FORENSIC BALLISTICS

LEGAL DEFINITION
 It is the microscopic examination of fire cartridge cases and bullets together with the recording and presentation.

TECHNICAL DEFINITION

 It refers to the science of firearms identification which involves the scientific examination of ballistic exhibits, such
as:

a. Fired bullets
b. Fired shells
c. Firearms; and
d. Allied matters, used in a crime

CLASSICAL DEFINITION

 It is a scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles .

SIMPLE DEFINITION
 The science of the motion of projectiles.

BALLISTICS
 Science deals with the study of the motion of projectiles.
The Greek word, “Ballo” or “Ballein” - to throw.
PROJECTILE- refers to the bullet/ slug/ pellet/ flechette that passes through the barrel of FA.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS- the science of firearms identification through the ammunition fired through them.
FORENSIC- as applied to ballistics or any other subjects suggests a relationship to a court of justice and legal proceedings.
-Derived from “Forum” - a public place wherein people gather for a discussion of a subject in issue.
MOTION- refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile inside and outside the barrel.

TYPES OF MOTION

1. Direct Motion- the forward movement of the projectile with the action of expansive force or gases.
2. Rotary Motion- the turning of the bullet inside and outside the barrel with the action of the rifling.
3. Translational Motion- the movement of the projectile after hitting the target.

1. Yaw – the unstable rotating motion of the projectile.

2. Gyroscopic Action – refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attains its highest momentum for stability in flight
penetrating power.
3. Key Hole Shot – bullet hitting the target, not nose-on.
4. Tailwag – the wobbling of the end of the projectile before it picks up a smooth fight path.
5. Ricochet – a bullet tends to glance off an object or to skip, like a flat stone thrown out over a water surface.

COMMON TERMS IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

 Ballistics - Scientific study of the motion of projectiles.

 Bullet - The projectile that is expelled from a rifled firearm (as opposed to slug).

 Cartridge - A complete unfired round of ammunition consisting of a cartridge case, projectile (bullet), primer, and
smokeless powder.

 Cartridge case - The container that holds the cartridge components; usually made of brass, nickel, or steel.

 Comparison microscope - Two microscopes joined by an optical bridge.

 Firing pin/striker - The working component of a firearm that contacts the ammunition.

 Groove - The interior portion of a rifled barrel that is cut to form the rifling.

 Individual characteristics - Marks present on fired ammunition components that are unique to a particular firearm.

 Land - The interior portion of a rifled barrel between two grooves

 Magazine - A container for cartridges that has a spring and follower to feed those cartridges into the chamber of a
firearm.

 Pistol - A handgun; the most common is a semi-automatic pistol.

 Primer - The chemical composition that, when struck by a firing pin, ignites the smokeless powder.
 Revolver - A handgun that has a rotating cylinder to hold cartridges for firing.
 Rifling - Grooves in the interior of a firearm barrel to impart spin to a bullet.
 Shot - Round pellets are used as projectiles in shotshells or cartridges.
  Shotgun - A shoulder-fired firearm normally with a smooth barrel.
 Shotshell - Shortening of "shotgun shell"; a complete unfired round of ammunition.
 Shotshell casing - The container that holds the shotshell components.
 Slug - A term applied to a single shotshell projectile.
 Striations - contour variations, generally microscopic, on the surface of an object.
 Smokeless powder - The chemical composition that, when ignited by a primer, generates gas; the force of the gas
propels the projectile(s).
 Striation - The usually microscopic markings on the surface of a fired ammunition component.
 Wadding - Paper or other material in a shotshell.

1. INTERIOR (INTERNAL) BALLISTICS

- Refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile (bullet) while inside the gun.
- This extends from the "breach" to the "muzzle" of the gun.

This includes the following:

a. Firing pin hitting the primer
Defects in FA that cause misfire:
1. Broken firing pin
2. Lose firing pin
3. Lacking strength in firing pin (especially homemade guns)
MISFIRE- failure of the cartridge to explode

b. Ignition of the priming mixture

Probable defects in the contents of the primer cup
1. Wet priming mixture
2. Anvil is not properly fixed (slanting position)
3. No vent or flash hole (factory defect)
4. No priming mixture (factory defect)
HANGFIRE- the delay of explosion

c. Combustion of the gunpowder

A. Primer crushed the priming mixture against the anvil

B. Ignition of priming mixture and primer flash
C. Enters the vent or canal
D. Primer flash ignites the gunpowder and combustion happens

Note:
If the priming mixture is defective, no explosion
If the priming mixture is live and gunpowder is defective or wet, only the priming mixture will explode
 This results in the slow exit of the bullet in the barrel or stuck up.
To propel the bullet, priming mixture and gunpowder must explode simultaneously

d. Expansion of heated gas

- The gas expands in different directions that tend the bullet and shell to separate.
The shell due to the tremendous pressure inside will also expand towards the wall of the chamber by force.

Individual Characteristics Found in the Chamber

1. Irregularities- created during manufacture such as spiral cutting of the grooves.

2. Scratches- caused by tools used in the manufacture of the chamber
3. Roughness- not polished well.
4. Imperfection- caused by the drill blade and beyond the control of man.

e. Pressure developed
 When a heated gas created by the burning gunpowder is developed, tremendous pressure is produced in the
chamber of the FA.
Example: CALIBER .357 = the chamber pressure is 46,000 per square inch.

