1. Behaviorist learning theories (design instruction, teaching, classroom management and
behavior modification)
The understanding of the behaviorist theories, particularly classical and operant conditioning uses to
analyze teaching. In the analysis, the quality of learning that is facilitated by this teaching approach is
considered.

2.1.1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

The concept of classical conditioning

- Was developed by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).

- Is a type of learning by the association of a stimulus that does ordinarily elicit a particular
response with another stimulus that does not elicit the response.
The key element in classical conditioning is association. It means that if two stimuli repeatedly
experienced together, they will become associated. e.g., if a student frequently encounters unpleasant

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stimuli in Mathematics class such as unfriendly teachers, difficult questions, and a lot of homework, he
may learn to dislike Mathematics.

Pavlov‟s Experiments: Pavlov discovered classical conditioning almost by accident. Originally, he

wanted to study the role of salivation indigestion. He measured how much saliva dogs produce when
given meat. After a few days in the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his laboratory started
salivating when the lab attendant entered the room with the meat dish, before meat was placed in their
mouth. This aroused Pavlov’s curiosity and he pursued the issue with more experiments. For example,
he sounded a bell just before presenting his dogs with food. After hearing the bell many times right
before getting fed, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. In other word, the dogs had
been conditioned to salivate in response to a new stimulus (the bell) that normally would not produce
salivation. The dogs had learned to associate the bell with food.

Types of Stimulus and Response in classical conditioning

Stimulus is an observable environmental event that has a potential to exert control over a behavioral
response. It is anything that can directly influence behaviour and the stimulus produces a
response. A response is an over behaviour by a learner.
In classical conditioning, there are 2 types of stimulus and 2 types of response. They are unconditioned
stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that can produce the response without any learning. •
Example: Meat.

Conditioned stimulus (CS) is stimulus acquired the ability to produce the response because it was
paired (associated) with the unconditioned stimulus. • Example: Bell.

Unconditioned response (UCR) is a response that is produced by the unconditioned stimulus •

Example: Salivation due to meat.

Conditioned response (CR) is a response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus • Example:
Salivation due to the bell.
The Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning are generalization, discrimination, and extinction.
Generalization Generalization occurs when similar stimuli to a CS produce the CR. A student may
generalize his fear to physics and chemistry tests although he had performed poorly
only on mathematics test. In this case, the physics and chemistry tests were similar
stimuli to the mathematics test and they produced the CR by themselves.
Discrimination Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It refers to the ability to differentiate
between similar stimuli. For example, a student may feel fear during mathematics
test but not during physics or chemistry tests. This shows that the student is able to
discriminate between appropriate and in appropriate situations for a response.
Extinction Extinction is the process of unlearning a learned response because of the removal of
the original source of learning. In classical conditioning, extinction is done by
repeatedly presenting the CS without the US. This action will decrease the frequency
of previously CR. Eventually, the CR disappears. In the example mentioned above, if
the student repeatedly passes the mathematics tests, his fear of mathematics tests will
disappear.

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2.1.2. Operant Conditioning
Operant or instrumental conditioning
- is a form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour lead to changes in the probability
that the behaviour will occur.
- Originated by Thondike (1874- 1949) and well developed by B.F. skinner .
- Has at its heart Law of Effect. This Law states that: “Behavior that brings about a satisfying
effect (reinforcement) is apt to be performed again, whereas behavior that brings about negative
effect (punishment) is apt to be suppressed.
Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the probability that behaviour will occur. punishment
is a consequence that decreases the probability behaviour will occur. In other words, reinforcement
will strengthen a behaviour while punishment will weaken a behaviour. There are 2 forms of
reinforcement and punishment : positive and negative

2.2: Cognitive learning theories

As there are some behaviors that are acquired through classical and/ or operant conditioning, there are
other aspects of psychological makeup that can also be acquired through cognitive learning.

Cognitive learning theories

- Expound the holistic nature of learning rather than the reductionist approach.
- Include four major theories from Bandura, Piaget, and Vygotsky, and Bruner.
Understanding these cognitive learning theories and using this understanding to design teaching
activities that enhance active learning in your class are focuses of this topic. In thinking about the
quality of the activities, you should consider concept such as active learning, cooperative learning, peer
tutoring, apprenticeship, contextual and situated learning
Cognitive Psychologists
 Focus on the study of how people think, understand, and know.
 Emphasize on learning how people comprehend and represent the outside world within
themselves and how the ways of thinking about the world influence behavior.
From a cognitive learning perspective, learning
- Involves the transformation of information in the environment into knowledge that is stored in
the mind.
- Occurs when new knowledge is acquired or existing knowledge is modified by experience. the
main issues studied and discussed by cognitive psychologists are that the cognitive theories:
o Present a positive view of development, emphasizing conscious thinking.
o Emphasize on the individual‟s active construction of understanding. (especially Piaget‟s
and Vygotsky‟s)
o Underscore the importance of examining developmental changes in children‟s
thinking(Piaget‟s and Vygotsky‟s theories)
o Offer detail descriptions of cognitive processes (The information processing theory).
Activity: What are the differences between Behavioral and Cognitive perspective pertaining to human
learning?

2.2.1: The Theory of Bandura and Observational Learning Theory

Social learning theory extends behaviorism. Both behaviorism and social learning theories
- Agree that experience is an important cause of learning.
- Include the concepts of reinforcement and punishment in their explanation of behavior,and

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 - Agree that feedback is important in promoting learning.
Observational / social Learning
- Most principles were developed by Bandura (Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2007).
- Believes that students learn by observing or watching and imitating other people. This is
modeling or observational learning. e.g., watching violent media develops aggressive behavior
in children.
- is so common and so powerful” Hinrichs, 2004.
- has newer version that is called the social cognitive theory. The change is due to a greater
emphasis on cognitive processes in learning.
Both social and cognitive factors play important roles in learning.” Bandura (1989).
- is a four steps processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation.
Process 1- Attention: To imitate a model‟s behavior, students must pay attention to what the model is
doing or saying. For example, seeing a teacher writing from the same perspective as the student see
their own makes observational learning easier.
Process 2- Retention: To produce a model‟s action, students must be able to store the action in their
memory for future retrieval. Students‟ retention will be improved when a teacher gives vivid, logical,
and clear demonstrations.
Process 3- Production after attending and remembering, students must be physically capable of
reproducing the model‟s action. Here, the students need a lot of practice, feedback, and coaching
before they can reproduce the model‟s action.
Process 4 – Motivation: The students must be motivated to demonstrate the model‟s action.
Reinforcement can be used to encourage observational learning. For example, a teacher can use direct
reinforcement such as saying “Good work!” or vicarious reinforcement ; such as , making a student
to see other students being reinforced for a particular behavior and then increases his own production
of that behavior.

Reciprocal Determination Model: Bandura developed a reciprocal determination model that

comprises 3 factors. The factors are behaviour, person, and environment as shown on Figure below.

Figure 2.2.1: Interactions of 3 factors in reciprocal determination model

Behaviour, environment and person factors interact to influence learning. They influence and are
influenced by each other. For example, a teacher‟s feedback (environment) can lead students to set

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higher goals (person/cognitive) and these goals will motivate students to put more efforts (behaviour)
in their studies.

Activity 1. How would observational learning be useful to you as a teacher?

2. What are some contributions and criticism of the social learning theory?

2.2.2: The Theory of Piaget

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
 was a biologist who originally studied mollusks (publishing twenty scientific papers at his 21 age)
 Moved into the study of the development of children's understanding, through observing them
and talking and listening to them while they worked on exercises he set.
 Viewed that the way children's minds work and develop has been enormously influential,
particularly in educational theory.
 His particular insight was the role of maturation (simply growing up) in children's increasing
capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are
psychologically mature enough to do so.
 His research has spawned a great deal more, much of which has undermined the detail of his own,
but like many other original investigators, his importance comes from his overall vision.
 Proposed that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly: instead, there are certain
points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and capabilities.
 Saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has
been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of
understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling the school
curriculum. Whether or not should be the case is a different matter.
Piaget's Key Ideas
Adaptation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which
may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.
Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation.
Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the other.

Classification The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.
Class Inclusion The understanding more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of
objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is
also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that
of dogs)
Conservation The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about
or made to look different.
Decentration The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate.
Egocentrism The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the
corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral
"selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development.
Operation The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and
pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out
(like count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their heads.
Schema (or The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go
scheme) together.

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 Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Characterized by c
Sensory motor Differentiates self from objects
( birth-2yrs) Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set
mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise
Achieves object permanence: realises that things continue to exist even when no longer
present to the sense (pace Bishop Berkeley)
Pre-operational Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words
pre-operational Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others
( 2-7 yrs) Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of
shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour
Can think logically about objects and events
Concrete operational Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)
(7-11yrs ) Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single
dimension such as size.
Formal operational Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically
11onwardsp) Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems
This scheme is too rigid: many children manage concrete operations earlier than he thought, and some
people never attain formal operations (or at least are not called upon to use them).
Piaget's approach is central to the school of cognitive theory known as "cognitive constructivism": other
scholars, such as Vygotsky and Bruner, known as "social constructivists", have laid more emphasis on
the part played by language and other people in enabling children to learn.
The combination of neuroscience and evolutionary psychology is beginning to suggest that the overall
developmental model is based on dubious premises. (It's too early to give)
2.2.3: GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
 is approach that was founded on the concept of the gestalt, or whole. Gestalt is a perspective
focuses on the belief that human consciousness cannot be broken down into its elements.
 originated from the work of Max Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), and his students Wolfgang Kohler
(1887 – 1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886 – 1941) who contributed to our understanding of
perception.
 pointed out that perception has meaning only when it is seen as a whole.(Plural „Gestalten”)
is German for “pattern”, “figure”, “shape”, or “form”.
 is used to refer to wholes, systems and complete structures rather than the reductionist
approach of seeking ever smaller components of a phenomenon.In learning, it concentrates on
the way in which the mind insists on finding patterns in things, and how this contributes to
learning, especially the development of “insight”.
Figure 2.2.1 illustrated the gestalt perception which saw that the whole is different from the sum of the parts.

Figure 2.2.1: Gestalt saw that the whole is different from the sum of the parts
Gestalt psychology
- is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic,
parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies, or that the whole is different from the sum of its
parts.

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- refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition
of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.
- believed that learning is the result from good perception, which enable an individual to form correct
concept in their mind.
- proposed the principles or law for perceptual organization
- consisted of six principles, which are good form, figure or ground, similarity, proximity, closure, and
continuity.
i) The Law of Good form or Pragnanz: Gestalt psychologists were of the view that psychological
organization will always be as „good‟ as prevailing conditions allow. For Gestalt psychologists, form is
the primitive unit of perception. When we perceive, we will always pick out form. Our perceptions are
influenced by our past experiences. This principle is also called Pragnanz Law. (Tan OonSeng et al.,
2003).
ii) The Law of Figure – Ground Discrimination: The Rubin vase shown in Figure 2.2.1 is an
example of this tendency to pick out form. We do not simply see black and white shapes; we also see
two faces and a vase.

Figure 2.2.1: Two faces or a vase? (From Spooncer, 1992 p.35)

What about Figure 2.2.2 Do you see a young lady or an old lady?

Figure 2.2.2: Young Lady or Old Lady? (From Spooncer, 1992 p.35)
iii) The Law of Proximity
Figure 2.2.3: Two men and the table

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  When you look at “A” you see (a man + a man) + a table.
 When you look at “B” you see (a man + a table) + a man.

Things, which are close together in space or time, tend to be perceived as grouped together. Thus, if
you want your audience to associate the product with the presenter, put them close together; if you
want them to perceive two ideas as associated, present them in close proximity.
iv) The Law of Similarity

Figure 2.2.3: Trees in different shapes

Things that are similar are likely to form „Gestalten‟ as groups. So, in the graphic labeled with A (on
the left), you probably see an X of fir trees against a background of the others. In the graphic labeled
with B (on the right), you may see a square of the other trees, partly surrounded by fir trees. The fact
that, in picture labeled with A, we see an X while in the picture labeled with B, and we can see a
square, incidentally, an example of good form or Prägnanz.

V) The Law of Closure

Figure 2.2.3: Words and shape

Perceptually, we have the tendency to fill in the gaps. In other words, we can still read WASHO, see
the square and read „perception‟ despite the missing information. You probably know that redundancy
can be deliberately added into messages to increase the likely fidelity of reception, but the Gestalt
psychologists‟ law of closure suggests that it certainly is not always necessary.

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vi)The Law of Continuity
When you see figure 5.10(1), you are much more likely to see it as consisting of two lines like
5.10(1a), rather than of the two shapes 5.10(1b).This is the Gestalt principle of continuity which saw a
single unbroken line is likely to be seen as an entity.

Activity: According to Gestalt psychology perceptual organization influence good learning.

Explain the five perceptual law regarding human perception by Gestaltists.

2.2.4: Vygotsky and cognitive development

Vygotsky believed that we encoded and represent our world through language, and our thoughts are
based on language-“inner speech.” Social interaction plays an important role in the transformation and
interpretation process. Vygotsky argued that development first takes place on a social plane. The child
observes the parents‟ behavior, listens to the parents‟ speech, and tries to imitate. The parent‟s guide
the child in his/her efforts, making connections when needed and providing greater challenges when
appropriate. Development is the conversion of social relationships into mental functions.
Basic concepts of Vygotsky

 Zone of proximal development-is a distance between the actual developmental level as

determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more
capable peer. In other words, it is the difference between what children can do independently and
what they can do with help.
 Scaffolding- the process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be
known. This occurs into the ZPD. The more competent person supports the learner in their
endeavor to reach the new level of development.
Some differences between Piaget and Vygotsky
 Piaget believed that development proceeds from the individual to the social world
whereas Vygotsky believed that development begins at the social level and moves
towards individual internalization.
 Piaget maintains that development precedes learning; in contrast, instruction precedes
development according to Vygotsky.
2.2.5: Bruner and Learning via Insight
Jerome Bruner (1978) proposed learning via insight. Learning via insight theory highlights the
influence of our motivations on our selected perceptions and learning. Bruner presented teachers with a
developmental model suggesting that our motivation changes developmentally.

There are 3 stages of motivation. They are enactive, iconic, and symbolic.

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Enactive: When we are very young, our motivation to perceive and learn is “enactive”, meaning that
when we are motivated to perceive things that we can manipulate physically via our overt hands-on
experiences.
Iconic: When we reach school age, our motivation to perceive is “iconic”, meaning that we are
motivated to perceive things that are tied less to the physical manipulation. We are motivated to
perceive and learn from pictures and visual aids or memories from familiar experiences.
Symbolic: In adolescent as in adulthood, our motivation to perceive is “symbolic”, meaning that we
learn what is presented neither enactively or iconically. We can understand and utilize abstract
concepts without having to handle them or having them represented concretely.
Bruner concluded that: “At any age we learn best when we are motivated to perceive by insightful
experiences.”

Insightful experiences evoke our powers of induction. We seek answers to questions, we solve
problems and we make connections between clues because we want to answer, solve, and make those
connections. He translated his ideas of learning via insight through discovery learning.
Example: Teacher asked her class a problem:
Question-1: Mulu is two years older than Rishan and one year younger than Abraha. Who are the
youngest of them all?
Question-1: Solomn is shorter than Feyissa and is taller than Jula. Who is the tallest?
She directed her class‟s attention to the problem and let them try to solve it, piece by piece; she was
encouraging their learning through insight.
2.3: Learning in school settings: aids, gains and losses
In this topic, you have to revisit and sharpen your understanding about motivation, memory and
transfer of learning. The aim is to make you improve your competencies in motivating your students,
helping them to improve their memory and making them able to learn better in different situations.
2.3.1: Behaviorism in the classroom
This section describes how teachers can apply the principles of behaviorism in the classroom. It is
divided into three subsections according to the perspectives discussed earlier that are classical
conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory.
i) Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classroom: The key element in classical conditioning is
association. Therefore, teachers are encouraged to associate variety of positive and pleasant events
with learning and classroom activities. For example, a teacher may:
 Use attractive learning aids.
 Decorate the classrooms.
 Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult learning tasks.
 Greet the students and smile at them when he comes to the classroom.
 Inform the students clearly and specifically the format of quizzes, tests, and examinations.
 Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms.
 Give ample time for students to prepare for and complete the learning tasks.
ii) Applying Operant Conditioning in the Classroom: In operant conditioning, the
consequences of behaviour produce changes in the probability that the behaviour will
occur. Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main concepts in operant conditioning. The
following are some examples on how operant conditioning can be applied in the
classrooms.