BREECHFACE MARKS – occurs when the shell is separated from the bullet, the shell will be pushed back to the
breech face leaving such marks.

f. Energy generated
ENERGY- refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet.
In the horizontal flight, of the bullet, most FA’s have KNOCKING EFFECT that causes a target person to be thrown to the
ground.

g. Recoil of the gun

RECOIL- is the rearward movement of the gun caused by an equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the
forward movement of the bullet after the explosion.

KINETIC ENERGY PRINCIPLE= in every action, there is a corresponding opposite reaction.

COMPENSATOR/MUZZLE BRAKE- a gadget that is attached to the muzzle of the gun to reduce coil.8

h. Velocity of the bullet

 The Speed of the bullet inside depends on the amount of gunpowder inside the shell.

Ballistics data is used to load the proper amount of gunpowder in every ammunition.

Example: Cal .357 = 1,775 feet per second

Cal .45 = 845 feet per second
Thus, Cal .357 is more powerful than Cal .45
i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
 This happens only to Rifled – bore barrels. This has gyroscopic stability.
In a smoothbore barrel, the bullet will just move forward with no gyroscopic stability.
GYROSCOPIC STABILITY- the stability of the bullet within the effective range due to the twist of the rifling.

j. Engraving on the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

 When the bullet is rotating inside the barrel, it leaves grains from the lead bullet.

METAL FOWL- refers to the metal strips left by the bullet inside. These could be removed with the use of
a steel brush.
GRAPHITE- a lubricant used to prevent the adherence of Metal Fowl.

k. Case cools, shrinks to the nearly original size, allowing the case to be ejected

2. TRANSITIONAL BALLISTICS also known as INTERMEDIATE BALLISTICS

- The study of a projectile’s behavior from the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is
equalized.
- It lies BETWEEN internal ballistics and external ballistics.

3. EXTERIOR (EXTERNAL) BALLISTICS

- Refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle.

It involves the ff:

a. Muzzle Blast- the sound created at the muzzle end of the gun by the reason of the sudden escape of the expanding
gas when it comes to instant contact with the air in the surrounding atmosphere at muzzle point.

Muzzle flash- the light or flame associated with the round being fired.
b. Muzzle energy- this is the potential force that any bullet might exert at any particular point in its trajectory.
 It is expressed in foot-pound, a term derived from the force exerted by the weight of one pound when dropped at
a height of one foot.

c. Trajectory- the actual pattern or the curved path of the bullet in flight.

Stages of trajectory
1. Straight horizontal line
2. Parabola like flight
3. Vertical drop

DRIFT
 It refers to the lateral deviation of the bullet’s trajectory from the vertical plane through the axis of the bore
caused by the rotation of the projectile.
d. Range- the straight distance between the muzzle and the target.

1. ACCURATE RANGE- the distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.
2. EFFECTIVE RANGE- the distance at which the projectile can be expected to be lethal.
3. MAXIMUM RANGE- the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
POINT-BLANK RANGE
 A shot is fired so close to the target that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming.

e. Velocity- the rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time. (FEET/SEC.)
f. Air Resistance (Drag) - the force of the air encountered by the bullet while in flight.
 AERODYNAMIC DRAG- the dragging of the bullet downward due to air resistance.
 BALLISTIC PENDULUM- the declaration of the bullet in flight to gravity.
 INERTIA- allows a body at rest to remain at rest a body in motion remain in motion.
 YAWING- the unstable movement of the bullet in flight such as wobbling or tumbling before hitting the target.
 KEYHOLE SHOT- caused by yawing of bullet resulting to hitting of target sideways resulting to oval-like entry o
bullet.

g. Pull of gravity- the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth center due to its weight.
h. Penetration- the entry of the bullet on target.

4. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
 - The study of the behavior/impact/effect of a projectile when it hits its target.

Important Factors:

a. Terminal Accuracy- the size of the bullet grouping on the target.

b. Terminal Energy- the potential force that any bullet might exert at any particular point in its trajectory/upon
striking the target.
c. Terminal Velocity- speed of the bullet inside the target.
d. Terminal Penetration- depth of an entry of the bullet on the target.

Note:
When a projectile hits its target, the terminal ballistics, a phenomenon that occurs may be one or a combination
of the following:
1. Indentation
2. Penetration
3. Perforation
4. Ricochet
5. Fragmentation
6. Detonation and other related blast phenomena
7. Combustion and incendiary effects.

RICOCHET- a bullet tends to glance off an object or to skip, like a flat stone thrown out over a water surface.

REMINDER
Interior, Exterior, Transitional, and Terminal Ballistics all deal with the study of the motion of projectiles.

Special branches under Terminal Ballistics:

5. SHOT BALLISTICS- refers to the study of shots from smoothbore firearms like shotguns and muskets.
 SHOTGUNS discharge single but usually multiple shots/pellets in a single fire.
 MUSKET is another smooth-bore firearm that discharges a single ball in one firing.