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  Recognize and reinforce positive behaviors and genuine task accomplishments.
 Use various types of reinforcement such as teacher approval (praise, smiles, attention,
and pats on the shoulder), concrete reinforcement (cookies, candies, and stationeries)
and privileges (longer recess time and more time with friends).
 Reinforce good behaviors and punish bad ones consistently.
 Use schedule of reinforcement, such as surprise rewards, to encourage persistence.
 Use positive punishment as the last option. Use negative punishment, such as
detention class, instead.
 Punish students‟ behavior, not their personal qualities.
 Tell the students which behavior is being punished.
iii) Applying the Social Learning Theory in the Classroom: The social learning theory focuses
on how people learn by observing and imitating others. To motivate learning using this
approach, a teacher may:
 Use high-achieving and successful peers as models.
 Model positive behaviors himself.
 Use vicarious reinforcement, that is, make sure students see that positive behaviors will
lead to positive consequences.
 Demonstrate and teach good behaviors.
2.3.2: Cognitive theory in the classroom
Teachers can apply concepts from cognitivists in the classroom to enhance their students
understanding. The steps taken are discussed below.
Meaningful learning • Teachers need to promote more effective learning, the teacher need to link new information
to familiar information.
• Example: If teacher want to teach about rice plantation, it is advisable for him to organize
trip to SabakBernam where rice are planted or show them video showing rice plantation in
SabakBernam.
Dual coding theory • Guide students to process information using dual coding theory.
• Dual coding theory suggests that we remember better when two processes are engage:
visual learning and verbal learning.
Schema theory • Engage student in schema theory while teaching.
• This theory suggested that our prior knowledge can facilitate or enhance transfer of
learning.
• Example: In teaching account, teacher may use prior knowledge or formula they have
learned earlier in mathematics.
Phases of learning

• Gagne (1985) translated the information-processing model into an instructional model called “phases of learning.”
Gagne (1985) parallels information processing with instructional events.
Internal Process Instructional Event Action Example
Reception Expectancy 1. Gaining attention Use abrupt stimulus change. Tell learners
2. Informing learners of the objective. what they will be able to do after learning.
Retrieval to Working 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning. Ask for recall of previously learned
memory knowledge or skills.
Selective perception 4. Presenting the stimulus. Display the content with distinctive features.
Semantic encoding 5. Providing “learning guidance”. Suggest meaningful learning.
Responding 6. Eliciting performance. Require additional learner performance, with
Reinforcement Retrieval 7. Providing feedback. feedback.
& reinforcement 8. Assessing performance.
Retrieval and 9. Enhancing retention and transfer. Provide varied practice and space reviews.
Generalization.

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2.3.3: Information Processing Model (IPM):
The Information Processing Theory approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the
American experimental tradition in psychology. Information processing theorists proposed that like a
computer, a human mind is a system that processes information through the application of logical rules
and strategies. The mind has a limited capacity for the amount and nature of the information it can
process.

Figure 2.3.2.1: Information processing model

The terminology of the Information Processing Model as illustrated in Figure 5.12 emphasizing the
significance of “encoding” (input) of information, the “storage” of information, and the “retrieval”
(access) of information. The language and the metaphor often used is one of the minds of as computer.
IPM theorist, U.Neisser, maintains that the correlation between cognition and computers is a powerful
one (Benjafeld, 1992 in Tan, 2003). Most IPM theorists see the computer as only a metaphor for
human mental activity.
Finally, just as the computer can be made into a better information processor by changing its hardware
and its software (programming), so do children who become more sophisticated thinkers through
changes in their brains and sensory systems (hardware) and in the rules and strategies (software) that
they learn.

Activity: Describe the features of three stages of memory storage in Information Processing model.
Multi-Store Model of Memory
One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of memory. The dominant view is labelled
the “stage theory” and is based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). The Atkinson-
Shiffrinmodel(also known as the Multi-store model, Multi-memory model and the Modal model) is a
psychological model proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin as a proposal for the
structure of memory.

It proposed that human memory involves a sequence of three stages, which are sensory memory, short-
term memory and long-term memory as shown in Figure 2.3.2.2.

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Figure 2.3.2.2: Multi-store model of memory (also known as the, Multi-memory model and the Modal
model)
The multi-store model is a very common model of memory assuming that there are different types of
memory used for different tasks. It is an explanation of how memory processes work. You hear, see
and feel many things, but you can only remember a few. These link together in an effective sequence
as explained below.

a) Sensory Memory: The first stage is sensory memory, which contains receptors that briefly hold on
to only that information that enters through our senses. Sensory memory is affiliated with the
transudation of energy(change from one form of energy to another). The environment makes a variety
of sources of information(light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.) available, but the brain only understands
electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transducer (change from one form of
energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of
transudation, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3
seconds for hearing).

Figure 2.3.2.3: Sense organ

The sense organs have a limited ability to store information about the world in a fairly unprocessed
way for less than a second. Example:
• The visual system possesses iconic memory for visual stimuli such as shape, size, colour and location
(but not meaning)
• The hearing system has echoic memory for auditory stimuli. Coltheart et al (1974) have argued that
the momentary freezing of visual input allows us to select which aspect of the input should go on for
further memory processing. The existence of sensory memory has been experimentally demonstrated
by Sperling(1960) using a tachistoscope.

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 b) Short-term memory: The second stage is short-term memory, a temporary storage facility. Short-
term memory is also called working memory and relates to what we are thinking about at any given
moment in time.
According to Freudian:“Short term memory is conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention
to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20
seconds unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available for up
to 20 minutes”. Freudian

Figure 2.3.2.4: The frontal lobe, the structure associated with working memory.
The hypothalamus is a brain structure thought to be involved in this shallow processing of information.
While the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex as labeled in Figure 5.15 is the structure associated with
working memory. For Example, you are processing the words you read on the screen in your frontal
lobes. However, if I ask, “What is your telephone number?” Your brain immediately calls that from
long-term memory and replaces what was previously there. Another process that is sometimes used to
expand the capacity of short-term memory is called chunking. Chunking is a process by which we
group individual bits of information into some types of large, more meaningful unit.

c) Long-term memory: The third stage is long-term memory (LTM). LTM provides the lasting retention of
information, from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory appears to have an almost limitless capacity to
retain information, but it could never be measured, as it would take too long. Contemporary psychologists agree
that long-term memory can be divided into subtypes of declarative and procedural memory (Santrock, 2008).
Declarative memory is subdivided into episodic memory and semantic memory.
•PM is non-declarative knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations.
Procedural •PM cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or facts.
memory •PMt is sometimes called “knowing how,” and recently it also has been described as “implicit
memory.”
• When students apply their abilities to perform a dance, their procedural memory is at work.
• DM is the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts/events that can be verbally
Declarative communicated.
memory • DM has been called “knowing that” and more recently has been labeled “explicit memory.”
• Demonstrations of student‟s declarative memory such as describing a basic principle of math.
Episodic • EMs are the memories we have for times and places (like first day Aidilfitri celebration).
memories • Information encoded in our episodic memory is in the form of images.
Semantic SMs are our memories for general facts and concepts. Most of what we learned in school
memories (instructional content) is stored in our semantic memories.
Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconscious memory in Freudian terms.
• Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily recalled (although it may take several
minutes or even hours) while

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• Unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness.
It is the preconscious memory that is the focus of cognitive psychology as it relates to the long-term
memory. The level of processing theory, however, has provided some researches that attest to the fact
that we “know” more than we can easily recall.
According to Brynes, There are two process in appear in facilitating our efforts, they are rehearsal
(practice) and elaboration (Byrnes, 1996). Elaboration of information processing strategy emphasizes
links between the information stored in the long-term memory and the new information. When we talk
about information processing model, we cannot avoid discussing memory and forgetting, how to
enhance student‟s long-term memory and what factors contribute to forgetting. We will discuss it later
in the next chapter.

Steps To Enhance Long-Term Memory

According to Santrock, “Long term memory meaning information is retained in the long term memory
over time”. (Santrock, 2007 ). Teacher can help students store and retrieve the information in the
long-term memory using methods such as positive transfer, dual coding theory, rehearsal, instructional
strategies, mnemonics, and memory gadgets or devices. Descriptions of these methods are explained in
Figure 2.3.1.
Table 2.3.1: List of methods to help students store the information, in the long-term memory
Positive transfer
 Teacher may transfer learning using appropriate strategies or activities.
 Schema theory suggest teacher to activate prior knowledge and make connection with new knowledge to
enhance student‟s learning.
Dual coding theory
 In dual coding theory, theorists suggest that we remember better when two processes are engage such as
visual learning and verbal learning.
 For example, a teacher guide young children to write the digit “8” may provide verbal instruction as well
as visual presentation. She may begin with pencil on the chil‟s paper saying, “Let’s start by writing the
letter S and then curving back to join the open end joining something like that looks like two circles
touching each other on the side.”
Rehearsal
 Student may use two types of rehearsal that is maintenance and elaborative.
 Maintenance rehearsal is rote repetition of the information in STM, like repeating phone number a few
dozen times.
 Elaborative rehearsal is not based on mere repetition but occurs when the information is expanded,
embellished on, and related to other concepts already in LTM.
Instructional strategies
Teacher may use instructional strategies that actively involved students in learning such as group discussion,
singing and reading aloud, cooperative learning, inquiry, discovery, experimenting or leaning by doing.
Mnemonics
- Teacher may use mnemonic devices such as acronyms whilst teaching important facts. E.g., of acronym is
SMS for short messages service or FELDA for Federal Land Development Authority.
• Another type of mnemonic such as peg word.- E.g.of pegword is “EmakSuka Pizza” for types of memory
in long term memory that is Episodic, Semantic, and Procedural.
Memory gadgets or devices
• Students may use memory device such as mind mapping, graphic organizer, fish – bone diagram, tree
diagram, etc to enhance their understanding and good memory.
Unit Three: Student Support: Guidance and Counseling
Introduction: In this topic, you have to revise and deepen your understanding about guidance and
counseling and use this understanding to assist your students to solve their academic and social

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problems in the school. The aim is to provide guidance and counseling services to students to make
their school and future lives healthy, comfortable and productive.
Learning Objectives:
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
 define the terms guidance, and counseling
 identify the aims and objectives of guidance and counseling in schools
 identify the needs for guidance and counseling
 Identify the characteristics of effective guidance and counselors.
 demonstrate knowledge of the importance of guidance and counseling to teachers and students
 critically analyze the concepts, scope, and theories that govern the process of guidance and
counseling
 use the principles and functions of guidance and counseling to ensure a safe learning
environment in school
 identify and apply different tools of data collection in different situations
select and apply appropriate counseling techniques to solve students‟ problems
 Coordinate and communicate with various stakeholders in the process of guidance and
counseling.
3.1. Concept of Guidance and Counseling
Activity 1: Dear students, what is guidance and counseling? Discuss with your peers to answer the
question for about 15 minutes.
The terms guidance and counseling have been loosely or interchangeably used. Guidance is a term
which is broader than counseling and it includes counseling as one of its services. Butter makes a
logical separation of the counseling process i.e. (i) adjustive and (ii) distributive phase. In the
adjustive phase, the emphasis is on social, personal and emotional problems of the individual, in the
distributive phase the focus is upon educational, vocational and occupational problems. The
distributive phase„ can be most aptly described as guidance„while the adjustive„ phase can be
considered as description of counseling„.

Guidance and counseling are two sides of the same coin. The goal in both cases is to give an
opportunity for an individual to see a variety of available options and thereafter, assist the person in
making a wise choice. Guidance is the process that is put in place at a time a choice is to be made.
Counseling on the other hand i) helps with considering all sides of a potential choice even before the
choice is made; ii) takes place when a choice has been made and there is a need to modify, reinforce or
abandon such a choice.

The basic purpose of a guidance and counseling program is to ensure the physical, emotional, social,
and educational development of learners. Since primary school students spend most of the school day
with just a few teachers, these teachers are in a favorable position to perform their role as a counselor
for their students. They can assume their counseling role at two levels – school and classroom. At
school level, their role as counselor will be oriented towards the more general and common problems
of primary schoolchildren. In contrast, their role as classroom counselor will be slanted towards the
more specific and individual problems of their students.

Definitions:

Guidance is a broad term that is applied to a school‟s program of activities and services that are aimed
at assisting students to make and carry out adequate plans and to achieve satisfactory adjustment in
life. Guidance can be defined as a process, developmental in nature, by which an individual is assisted
to understand, accept and utilize his/her abilities, aptitudes and interests and attitudinal patterns in
relation to his/her aspirations. Guidance as an educational construct involves those experiences, which
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assist each learner to understand him/herself, accept him/herself and live effectively in his/her society.
This is in addition to the learner having learning experiences about the world of work and people
therein.

Guidance can also be looked at as a program of services to people based upon the need of each
individual, an understanding of his/her immediate environment, the influence of environmental factors
on the individual and the unique features of each school. Guidance is designed to help each person
adjust to his/her environment, develop the ability to set realistic goals for him/herself, and improve
his/her total educational program. As a process, guidance is not a simple event but it involves a series
of actions or steps progressively moving towards a goal. As a service, we can isolate three major
services, that of educational, vocational,
personal and social guidance.
1. Educational Guidance: Educational guidance is so far as it can be distinguished from any other
from of guidance, is concerned with the provision of assistance to pupils in their choices in and
adjustment to the schools‟ curriculum and school life in general. Educational guidance is therefore
essential in counseling service. Guiding young people to pursue the right type of education in which,
for example the right balance is met for accommodating the human resource needs of a nation.
2. Vocational Guidance: Vocational guidance is a process of helping individuals to choose an
occupation, prepare for, enter into and progress in it. Vocational happiness requires that a person‟s
interests, aptitudes and personality be suitable for his/her work. It plays its part by providing
individuals with a comprehension of the world of work and essential human needs, thus familiarizing
individuals with such terms as `dignity of labor‟ and `work value‟.
3. Personal and Social Guidance: Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual
on how to behave with consideration to other people. Primarily, personal and social guidance helps the
individual to understand oneself, how to get along with others, manners and etiquette, leisure time
activities, social skills, family and family relationships and understanding masculine and feminine
roles.
Counseling is usually viewed as one part of guidance services; it is subsumed by the general term,
guidance, in that it is one service within guidance rather than a synonym. It is difficult to think of one
definition of counseling. This is because definitions of counseling depend on the theoretical orientation
of the person defining it. Let us examine some of these definitions.

Counseling is learning-oriented process which usually occurs in an interactive relationship with the
aim of helping the person learn more: about the self; about others, and about situations and events
related to given issues and conditions and also to learn to put such understanding to being an effective
member of the society.
Counseling is a process in which the helper expresses care and concern towards the person with a
problem to facilitate that person‟s personal growth and positive change through self-understanding.
Counseling denotes a relationship between a concerned person and a person with a need. This
relationship is usually person-to-person, although sometimes it may involve more than two people. It is
designed to help people understand and clarify their views of their life-space, and to learn to reach their
self-determined goals through meaningful, well-informed, choices and through resolution of problems
of an emotional or interpersonal nature. It can be seen from these definitions that counseling may have
different meanings.
Activity 2: a) List any four activities you have carried out in your department within the last one year
that are (a) guidance and (b) counseling in nature. b) From your list, indicate the elements which
distinguish each activity as either guidance or counseling.
In fact, counseling is provided under a variety of different labels. For example, there are instances
where counseling is offered in the context of a relationship which is primarily focused on other, non-
counseling concerns. For example, a student may see a teacher as a person with whom it is safe to
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share worries and anxieties. In such a situation it seems appropriate to see what is happening as being a
teacher using counseling skills rather than engaging in an actual counseling relationship. The teacher is
counseling but not being a counselor.
Guidance programs and the counseling service within them, usually deal with situational and
environmental conditions. Counseling is often seen as assistance given individuals to attain a clear
sense of identity. Counseling, as well as the total guidance program, stressed rational planning,
problem-solving, and support in the face of situational pressures. The counseling relationship is usually
characterized by much less intensity of emotional expression than that found in the therapeutic
relationship. Counseling services are usually located in schools, universities, community service
agencies, and pastoral organizations, while psychotherapeutic services are usually found in clinics,
hospitals, and private practice. The recipients of counseling are `normal‟ individuals rather than those
who exhibit abnormal or extreme modes of adjustment. Psychotherapy exists for individuals with
psychological disorders. Counseling helps the essentially normal individual remove frustrations and
obstacles that interfere with development, while psychotherapy attempts to deal with disabling or
disintegrating conflicts.
Counseling focuses upon helping the individual to cope with development tasks such as self-
definition, independence, and the like. Attention is given to clarifying the individual‟s assets, skills,
strengths, and personal resources in terms of role development. Counseling approaches, are based more
upon emphasizing present conscious material (material available within the individual‟s awareness)
while psychotherapeutic approaches tend to emphasize historic and symbolic materials, relying heavily
upon reactivation and consideration of unconscious processes.
Activity 3: Go through the statement of views on the meanings of guidance and of counseling. Review
these views with your peer in the class. Agree on a meaning for each of the two terms (guidance;
counseling). What are the commonalities in your meanings (or definitions) and those listed above?

3.2. Guidance and Counseling in Schools

The basic aim of a guidance and counseling program is to help student teachers identify problems or
issues in schools, and then to develop a rationale for a guidance and counseling program in a school
setting. This unit will provide comprehensive knowledge about school-wide guidance and counseling
programs, which will encourage Student Teachers to use their creativity and fresh ideas to
conceptualize their own guidance and counseling programs in school. It will also develop their ability
to perceive, respond to, and manage the whole spectrum of guidance and counseling in schools through
an action plan.