Shot wads- can be at the distance of 5-8 yards. These wads are very important in the identification of:

1. Gauge of weapon
2. Make of ammunition

RANGE BETWEEN SHOTGUN AND THE TARGET:

1. 1-3 FEET = wound is about 1.5 – 2 inches in diameter. Scorching, Tattooing, Singeing, may be observed.
2. BEYOND 3 FEET = shot begins to spread out.
3. 4 FEET = wound will appear as a central hole with small perforations around.

4. BEYOND FEET = shots continue to spread out and produce a mass of small perforations with no central
wound.

MUZZLE IMPRINT appears with smudges of gunpowder with cherry-red discoloration.

6. WOUND BALLISTICS- is the study of the effects of a projectile on a target and the conditions that affect them. Primarily
concerned with the nature and medical fragments.

3 Basic Kinds of Gunshot Wound (GSW) distinguished by the proximity of the weapon causing them:

1. Contact- gun muzzle is pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body
2. Close Discharge- 6” to 2 ft.
3. Distance discharge- over 2 or 3 ft.

BULLET WOUND PHENOMENON

The entry wound is generally clean, round holes slightly smaller than the bullets that caused them; as the bullet travels
through the body it produces a shock wave, which damages the tissue around its path. This is known as “TISSUE QUAKE”.

Contact wound (soft tissue)

 The abrasion ring, and a very clear muzzle imprint, are seen in this contact range gunshot wound.

The physical effects that indicate a contact shot may inc

1. Ripping and tearing of cloth
2. Burning and/or singeing of cloth
3. Melted tips of artificial fibers
4. Heavy vaporous lead (smoke) deposits around a suspected bullet hole
7. FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- The science of Firearm Identification using the ammunition fired through them.
-This is the real branch of science which the police use as their guide in the field investigation.

Divisions:
1. FIELD INVESTIGATION- refers to the work of an investigator on the field.
2. TECHNICAL EXAMINATION- refers to the examination/comparison conducted by the Firearm Examiner.
3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS- the presentation of the “Ballistic Report” on firearms, bullets, shells, and allied exhibits in court.

Firearm Examiner (Ballistician) – person, whose knowledge in firearms identification is accepted by the court and other
investigations.

Expert – as used in court includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on the ground of specialized knowledge,
training, and experience.
COMPUTATIONS/CONVERSION OF CAL - MM and MM – CAL

1. Cal to mm (x 25.4) 2. Mm to Cal (x .03937)

Cal .38 – mm 5.56 mm - Cal
.38 x 25.4 = 9.642 or 9mm 5.56 x 0.03937 = .2178972 or .22 Caliber

Note:
After computing, always go to the nearest Caliber (just like No. 1)

EQUIVALENTS OF CALIBERS

1. Caliber .45 = 11 mm
2. Caliber .38 = 9 mm
3. Caliber .32 = 7.65 mm
4. Caliber .320 = 7.63 mm
5. Caliber .25 = 6.35 mm
6. Caliber .22 = 5.56 mm

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF CALIBER MEASUREMENTS:

1. American System (2 digits) – expressed in hundredths of an inch such as Cal.45, .38, .25, .30
2. English System (3 digits) – expressed in thousandths of an inch like Cal.357, .380, .223
3. Continental/European System – expressed in millimeters such as 9mm, 5.56mm, 7.62mm.

FIREARM- Is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles using the

AIR RIFLE - A type of weapon designed to shoot pellets using compressed air.

HISTORY OF THE FIRST FIREARM

 The first firearms that developed were small arms in the form of miniature artillery weapons and were at first
called hand cannons.

These are classified as follows:

1. THE HAND CANNON

- Seem to have appeared about 1350 and consisted of a simple iron tube with a stock.
- The tube had a hole at the rear end, the touchhole, and a little extension or pan to hold a small amount of
powder, known as priming charge.

2. THE MATCH-LOCK ARMS

 Appeared about 1485, these were simple improvements of the hand cannon. They utilized a lever, spring, and
trigger to hold the burning match and bring it in contact with the powder in the pan when firing the gun.

3. WHEELLOCK – Developed about 1500

- Wheelock, wheel-lock, or wheel lock is a mechanism for firing a firearm. It was the next major development in
firearms technology after the matchlock and the first self-igniting firearm.
- The mechanism is so-called because it uses a rotating steel wheel to provide ignition.
Wheel-lock Rifle, Ca. 1680-90
 John Michael Maucher (German, 1645-1701)

4. THE FLINT-LOCK ARMS

- Introduced about 1630, the flint-lock rapidly replaced earlier firearm-ignition technologies, such as the
matchlock and wheel-lock mechanisms. It continued to be in common use for over two centuries, replaced by
percussion cap and later, cartridge-based systems in the early-to-mid 19th century.

Percussion Muzzle Loading Rifle Pattern

 In 1807, a Scotch minister, the Reverend Alexander John Forsyth, patented a chemical compound consisting
mainly of mercury fulminate, which would explode on being struck.
 Percussion firing requires the use of an explosive that will detonate when struck by a sharp blow.
 TWO GROUPS OF FIREARMS

1. LONG ARMS OR SHOULDER ARMS

a) RIFLE
- This is a type of weapon normally designed to be fired with the support of the shoulder.
- Named because the grooving inside the barrel is known as RIFLING.

b) MUSKET
- Long smooth bored firearm that is designed to fire a single round lead ball.
- Muzzleloading firearms.

c) SHOTGUN
- Long smooth bored firearms having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed to shoot several lead pellets in one
charge.

TERMS RELATED TO SHOTGUN

Choke
- It refers to the partial constriction of the bore near the muzzle end of the gun to hold the
shots together over a longer distance.
True Cylinder
- When the diameter of the barrel is the same throughout the barrel.
Paradox Gun
- A shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle rifled so that it will impart a spin to the
patented slug that is used with it when to be desired to fire a large single projectile instead
of a charge of shot.

d) CARBINE (cal .30)

- A short-barreled rifle having a barrel not longer than 22 inches.
2. HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS
- It is a firearm designed to be held in the hand when used.
- Portable handguns appeared only in the early years of the 16th century.
a) SEMIAUTOMATIC PISTOL
- A repeating firearm requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired.
- It is a handgun whose chamber is integral with the barrel.
- A handgun that is magazine fed.
b) REVOLVER
- A firearm with a cylinder having several chambers so arranged as to rotate around an axis and be discharged
successively by the same firing mechanism.

TYPES OF REVOLVER
1. Solid frame (Samuel Colt 1835) “Swing out” type – the cylinder is mounted on a pivot that is coaxial with the chambers
and the cylinder swings out and down.
2. “Top break” type (UK) – In a top break revolver, the frame is hinged at the bottom front of the cylinder. Releasing the
lock and pushing the barrel down brings the cylinder up this exposes the rear of the cylinder for reloading.
3. Fixed cylinder designs – this model used a loading gate at the rear of the cylinder that allowed one cartridge at a time to
be accessed for loading.

TYPES OF REVOLVER ACCORDING TO OPERATION

1. Single-action revolvers
 Require manual cocking of the hammer before sufficient force on the trigger releases the firing mechanism. Pulling
the trigger releases the hammer, driving the firing pin to detonate the cartridge.
2. Double Action Revolvers
 Are similar to single-action revolvers with the following exceptions:
 Called "double-action" because the trigger performs two actions.
a) The trigger cocks the hammer and
b) It releases the hammer

Note: The word “handgun” specifies both pistol and revolver but the two are very different weapons.
FIREARM NOMENCLATURES (HANDGUNS)

Parts of a Pistol
 Slide ► Breech face
 Barrel ► Ejector
 Extractor ►Firing Pin Aperture
 Trigger ► Extractor
 Safety ► Ejection Port
 Trigger guard
Parts of a Revolver
  Cylinder  Breech face
 Trigger  Firing Pin
 Hammer  Side plate screw
 Barrel

THE THREE MAIN PARTS OF REVOLVER and PISTOL

REVOLVER – Cal .38 PISTOL – Cal .45

1. Barrel Assembly 1. Barrel Assembly
2. Cylinder Assembly 2. Slide Assembly
3. Frame or receiver 3. Frame or receiver

 The automatic pistol, besides having the main parts and detailed parts it has also the so-called auxiliary parts
(accessories) which must all be removed first before disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished.

 Barrel bushing
 Slide stop pin
 Recoil spring
 Recoil spring guide
 Recoil plug

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS

A) According to Gun Barrel Internal Construction

1. SMOOTH-BORE FIREARMS
- Firearms that have no rifling inside the gun barrel.
Ex. Muskets
2. RIFLED-BORE FIREARMS
- Firearms that have rifling inside the gun.
Ex. Pistols, revolvers, and other weapons
B) According to Calibre of Projectiles Propelled
1. ARTILLERY
- Those types of firearms propel projectiles one (1) inch and more in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas
2. SMALL ARMS
- Those types of firearms propel projectiles less than one (1) inch in diameter.
Ex. Machine guns, Shoulder arms, and Handguns

C) According to Mechanical Construction

1. Single-shot Firearm
- Type of firearm designed to only one shot for every loading.
Ex. Single-shot pistol, Rifle, and Shotgun
2. Repeating Arms
- Fire several shots in one loading.
- A rifle that has several cartridges stored in some form of a magazine.
Ex. Automatic pistols, Rifles, Revolvers, Shotguns

3. Automatic Loading Type

- After the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.
- Those that discharge one cartridge with each pull of the trigger and that continue to fire as long as the trigger is
held back.
Ex. Rifles, Machineguns

4. Bolt Action Type

- Reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.
Bolt Action Rifle
-A firearm that is manually loaded by the reciprocation and engagement of a bolt.
5. Lever Action
- A design wherein the breech mechanism is cycled by an external lever generally below the receiver.
6. Slide Action
- An action which features a movable forearm that is manually actuated in motion parallel to the barrel by the
shooter. Also known as PUMP ACTION.
7. Semiautomatic Type
- A firearm requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired.
8. Machinegun Type
- A firearm with a rifled barrel firing rifle ammunition and capable of fully automatic fire.
9. Sub-machinegun Type
- Synonym “machine pistols” is a firearm with a rifled barrel firing pistol ammunition.
10. Shotguns
- From the standpoint of operation, shotgun mechanisms parallel those of rifles. The major difference between the
two types of guns is the barrel.
- It is a smooth-bored firearm; it has no rifling grooves cut into the barrel.