The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A school guidance and
counseling program includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render
assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The
fundamental aim of guidance and counseling program being the maximum development of the child,
all guidance counseling program must be geared toward attainment of the goal. Guidance and
counseling services can assist the pupils in knowing themselves-their potentialities and limitations,
making appropriate choices in educational, vocational and other fields. Some of the important
guidance services are:
 The orientation services  Group guidance services
 Student inventory services  Placement services
 Career Information services  Research and evaluation services
 Counseling services
Learners in the school systems come in with a wide variety of backgrounds. There is diversity in their
entry socio-economic and academic profiles. This diversity translates into a differential in their
behavior patterns. Yet our desire is to ensure that all are found worthy in learning

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 In institutions of learning (schools), guidance and counseling should address learners‟ difficulties.
These difficulties encompass the whole spectrum of student life in institutions of higher learning. A
number of them may have negative impact on the teaching/learning process. Counseling should probe
what students‟ difficulties are and then approach them systematically. For example, in diagnosing
learning difficulties the lecturer should focus on the following aspects:

Difficulties that arise during instruction: these may be related to the content, the lecturer or the way of
presentation.
Difficulties after instruction: these may be related to social activities of the student or they may be
related to the facilities themselves. In such cases where should the information come from? The
sources of relevant information about learners can be found or gleaned through the following:
Individual observation. This requires that individual lecturers are keen in noting any strange things
that happen to the students or with the students. The observation should arise out of a genuine desire to
help and get involved with the students.
Student statements: Students invariably make statements and comments which are indicative of the
struggles that they may face. The lecturers should be prepared to note these comments and statements
which are indicative of or are symptoms of other things that may appear later.

The Goal of Guidance and Counseling

The goal of guidance and counseling is to make it possible for an individual to see and explore his or
her unlimited endowed options Odeck, 1999). Educationally, guidance should involve those
experiences which assist each learner to understand and accept oneself so as to live effectively in
society.
Major Service Areas
The major service areas of guidance and counseling in schools include:
Educational guidance and counseling. This aspect of counseling should concern itself with assisting
the students in their curriculum and school life choices. Students need assistance in subject they learn
and planning for the subjects that they take at the institutions of learning. All teachers could be
involved in this without any need for specialized training in counseling.
Vocational guidance and counseling: This aspect of counseling addresses the learners‟ problems as
regards to vocational choices. Again here the lecturers are best placed to give relevant advice to
learners since they know their academic strengths and weaknesses in areas that may pertain to specific
vocations, occupations or jobs. The fact that the lecturers know the interests and aptitudes of most of
their students makes them the best persons to assist their students in areas that are related to their
vocations.
Personal and social guidance and counseling: This aspect of counseling refers to the very personal
problems that students meet. These problems may range from financial needs to interpersonal
relationships. Although the lecturers may help to reduce these pressures, there is need for more
specialized assistance from professionally trained hands. The fact that the lecturers may have an upper
hand in interaction with the students only goes to show how crucial it is that they should get involved.
As role models to the majority of students it is important the lectures are made aware of their crucial
role in social guidance.
Student records and follow up: These usually yield information that would facilitate a lecturer to
assist a student whose problem may have been ignored or brushed aside for along time.
The major service areas of guidance and counseling in schools are:
Educational guidance and counseling is that which assists students in their curriculum and school
life choices.
Vocational guidance which assists the individual to choose and prepare for an occupation that is
compatible with his interests and aptitudes.

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Personal and social guidance which assists the individual to behave appropriately in relation to other
members of the society.
Counseling could be conceived as an interactive relationship between two or more persons that can
take a variety of forms. It may address non-educational issues or even non counseling concerns.
Counseling should be seen as a service provided to normal individuals to assist them remove or cope
with frustrations and obstacles that interfere with their development.

Activity 4: Comment on the view that teachers are best placed to give relevant advice to learners
since they know their academic strengths and weaknesses. The fact that the teachers know the interests
and aptitudes of most of their students makes them the best persons to assist their students in their
learning. How are you as a teacher in a school fitted to play these roles?
3.3. Types of Guidance and Counseling in schools
Types of guidance and counseling include: Individual and Group - Individual guidance, Group
Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance, Organization of Group Guidance activities, Techniques of
Group Guidance, Advantages of Group Guidance, Limitations of Group Guidance
Individual guidance and counseling:
Individual guidance and counseling is tailored to an individual. It is advice, strategy or planning
designed for a singular person or thing and their unique situation. This is in contrast to general
guidance which is frequently based on demographic information such as age or income or meant for
the general population. The most common reference to individual guidance and counseling is in
reference to children or students.
Individual guidance and counseling can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional advice,
given to a person based on their unique circumstances. This could include legal services, career
counseling, financial planning, medical or psychological advice or a number of other areas where a
trained professional is looked to for direction/support in a given area.
Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance: Group refers to collection of people, interaction
between individuals, development of shared perceptions, the development of affective ties and the
development of interdependence of roles. For example many students and /teachers at one school may
gather together to form a group.

Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance which are carried on in a group situation to
assist its members to have experiences desirable or even necessary for making appropriate decisions in
the prevailing contexts. In a more specific term, it is guiding the individual in a group situation. Group
could be of any type ,but for guidance purposes a group should have a common goal. Just collection of
individual may not be called a group for organizing guidance activities. Selection of group members
will have to depend on sharing a common problem, volunteering to be members and willingness to
group activities.
Jones, A.J (1951) defines group guidance ‗as any group enterprise or activity in which the primary
purpose is to assist each individual in the group to solve his problems and to make his adjustment„.
Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a
number of students to implement program that would benefit them at all time. Students in group with
common problems and concerns are helped in groups i.e. small or large. In other words, if guidance is
to be available to all, it should be planned in groups.
Some of the objectives of group guidance are:
1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyze them and find relevant solutions
2. To place a wide range of information before people with common problems which could be useful
for them for finding solutions?
3. To provide a platform where people with common problems could interact with each other and
could be benefited by each other„s perspectives, ideas and experiences

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 4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an opportunity to express themselves
and in the process analyze themselves.
Organization of Group Guidance Activities: Planning of group guidance activity may focus the
following points.
1. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to find out the common problems of
individuals in the group. This can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists and interview.
2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities: Depending upon the group
activity the size of the group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and manageable. The
venue should be selected taking in to account the group selected for activity.
3. Selection of members and role specifications: The participants selection for group guidance
activity is also very important. The students for example should be communicated about their roles in
group activities.
4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified. It should be stated in clear, objective
and measurable terms.
5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we want to conduct the activities
purposefully, it should be properly monitored taking into account the goal/s. Feedback about activity
needs to be collected from participants.
Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk, career talk, displays and exhibitions.
Techniques of Group Guidance: A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance.
Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage students should have knowledge about
different career. A group discussion may be organized in the school. For organization of the group
discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and expert/resource person should be selected.
The group discussion will be useful only if the members participate effectively without the fear and all
the members have the opportunity to participate. But the effectiveness of the group discussion depends
upon the facilitator and the group selected.
Problem solving: For solving individual as well as common problems, problem solving can be
applied as a technique. It comprises of the following steps;
 Existence of common problem
 Focused description of the problem
 Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant facts
 Analysis of problem in the light of data collected
 Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them
 Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group
Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique of guidance. Role playing is a
method where real life situations are simulated by group members/participants. This provides new
insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of opposing viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of
the following steps;
 Existence of common problem
 Orientation of group to role playing and the problem
 Assigning of roles
 Preparation of other members/audience to observe intelligently
 Assessing the role play
 Concluding session and feedback
Other methods like case study and sociometric technique can be used as group guidance technique.
Advantages of Group guidance: We have discussed about different activities and approaches of
group guidance. Some of the advantages of group guidance are as follows:
Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group setting inspires learning and
understanding of students. The student learns from other member of group.

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Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save time and effort of both the counselor and
students. The time saved can be used for the more difficult and complex problems of students.
Improvement of student’s attitude and behavior: Development of wholesome and helpful
awareness of unrecognized needs and problems of student/s
Limitations of Group Guidance: Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they cannot be
taken as a substitute for individual counseling. Group activities serve many of the objectives of the
school guidance program, but not all of these. Further students may feel hesitant to come out with their
personal problems in the group. So, in these cases group guidance cannot be of help. Group guidance
activities serve useful purposes specially saving in time and effort. While organizing these activities,
some problems that a counselor may face are mentioned below: A rigid type of administration is often
a major cause of trouble. Generally, when the counselor asks for time in the time table for conducting
these guidance activities, he/she may get a discouraging reply, the time table is already full. No periods
are free. So the counselor is left with no other choice than to take the substitute management period.
Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff members may also create
problems in organizing such activities. Teacher may feel this as an addition burden. Lack of adequate
funds is another problem.
Summarizing exercise
Exercise 5: What is individual guidance and counseling?
What is group guidance and counseling?
What are the objectives of group guidance?
How can you organize group guidance activities?
State the techniques of group guidance. Explain Role play technique of group guidance.
Purpose Type and Use
Cognitive Measure Psychometric Tests; e.g. for measuring intelligence Quotient (I.Q), cognitive
style/preference; self-concept, reasoning skills sand problem solving.
Achievement Tests: for measuring achievement in cognitive domain such as
subject matter test.
Affective Measures Questionnaires, Inventories, Opinionnaires For measuring attitudes,
perceptions and affective behaviors.
Psychomotor Measures Observational Schemes, Practical skills inventory For measuring different
aspects of practical abilities
Instrument Development and Validation
The table above gives the stages in the development of any of the instrument listed in the table
Domain Specification: This is where the construct, attitude or skill to be measured is identified and
specified in both general and specific terms. It includes:
 Preparation of Blueprint  Pilot Testing
 Item Writing  Finalization
 First Level Validation and Revision
Preparation of Test Instrument: This is an important stage of preparing the plan or blueprint for
writing items for the instrument. The plan showing coverage of the instrument in terms of objectives
and domain content are put on a grid. This is to ensure that the domain in focus is covered in breath
and in depth.
Item Writing: This is the process of composing the first draft of the instrument by writing its
component items. The structure of the instrument starts developing from this stage. It is perhaps the
most intellectually demanding step in the process of instrument development. The process ends when
the distribution of items in the test blueprint is completely covered.
First Level Validation and Revision: After the first draft of the instrument is composed, it is
subjected to validation for face and content validity. Comments from the validation items are used to
revise the structure and items on the instrument.