UNUSUAL OR MISCELLANEOUS TYPE

 Those type of firearms that are unique in mechanism and construction.
a) Gas guns
- Used for firing tear gas and other forms of disabling gas.
b) Traps
- These are designed to the set in the woods and left where animals will encounter them. They may fire a bullet or
a poisoning charge, depending on their construction.
c) Cane gun, knife pistols, etc
- Also known as freakish device
- Many devices primarily designed for another purpose will have a gun mechanism incorporated n them.
d) Tools
- There are many numbers of tools using cartridges that are designed to drive studs, punch holes, or cutting
tables. Such tools may be encountered in the investigation of an accident.
e) Zip Guns
- These may be in any form since the name has been applied to all homemade guns.
f) Flare Guns
- Used in cases such as for sending signals and enabling to see enemies in the dark.
g) Harpoon Guns
- Barbed spear in hunting large fish.
h) Multi-barreled Guns
- Having three or four barrels mounted in one receiver.
i) Liberator
- Made by the US government for use in occupied countries of Europe during the recent war and fired .45 ACP
cartridges, single shot, and smooth bore.

GUSTAV GUN
-Largest gun in the world
GATLING GUN
- The world's first genuinely effective rapid-fire weapon, although it was not a true machinegun. Invented by
American Richard Gatling in 1862.

MAXIMUM MACHINE GUN

- Developed by Hiram Maxim – the world’s first true machinegun.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS AS TO POWER ACCORDING TO RA 8294

1. LOW POWERED FIREARMS
- Includes rimfire handguns, .380 or .32, and another firearm of similar fire powder.
2. HIGH POWERED FIREARMS
- Includes those with bores bigger in diameter than .38 caliber and 9mm such as caliber .40 .41 .44 .45 and also
lesser caliber firearms but consider powerful such as caliber .357 and caliber .22 centerfire magnum and other
firearms with fire magnum and other firearms with firing capability of fully automatic and by the burst of two (2) or
three (3).

 LEGAL DEFINITION
 It shall refer to as a “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, and pistols from
which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or another missile may be fired using gunpowder or other explosives.
 TECHNICAL DEFINITION
 The term ammunition refers to a group of cartridges or a single unit cartridge – meaning a complete
unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder, and primer.

 DEFINITION ACCORDING TO RA 10591

 Ammunition refers to a complete unfixed unit consisting of a bullet, gunpowder, cartridge case, and
primer or loaded shell for use in any firearm. (Sec. 3,Par b Ra10591)
FIXED AMMUNITION
- Self-contained ammunition in which the propellant, projectile, and primer are held together by a cartridge case.
SEMI FIXED AMMUNITION
- Artillery ammunition with separate components.
AMMUNITION
- Collective term for all types of ammunition. In the widest sense of the word, it covers anything that can be used
in combat that includes bombs, missiles, warheads, and mines (landmine, naval mines, and anti-personnel mines)
ORIGIN:
The 16th century – cartridge was discovered.

 The earliest small arms cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in paper.
 The cartridge was derived from the Latin word "Charta" which means paper. The French word “cartouche”
meaning a roll of paper.
 In this mid-19th century, paper cartridges were manufactured by Ely Brothers, the famous London ammunition
firm.

GENERAL TYPES OF AMMUNITION

1. DUMMY AMMUNITION
- A carefully made replica of a cartridge usually made of steel and discreetly dimensioned to be used by weapons
instructors inspectors and repairmen when checking if weapons are functional.

2. BLANK CARTRIDGE
- A type of cartridge for a firearm that contains gunpowder but no bullet or shot.

Uses of blank ammo:

 Blanks are commonly used when the sound and flash of gunfire is needed such as in:
 Military training maneuvers
 In movies that require gunfights
 Starter’s pistol
 Launching rifles grenades
3. LIVE AMMO
- The real ammunition is composed of a complete unit of the unfired cartridge.
4. DRILL AMMO
- Completely inert and without an explosive propellant; used in military training to practice loading and
manipulation of firearms.

CASELESS AMMUNITION
  Is firearm ammunition that aims to eliminate the metal case that typically holds the primer or igniter and the
gunpowder that propels the bullet
 The components are from left to right, a) the solid propellant, b) the primer, c) the bullet, d) and a plastic cap
that serves to keep the bullet centered in the propellant block.

PARTS OF AN AMMUNITION / CARTRIDGE

1. Bullet
2. Gun Powder
3. Cartridge Case
4. Primer

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES

I. According to the type of firearms wherein used

a) Revolver Cartridges – used in revolvers
b) Pistol Cartridges – used in pistols
c) Rifle Cartridges – used in rifles
d) Shotguns – used in shotguns

II. According to the location of primer

1. Pinfire cartridge - (obsolete)
- Any point the pin hit will explode.
2. Center-fire
- Priming powder is located at the center.
3. Rim-fire
- The primer is located at the base point.