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Pilot Testing: The revised draft is pilot tested on a sample of the population for which the instrument
is meant. Further refinement of the instrument is made on the basis of pilot test data.
Finalization: Data from the pilot testing exercise are used to further refine the instrument. At this time,
the reliability values are determined.
Adapting Instruments
Sometimes, it is not worth the effort developing and validating a new instrument if standardized forms
exist. It could be like re-inventing the wheel Most times however, it may not be able to use the
standardize instrument in the pure form without adapting it to our situation. Adaptation could be with
minimum modification. The modification could also be major. The direction of modification is usually
in the areas of:
- Degree of fit with the test blueprint
- Cultural bias
- Length.
After modification, the instrument should be subjected to validation and reliability examination as if it
was a new instrument.
Develop and validate the following instruments which could facilitate your providing objective
guidance and counseling service to your students.
Activity 6: 1. A questionnaire to collect background data on your students that are relevant to their
academic, social and career guidance needs.
2. A questionnaire to measure their attitude towards the course you teach.
3. A 50 item achievement test in your course which will reveal the learning difficulties of your student.
Exercise: Adapt a standardized psychometric inventory e.g. for measuring self-concept for use in your
class. Provide an opportunity for your students to talk about themselves: their “now” and their
“tomorrow”. Note what they avoid saying, what they emphasize and relate these to your prior
knowledge of each student. Do you gaina better understanding? Are you confused the more?
Activity 7:
1. Administer the questionnaire you developed in for measuring the attitude of your students towards
your teaching. Score the items in the questionnaire. Remember to reverse scoring for negative terms.
Take the total for each section of the questionnaire and for the whole instrument.
Calculate the mean for the group. Record the scores for each student in the different sections and also
the total scores. What counseling decisions need to be taken on the basis of the graph?
2. Call selected students on individual basis and get to know them better based on item of exercise 6.
e.g. “You said in class that you were xyz, but efg is what I knew of you. Can you explain further? Or
can you help me reconcile the two views about you?

Data Collection and Processing

Instruments can be administered individually or to a group of learners. After administration, the
responses should be scored and the data recorded in a manner that is amenable to processing. Data
processing can simply involve manual calculation (using the hand-held calculator) of percentages and
means and drawing of graphs to show the distribution of scores. It can also be through the use of a
personal computer for more elaborate analysis.
Processed data should be stored in such a way as to facilitate retrieval when needed for offering
guidance and/or counseling to individuals or groups of learners.
Group and Individual Interview
The interview is a good technique for getting in-depth information that could otherwise not be
obtained from most instruments. In a relaxed atmosphere, the interviewee (the person being
interviewed) could furnish the interviewer (the person conducting the interviewer) with a large volume
of information. In order not to be drowned by the avalanche of information, we need to systematically
plan for, execute, and follow-up interviews that we conduct during guidance and counseling exercises.
Planning The following steps need to be taken in planning and interview:
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Step 1 Stage Setting: Identification of characteristics of the interviewee
Step 2 Arranging the sitting, audio/Video recording Developing aninterview guide
Step 3 Pilot testing the instrument
Step 4 Finalization of the interview guide
Executing: In executing the interview plan, the interviewer needs to
 Present the questions audibly and ensure that the interviewee fully understands the demand of
the question.
 Avoid forcing the pace of response
 Complete the question and answer session for a question before moving on to the next.
 Take notes as the responses are given.
Follow – Up
 Develop the interview transcript
 As follow-up questions if there are areas that need clarification from theinterviewee.
For group interviews, target respondents should be identified. Agreements should be reached by the
group on a subject before being recorded by the interviewer.

Group and Individual Observations

Observations are designed to provide perspectives to data gathering that are not capture by test
administration and interviews. These perspectives include nonverbal behaviors and interaction
patterns. A sad look; a look of excitement, gait when walking, shy tendencies in class, and aggressive
tendencies are some of the characteristics of the learner to be counseled that a questionnaire may not
reveal in full. By observing the learner, we are able to record in graphical and direct form, such
physically observable behaviors.
The development of an observation instrument is the first step to be taken. We should follow the
sequence shown in steps 1 to 4 on the previous page. After developing the instrument, we could use it
in gathering data by observing the group as a unit or for observing individual students with specific
problems.
There are two main types of observation. The observer, in this case the teacher, participates in the
activities given to learners. This enables the teacher pit himself or herself in the place of the learner
(empathy). In non-participant observation the observer looks from a distance and records
unobtrusively. This is the more common mode of observation in guidance and counseling.
Anecdotal Record: This is record of snapshots of significant events in the life of the learner. The
events can be recorded either by the teacher or by the learner. Whichever way, the teacher keeps the
record for the purpose of having insights into the behavior patterns of the learner. This record is
important as the teacher prepares to attend to the counseling needs of the learner.
Student Advising: This is an organized scheme for offering guidance to students. The focus is usually
academic guidance although it could be stretched to include social guidance if social activities in the
life of the learner impacts negatively on learning.
In many institutions, the scheme is department based. Each lecturer in the Department is assigned a
group of students. The students are expected to meet periodically with the Advisor, as a group or
individually. Where such schemes exist, they have been known to be effective in helping students
overcome their learning difficulties.

Records to be kept by the Teacher/Counselor

Records of Achievement: A good record of achievement test can serve as an effective instrument
with which we can measure an individual‟s performance with (a) those of others in his group and (b)
his past achievement. With this, one can diagnose his weakness and strength.
School progress of each student can also be measured, need for remedial measures determined and
the progress of the entire students improved. For instance, a Mathematics test if well-constructed could
provide information as to whether or not; students‟ weakness is in the fundamental operation.

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Personality Information Records: Personal qualities and interests are equally important as factors
which affect one‟s success in occupation, life, social life, and in school. The only way to measure
personality is by observing how the individual behaves in different situations. Such observations can
be made in the classroom, at playground, during social gathering, etc. when the individual is quite
himself or herself.

Personality records should contain the following views about the students; (a). Concern for others -
antisocial, indifferent, dependable, sometimes socially concerned or deeply concerned.
(b). Responsibility -unreliable, somewhat dependable, usually dependable, conscientious, assumes
much responsibility. (c). Emotional stability -hyper-emotional, excitable, usually well balanced,
exceptionally stable.

Health Records: Though the teacher cannot have this, it is necessary that the school counselor has a
record about student‟s health. This should be made up-to-date indicating the type of disease from
which the individual must have suffered, the duration of illness and the time of the year, if possible.
Medical statements about student‟s ears, eyes, teeth, posture, nervous symptoms, or speech defects
should also be included. A cumulative up-to-date health record will help the school counselor refer
particular students at different times to specialists for treatment. This also helps to decide the type of
job to which a student can be assigned. A research fellow on school discipline has suggested that the
offence should not determine the punishment but instead type of punishment recommended should
depend on the physical strength of the individual offender. It therefore follows that a detailed, up-to-
date health record will help remind the counselor and the school authority of the importance of
individual differences in dealing with the children.