III. According to Rim Diameter

1. Rimmed Type
- The diameter of the rim is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22
2. Semi-Rimmed Type
- The diameter of the rim is slightly greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
Ex: Cal .25, .32 auto, super .38
3. Rimless Type
- The diameter of the rim is equal to the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
Ex: Cal 5.56, .30, 9mm, .45
4. Rebated Type
- The diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the cartridge case.
Ex: Cal 8mm x 59
5. Belted Type
- There is a protruding metal around the body of the cartridge case near them.
IV. According to power (based on velocity)
1. Low-power cartridge
- Fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of fewer than 1,850 fps
2. High-power cartridge
- Fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity between 1,925 & 2,500 fps

3. High-intensity cartridge
- Has a muzzle velocity of more than 2,500 fps

TERMS RELATED TO CARTRIDGE MALFUNCTIONS:

MISFIRE – total failure of a cartridge to discharge

HANGFIRE – delayed explosion of the cartridge

SHELF LIFE OF CARTRIDGE

More than 20 years - components or parts used are commercially virgins. If proper storage is done, ammunition may reach
up to 40 years.
IGLOO – the process of military storage of ammunition or arms. Done by making a concrete bunker with walls about a foot
thick and then covered. Ammo may reach 40 years without degradation.

SHOTGUN SHELL
 Consists of a brass head with which is fixed a stout paper tube that constitutes the walls of the case. All
shotgun cartridges have a rim of larger diameter around the extreme edge of the base. Shotgun cartridge
cases are now also made entirely of metal, either zinc aluminum or brass.

SHOTGUN AMMUNITION

SHOTSHELL – a cartridge containing projectile(s) designed to be fired in a shotgun. The cartridge body may be metal, plastic,
or paper.
SHOT – typically lead or steel; spherical pellets loaded in a shotshell; size shot range from 0.08 inches to .36 inches in
diameter.
WADDING – plastic cup which holds the shot

PARTS OF SHOTGUN AMMUNITION

1. Shots

2. Shell Case

3. Wad

4. Gun Powder

KINDS OF SHOTS / PELLETS

1. Buckshot – consists of lead balls

2. Slug – single slug with angled grooves cut into its side to spin it. This refers to a Sabot slug.
3. Tungsten-iron Shot – formed from powdered tungsten and iron, blended and pressed into a pellet.
4. Flechette Shot – a cluster of sturdy steel needles with tiny fins at their base to stabilize them in a flight.
TYPES OF SHOTS
1. Soft or Drop Shots – made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small amount of arsenic has been added to make it
take on the form of spherical drop as it falls down the shot tower. This type gets easily deformed or flattened, and they lose
their velocity quicker and low penetrating power.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot – with a small amount of antimony mixed with lead to increase hardness. Does not deform easily,
has better patterns, less string, and more uniform velocity penetration.
3. Coated or Plated Shot – also called "lubaloy" shot. It is a chilled shot coated with thin copper through an electroplating
design for greater strength and elasticity, greater resistance to deformation and lading, and better pattern.
4. Buck Shot – a large lead shot for use in shotguns.
THE RIFLED SLUG
 Shotshells can also be loaded with one single projectile called a “Slug”.
SHOT WADS – At a distance of 5 to 8 yards or more from the place of firing in the approximate direction of fire, one can
sometimes find wads.

V. BULLETS

Bullet
 A metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile from a firearm using the expansive force of gases coming from
burning gunpowder.
 A solid projectile propelled by a firearm and is normally made from metal (usually lead). A bullet (in contrast to a
shell) does not contain explosives and damages its target by imparting its kinetic energy upon impact.
  Derived from the French word “boulette” which roughly means “little ball”.

Buckshot – largest size of shot

Birdshot – smallest size of shot

NOTE:
Bullets in modern concepts are projectiles from rifled firearms, which are cylindrical. The core of the slug is an
alloy of lead, antimony, and sometimes tins.

CLASSIFICATION / TYPES OF BULLETS

A. Based on Composition
 Bullet composition refers to the materials used in the fabrication of a bullet.
1. LEAD BULLETS / NON-JACKETED BULLETS
- The most common material used in the manufacture of the non-jacketed bullet is lead.
- Usually, an alloy of lead and antimony is added to give the bullet some additional hardness.

2. JACKETED BULLETS
- A laminate of material with the harder jacket covering a core typically made of lead.
 This jacket material differs from the thin copper plating seen on the copper-washed bullets. The jacket
material cannot be easily removed.
 The most common bullet jacket material is copper. These can sometimes be plated with nickel to give the
bullet a silver finish but the jacket can also be made of several other materials such as aluminum or steel.

TYPES OF JACKETED BULLET

1. Full metal jacket

- Encloses the entire bullet, except the base. These bullets are also known as full jacketed, full patch, full metal
case, and ball ammunition.

2. Totally-metal-jacketed bullets
- Jacketed bullets that have no opening in jacket material. These bullets are called totally-metal-jacketed bullets
(TMJ) or encapsulated bullets.

3. Semi-jacketed
- Partially encloses the bullet except an exposed soft point or a hollow point.
- Jacketed bullets may also contain something other than a lead or steel core. Some may contain small lead pellets,
plastic, or maybe even a silicone rubber material.