Family Records: The home is one of the major factors which affect the education of students. An
unstable home causes the student emotional imbalance. The family record should include name and
address of parents, their nationality and occupation, and the socio-economic status.
If family records are kept and maintained up-to-date by the counselor, clues can be found in an
attempt to spot out student‟s difficulties with the aim of helping to alleviate his or her suffering. A
good knowledge of the family records of the student will help to foster the triangular relationship,
which should exist between the teachers, the parents and the student.
The counselor should examine the cumulative records of each student to;
a) Help the counselor get acquainted with a new student more quickly at the beginning of the
semester or session.
b) Help students who are not working up to class level to cope with their problems. The under-
achievers and those students who need remedial courses are this identified and helped.
c) Identify gifted students and other students of unusual ability and help them by finding
appropriate and challenging work for them.
d) Find out students who attend classes irregularly and encourage them towards regular
attendance.
e) Study the personality traits of students who misbehave and suggest ways for their learning
other adaptive behaviors.
f) Help the counselor to study students for whom special aids, such as scholarship are being
considered.
g) Gain background knowledge about students before assisting them in the choice of course for
study.
h) Gather some information about a student before conferring with his parents.
i) Discover students of exceptional talents in such special fields as arts, music, athletics or
creative writing.

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Activity 11: Which records of the student s in your c lass do you have ? How do you obtain them? Of
what use are the records to you? Which ones would you have loved to have but which you do not have?
Why would you wish you had them? Think of your student’s days, did any of your teachers ever give
you any advice, suggestion, threat etc. If “yes”, what was it upon? Why did he/she have to do so?
What was your reaction? Find out if any of your students would have loved to discuss his life,
program, career, or future plans with you but was afraid or reluctant t to do so. How many students?
Why were they afraid or reluctant? What do you intend to do after this discovery? After a class test, do
you discuss students’ performance with them?
3.4. Techniques
Dear learners, you need to develop or adapt instruments for data gathering for guidance and
counseling. Use the instruments developed/adapted for data collection process data collected; conduct
group and individual interviews and observations; and keep anecdotal records of learners.
Instrumentation in Guidance and Counseling: We need as much information as possible from
learners in order to make a success of guidance and counseling, It is when most, and perhaps all the
information is in that we can take a global look at the problem and offer meaningful guidance and
counseling.
The tool for gathering information is known as the instrument. Such tools include tests, questionnaires,
inventories, interview guides and observational schemes. Just as the thermometer is an instrument in
the hands of the scientist, so also is the questionnaire the instrument in the hands of guidance
counselors. For data collected to be useful, the instrument should be valid and reliable. In this section,
you will learn to develop instruments for data collection and adapt existing instruments for your case.
First, let us see the different types of instruments.
Types of Instruments: Several typologies exist for classifying instruments. For example, instruments
can be grouped on the basis of:
(a) What they measure, e.g. cognitive (achievement tests); affective (attitudinal inventories and
questionnaires); psychomotor (practical skill tests); and
(b) How they measure e.g. power and speed tests. For the purpose of this Module, we shall adopt the
scheme presented in the following table.
The following techniques help assure good communication with young people during the counseling
session:
 Create a positive and friendly first impression.
 Establish rapport during the first session, show empathy and reassure the young client.
 Eliminate barriers to good communication (e.g., negative attitudes, poor listening, not allowing
youth to express fears or ask questions, being judgmental and impatient, etc.)
 Use “active listening” with the young client; i.e. acknowledging, confirming and asking
clarification from the speaker.
 Provide information simply and use visual aids as much as possible.
 Ask appropriate and effective questions and use open-ended questions.
 Allow youth to ask questions and seek clarification.
 Recognize and take advantage of teachable moments.
4.5. The Trend of the Development of School Counseling in an International Context
Based on a review of the three articles on school counseling in the United States, South Korea, and
Japan, some observations can be made about the trend of the development of school counseling in an
international context. These observations include: (a) from non-professionals to professionals; (b) from
position to program; and (c) from a remedial orientation to a preventive and developmental orientation.
From Non-professionals to Professionals: In Japan and South Korea, the requirements for school
counseling personnel have become more stringent. These two countries have been striving for the
establishment of formal positions of professionally trained school counseling and guidance personnel
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for years. For example, in South Korea, school counselors were initially disciplinary guidance
teachers. Although their title was changed to career counseling teachers in 1990, their roles were more
or less the same. They were even given teaching assignments like other regular teachers. Worse still,
senior teachers could apply for counseling teacher positions after they have taken two to three related
courses. The lack of understanding of the nature of counseling and related job skills made them
unprepared for the work as school counseling professionals. Fortunately, in 2004, the need for full-
time specialist in guidance and counseling was advocated. In 2005, more than 300 full-time, registered
school counselors were appointed in schools. These counselors are more professional as they were
trained formally as “professional school counseling teachers,” having the skills and expertise to carry
out guidance and counseling in the school context. This is a positive change from non-professionals to
professionals in the development of school counseling in South Korea.
In Japan, guidance and counseling in schools were initially taken up by clinical psychologists.
However, as they did not receive internship training in schools, they lacked understanding of the
school personnel and cultures. In recent years, they have to receive training to earn enough credits to
keep up their credentials as school counselors. This is a positive move because guidance work is
handled by experts who are familiar with the school context. In addition to clinical psychologists, class
teachers are important personnel in guidance work because pre-service and in-service training is given
to them. They may study student cases, refer problem cases to guidance teachers, and learn how to
counsel from their peers. In 2008, social workers were introduced to schools to assist guidance and
counseling work. These show that Japan is undergoing a struggle as to who is the best professional to
carry out guidance and counseling work in schools.

As for the United States, Gysbers (2008) has described the recent development of individual student
planning in his article. He emphasized that individual student planning is not only collection of
students‟ records, be they hard or soft copies. Rather, students need to be contacted either on an
individual or a group level on which they can share their needs and goals with the school counselor.
Although Gysbers did not explicitly state the need for more professional school personnel, the practice
he described can show that school counseling work is carried out by trained, qualified professionals
well-informed of the counseling practice and ethics in the United States.
From Position to Program : Gysbers (2008) posited that to make school guidance work effective,
emphasis should be placed on the implementation of school guidance as a program on the whole rather
than the sheer establishment of the school counselor position. In the 1970s and 1980s, three models of
school counseling and guidance work that shared the same emphasis were devised (Gysbers, 2001). In
one of the models, Myrick (1997) delineated the characteristics of developmental guidance and
counseling work. They included: (a) provision of programs for all students; (b) guidance curriculum be
organized, planned, sequential and flexible; (c) all school personnel be involved.
The second model, developed by Johnson and Johnson (1991) in the 1980s, emphasized the
development of students‟ competency. The acquisition of competencies by all students was the major
concern.

The third model, developed by Gysbers and Moore (1981) in the 1970s, was a comprehensive
guidance program model. It consisted of an organizational structure which includes content
(competencies), organizational framework (structural components and program components), and
resources (human, financial, and political). In practice, different time compositions should be allocated
to the four program components (i.e., guidance curriculum, individual student planning, responsive
services, and system support) according to students‟ levels and their developmental needs.

In sum, the three models provide us with some perspectives on the reorientation of school guidance
and counseling from a problem-based approach to a strength-based approach, from a remedial mode to

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a preventive and developmental mode, from position to program, as well as from a single focus on
responsive services to a comprehensive focus on guidance curriculum, individual student planning,
responsive services, and system support.
With these in mind, we can evaluate the positions of school counselors and the implementation of
school guidance work as a program in both Japan and South Korea. From the articles, we see that the
school guidance position was established in Japan in 1995, 10 years earlier than that of South Korea.
However, as school counselors are clinical psychologists who mainly deliver responsive services in
schools, it can be anticipated that this approach could only cater for the needs of a few students
whereas a broad range of developmental, experiential, and transitional issues of other children and
youth is not addressed.
While school personnel are providing different services to students in the areas of educational,
personal and social, career as well as physical issues, the effectiveness of the services, however, is
quite limited because there is a lack of cooperation and collaboration among the colleagues. With the
setup of the guidance curriculum, what they are doing now could become more organized, planned and
sequentially preventive programs. It is encouraging that schools in Japan receive community support as
well. The setup of the school counselor system and the collaboration with the Chambers of Commerce
and Industry, school boards of education, the community support teams and non-profit-making
organizations that work with children and youth plus law enforcement are evidence of system supports
as well as financial and political resources. These could be favorable conditions to implement
comprehensive and integrative guidance program in schools in Japan.