REMINGTON ACCELERATOR “SABOT” ENCLOSED BULLET

 Plastic sleeve or adaptor surrounding a sub caliber bullet that allows it to be fired in a larger caliber firearm. The
projectile never directly touches the barrel and the sabot typically falls away after firing.

Note:
The primary function of the jacket in a bullet is to prevent adherence of metal (lead) inside the gun barrel.

Leading – adherence to lead in the bore of the gun.

 Other purposes of jacket:

1. To keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when strikes the target.
2. To prevent damage while inside the weapon.
3. To control expansion.
 Mushrooming – is the controlled expansion of a bullet upon impact with a target. The
bullet is designed to significantly increase in diameter upon impact.

B. Based on Color and Finish

1. Armor-piercing bullets
- Are designed to pierce metal. They usually contain a hardened core
(tungsten chrome steel).
BLACK
2. Frangible bullets
- Are designed to disintegrate upon impact with a hard surface to minimize
ricochet.

3. Incendiary bullets
- Contains a phosphorous or other material that ignites upon impact starting
a fire. Used for targets such as aircraft and/or gasoline depot.
BLUE
4. Tracer bullets
- Contains burning compounds in the base usually filled with a mixture of
magnesium powder, barium nitrate, and metallic salts which set fire when
the bullet is projected to permit observation of bullet flight.
Red Tip Orange Tip

5. Wadcutter Shapes
- A cylindrical bullet design having a sharp
shouldered nose intended to cut target paper cleanly to facilitate easy and
accurate scoring.

b) Semi-wadcutter
 A bullet designed with a truncated nose and sharp shoulder.
6. Metal point bullets (capped bullets)
 Consists of a standard lead bullet with a harder metal jacket over the nose to enhance bullet penetration.

7. Pointed types
 Spitzer bullets – have a sharp point and a long ogive.
 Conical bullets/Conoidal bullets – have a cone shape.
 Hollowpoint bullet – designed to fragment into little pieces, thus taking out different parts inside the target.

C. According to use
1. Ball Bullets – those that have soft cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.

2. Armor-Piercing Bullets – those that have steel cores and are fired against vehicles and other armored targets
and general. Jacketed designs where the core material is a very hard, high-density metal such as tungsten, tungsten
carbide, depleted uranium, or steel. A pointed tip is often used, but a flat tip on the penetrator portion is generally more
effective
3. Tracer Bullets – those that contain a compound at its base which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The
flash of smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to be seen, especially at night time. This type of bullet is
primarily used for target acquisition. These have a hollow back, filled with a flare material. Usually, this is a mixture of
magnesium perchlorate, and strontium salts to yield a bright red color, or Barium Nitrate, although other materials
providing other colors have also sometimes been used. Tracer material burns out after a certain amount of time. Such
ammunition is useful to the shooter as a means of verifying how close the point of aim is to the actual point of impact, and
for learning how to point shoot moving targets with rifles.

4. Incendiary Bullet – those that contain a mixture, such as phosphorus or other material that can be set on fire by
impact. They are used against targets that will readily burn such as aircraft or gasoline depots. These bullets are made with
an explosive or flammable mixture in the tip that is designed to ignite on contact with a target. The intent is to ignite fuel or
munitions in the target area, thereby adding to the destructive power of the bullet itself.

5. Explosive (fragmentary) Bullets – those types of bullets that contain a high charge explosive. Because of their
small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunition.
6. Rubber bullets, plastic bullets, and beanbags- less lethal, or less than lethal are designed to be non-lethal, for
example for use in riot control. They are generally low velocity and are fired from shotguns, grenade launchers, paintball
guns, or specially-designed firearms and air gun devices.
7. Blank Bullet- wax, paper, plastic, and other materials are used to simulate live gunfire and are intended only to
hold the powder in a blank cartridge and to produce noise. The 'bullet' may be captured in a purpose-designed device
or it may be allowed to expend what little energy it has in the air. Some blank cartridges are crimped or closed at the end
and do not contain any bullets.
BULLET BASE CONSTRUCTION

1. Solid base bullet – composed of one material with no jacketing (lead).

2. Open base – jacketed bullet with the core exposed.
3. Jacketed solid base – jacketed bullet with the core enclosed.
4. Gas check bullet – composed of a lead bullet with a shallow copper alloy cup fitted to the base.
5. Boat Tail/pointed – a specific design of bullet having a tapered or a truncated conical base.
- the tapered cone of the boat tail provides increased stability throughout its flight
Lead alloy or so-called “cop killer” – bullets use specially-made alloys as hard or harder than lead to penetrating any body
armor

Terminologies related to bullets

Shocking Power – The power of the bullet that results in instantaneous death.
Knocking Power – The power of the bullet that delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that puts the victim down and may
then recover if the wound inflicted is not fatal.

Cartridge case
 A tubular metallic or nonmetallic container that holds together the bullet, gunpowder, and primer.
 The portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and remains at
the scene of the crime.
 Are typically made from brass (a combination of 70% copper and 30% zinc), nickel-plated brass, or aluminum.