As for South Korea, the position of school counselors was established in 2005. School counselors‟
training and role identity issues are still the main concerns at the moment. As stated by Lee and Yang
(2008), South Korea can follow the example of the United States to put stronger emphasis on the
development of school guidance work as a program in the long run. Adopting the model of
comprehensive school guidance program can be an appropriate and feasible direction to develop
school counseling work in South Korea.
From a Remedial Orientation to a Preventive and Developmental Orientation: According to Yagi
(2008) and Lee and Yang (2008), school counseling and guidance work seems to be moving from a
remedial orientation to one that emphasizes more on the strengths of students in both Japan and South
Korea. This is like the development of school guidance in the United States, where emphasis was first
put in resolving students‟ career-related issues and other learning and behavioral problems, then later
to guidance activities which are more preventive and developmental in nature that emphasize students‟
strengths and assets.
In the United States, the Comprehensive Developmental Program approach began to emerge to
respond to the call for a reorientation. What began with the appointment of teachers to the position of
vocational counselor has become a program. This framework has become the major structure of
organizing and managing guidance in the schools of the United States (Gysbers, 2001). The level of
implementation of guidance programs varies from one school to another. Among the four program
components, individual student planning seems to be the most difficult to be implemented. It is
because there is a great demand on human resources to carry out effective individual student planning.
Although literature on individual student planning is not very substantial in the field of school
counseling, Gysbers‟s (2008) article does provide us with some updated and valuable information on
the implementation of individual student planning in the United States.
At present, individual student planning exemplifies an integration of theory and practice, as
demonstrated by the four examples quoted in the article. Gysbers (2008) described a number of recent
studies which indicate substantial impact on students‟ success in schools through individual student

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planning. In sum, Gysbers acknowledged the positive impacts of the comprehensive guidance program
on the whole and individual student planning activities in particular, which could help students identify
their endowed talents and capabilities, striving to make the most of these to live a meaningful and
rewarding life.

There is continuous development in the guidance curriculum. Gysbers (2001) described that guidance
curriculum typically consists of competencies and structured activities which span systematically from
kindergarten to Grade 12. In recent years, different systemic and integrative models for the
implementation of school-based prevention programs have been devised. One of these conceptual
frameworks is “Developmental-Contextualism” (Walsh, Galassi, Murphy, & Park-Taylor, 2002).
According to this perspective, both the personal and contextual aspects of the person-environment
relationship are considered in school guidance programs because “Within this newer perspective, a
developing person not only affects his or her contexts, but the context also affects the person‟s course
of development” (Walsh et al., 2002, p. 686).
Besides individual student planning and the guidance curriculum, responsive service is another core
component of the comprehensive guidance program (Gysbers& Henderson, 2001). As Seligman
(1998) suggested, approaches to helping people have been changing. There is also a trend to conduct
diagnostic activities and personal counseling with a positive, strength-based orientation. Morrison,
Brown, D‟Incau, O‟Farrell, and Furlong (2006) stated “A focus on strengths represents a different
perspective on how to conceptualize student adaptation to school” (p. 20). Morrison et al. presented an
interview format to organize and collect information about students‟ strengths and protective factors in
their personal and contextual domains. Student, parents, and teachers are all informants. They will be
asked interview questions in the five areas of “Individual Assets,” “Family Assets,” “Peer Assets,”
“Classroom Assets,” and “School Assets.” Questions like “Do you have any ideas about what you
want to be when you grow up?” (for students), “How do you participate in or help at your child‟s
school?” (for parents) or “What are the rules and procedures in class? How do the rules help students
to learn?” (for teachers) will be asked. By collecting information about family, peer, classroom, and
school assets, school counselors could form a picture of the availability of protective factors that can
become the basis for developing interventions.

Other than this, different strength-based counseling models have appeared. As Seligman (1998) stated,
“Treatment is not just fixing what is broken, it is nurturing what is best within ourselves” (para. 5).
Carl Rogers, the founder of Person-Centered Therapy, had a strikingly different view on the
development of persons and the role of counseling and psychotherapy. Rogers paid attention to human
strengths rather than pathologies, to human assets rather than liabilities, to human potential rather than
limitations (see Lopez et al., 2006). Recently, Smith (2006) proposed and outlined ten stages of
strength-based counseling to illustrate how the approach may be implemented. The ten stages are: (a)
creating the therapeutic alliance; (b) identifying strengths; (c) assessing presenting problems; (d)
encouraging and instilling hope; (e) framing solutions; (f) building strength and competence; (g)
empowering; (h) changing; (i) building resilience; and (j) evaluating and terminating. Overall
speaking, in providing responsive service and designing guidance activities, there is an obvious move
from a remedial to a preventive, strength-based orientation.
From the above discussion, we have traced the general trend of the development of school counseling
in an international context. From the beginning, school counseling work was taken up by the appointed
teachers on top of their regular duties. Then, full-time positions of school counselors were introduced
in the schools. This is a move from non-professionals to professionals. Thereafter, there was a further
move from position to program where the focus on the counseling personnel was shifted to
implementing guidance activities as a program. There is also a move from the remedial approach of

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school counseling to a preventive, strength-based orientation that sees the importance of developing
students‟ potentials and assets in order to live a more fulfilling life.
3.6. The Need for Resources: A Concluding Remark
Gysbers and Henderson (2006) delineated three major characteristics of school counseling and
guidance. Firstly, guidance is a program, meaning that guidance activities should be well-planned,
structured, and systematically implemented. Secondly, guidance programs should be developmental
and comprehensive. The programs, when designed, should take into consideration the developmental
needs of students at different stages of their lives. The content across levels should be progressive in
nature. Moreover, the program should be broad enough to touch upon important issues that students
could be facing in the course of development. Lastly, guidance program should feature a team-
approach, meaning that teachers do not design and carry out guidance activities by their own. Rather,
teachers should work collaboratively as a team to formulate and conduct the activities.

Based on the description above, school counseling and guidance programs in the United States, South
Korea, and Japan do manifest the three characteristics. However, in delivering the programs, resources
may be one of the key issues to consider. Gysbers and Henderson (2006) proposed that resources for
school counseling and guidance work include human resources, financial resources, and political
resources. Such a perspective can be helpful to evaluate and develop school counseling work further in
the three countries.

First of all, the need for human resources suggests that schools need more professional school guidance
personnel. This not only means that more manpower be allocated to schools to carry out guidance
duties and activities, but also entails that these people should receive appropriate and professional
training before they become qualified guidance teachers. For teachers without prior training, on-the-job
training could be provided to familiarize them with the knowledge and skills needed for the job as
guidance teachers. Such training and certification issues are important to the success of school
counseling work, as advocated earlier in this article that guidance teachers should change from non-
professionals to professionals. This is exactly an issue facing South Korea and Japan for the time
being.
Apart from human resources, financial resources are another important criterion for effective school
counseling work. For example, individual student planning, as a focus in Gysbers‟s (2008) article,
requires teachers not only to keep hard and soft copies of students‟ records, but also to meet students
individually or in group meetings to discuss students‟ transition planning for their attainment of
personal and career goals. These meetings which involve consultation with school guidance teachers or
counselors could be expensive and imply a lot of money. Besides this expenditure, other school
counseling work such as guidance curriculum, responsive services, and system support also need
financial resources to sustain and implement. No matter how developed guidance programs are, as in
the case of the United States, or how progressively developing they are, as in the cases of South Korea
and Japan, financial resources should remain a key factor for the successful development of school
guidance work. Although large expenses are anticipated, it is worthwhile to spend money on
counseling programs and work because early intervention or more desirably, prevention, can enhance
the overall well-being of the student cohorts, which is beneficial to the population‟s health and
productivity in the long run. This is the reason why we are arguing for a change from the remedial
approach to the one that emphasizes development and prevention.
Last but not least, political resources are needed for school counseling and guidance programs. On the
school policy level, political resources imply clear support from the upper management in the schools
such as the school supervisors or head teachers. Their support could be shown in the clear role
descriptions of school guidance workers, which could help to avoid role ambiguity of these personnel.

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This role ambiguity issue is what South Korea is facing. Besides, support from the senior management
of schools is important because it can help to focus school guidance work on the program itself as well
as the position of guidance workers. This is in line with our earlier proposition that school guidance
and counseling should shift from mere positions to programs, with concrete rationale and contents.

On the other hand, on the government policy level, political resources of school guidance work could
be policies devised by the local education department. The 1963 Educational Act and the 1997
Elementary and Secondary Education Act from the Ministry of Education in South Korea (Lee &
Yang, 2008), as well as the school counselor system introduced by the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology in Japan (Yagi, 2008) are good examples of political resources given
from the governmental level.
Recognizing the importance of government support, educators and school counseling personnel could
try to solicit help and support from the government or make use of existing policies and resources to
develop school guidance work. To take Hong Kong as an example, the New Senior Secondary
Education curriculum in 2009 can be an opportunity to enhance school guidance and counseling work
because when the new curriculum is implemented, all secondary schools are to keep students‟
portfolios in their three years of senior secondary education. This requirement is favorable to school
counseling because such records enable teachers to assist students to formulate their transition plans
and attain their personal career goals, which is similar to individual student planning, a key element of
comprehensive guidance program as posited by Gysbers (2008).
Conclusively speaking, whereas different countries or regions face different problems or limitations in
developing school guidance programs, one important issue we have to resolve is resources allocation
which include human, financial, and political resources. Other than this, however, the government
bodies and school administrators should be convinced of the rationale behind the school guidance and
counseling work in the first place as the mindset and values could influence subsequent decisions to be
made and actions to be taken.

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