Nickel-plated brass – is shiny and silver in color.

Aluminum cases – are lighter in weight than brass cases and have a dull silver color.
.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASES:

 Holds the bullet gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
 Serves as the waterproof container of the gun powder
 Prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case (serves as a “gas seal” at the
breech end of the barrel).

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

1. Rim – serves the purpose of limiting the forward travel of cartridges into
their chambers.
2. Primer Pocket
 Holds primer securely in a central position.
 It also provides solid support for primer anvils, without
which the latter could not be fired.

3. Vents or Flash Holes

 It is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket
through which the primer flash provides ignition to the
powder charge.
 It is the “opening or canal” that connects the priming
mixture with gun powder.
4. Head & Body – constitute the corks that plug the breech of the barrel
against the escape of the gas.
5. Neck – the part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet. Usually
in bottleneck type of shell not with the straight type.

6. Cannelures – these are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the necks and bodies of the cases at
the location of the bases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.

7. Crimp – the part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It aids in holding the bullet in place and it
offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck.
8. Base – the bottom portion of the case which holds the primer which contains the priming mixture and the shell head
which contains the headstamp, caliber, and the year of manufacture
9. Shoulder – the portion which supports the neck which is evident in a bottleneck type.
10. Extracting Groove – the circular groove near the base of the shell designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case
after each firing.
Headstamp
 Numerals, letters, and symbols are stamped into the head of a cartridge case or shotshell to identify the
manufacturer, caliber, gauge, or give additional information.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE CASE BASED ON SHAPE AND HEAD FORM

 Based on Shape
a) Straight – always in pistol/revolver ammunition.
b) Tapered – “obsolete”
c) Bottleneck Cartridge
 A cartridge case having a min diameter and a distinct angular shoulder stepping down to a smaller diameter at the
neck position of the case.
 Typically associated with rifle ammunition.
 Are designed to have a larger volume in the case to hold more gunpowder. This helps rifle cartridges to achieve
higher velocities than handgun cartridges.

CARTRIDGE CASE MANUFACTURE

 Cartridge cases fall into two
broad categories:
1. Metallic
- Metallic cartridges are used in
rifles and handguns and are
composed completely of metal.
The raw material is brass (copper, zinc, ratio of 70:30). In brass mills, the standard name for this alloy is
cartridge brass.
2. Shotshell cases
- Are most often hybrids, combining a small amount of metal with paper or plastic.
Note:
Cartridge cases of all types are made by a machine operation known as “drawing”.
Drawing – is the process of making cartridge cases by punching discs from a sheet of brass and then making these discs out
into tubes closed to one end.

PRIMER

Primer
- Portion of the cartridge which consists of brass or a gliding metal cup.
- Smallest part of the cartridge.
- The cup contains a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compounds which when struck by the firing pin
would detonate or ignite. Such action is called “percussion”.
Alexander John Forsyth
 Credited with being the first to conceive the idea of using detonating compounds for igniting powder charges in
small arms by “percussion” and in 1807, he obtained a patent for this idea.

TYPES OF MODERN CENTERFIRE PRIMERS

1. Boxer Type
- Invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer. ANVIL
- May be identified by the fact that the anvil is a separate piece of metal
in the primer.
- This type may also be called the SEPARATED ANVIL TYPE.
- The anvil is an integral part of the primer assembly.
- There is only one flash hole and this is the center of the primer cup.-
-Can be reloaded.
2. Berdan Type
- Invented by Col. Hiram Berdan.
 - The anvil is part of the cartridge case.
- It has two or three holes that are not centered in the case’s base.
- Not generally reloaded

MAJOR COMPONENTS INSIDE THE PRIMER

1. Initiator (Lead Styphnate)
 Set off with a sharp blow when the firing pin strikes the primer cup.
2. Oxidizer (Barium Nitrate)
 Gives up its oxygen readily. The oxygen is needed to burn the fuel.
3. Fuel (Antimony Sulfide)
 Burns the gunpowder at a very high rate that results in the propulsion of bullets.

PARTS OF A PRIMER

1. Primer Cup - Refers to the container of the priming mixture that is

made up of brass, gilding metal, or copper.
2. Priming Mixture - Refers to the highly sensitive chemical mixture
contained in the primer cup.
3. Anvil - The portion of the primer against which the priming mixture
is crushed by a blow from the firing pin.
4. Disc - Piece of small paper or disc of tin foil is pressed over the
priming mixture.

COMPOSITION OF THE PRIMING MIXTURE

Priming compounds are divided into two classes:
1. Corrosive
- One of the chemicals in corrosive primers is potassium chlorate, which in the ignition, produces potassium
chloride. Potassium chloride draws moisture from the air, and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in
gun barrels.
Ingredients: a) Potassium chlorate – 45%
b) Antimony sulfide – 23%
c) Fulminate of mercury – 32%
2. Non-corrosive
- Advances in “primer” chemistry over the years have produced new compositions in which the potassium chlorate
has been eliminated by the substitution of other chemicals.
- These newer primers arise of the non-corrosive type and have practically replaced the corrosive type.
Ingredients: a) Barium nitrate – 45%
b) Antimony sulfide – 23%
c) Fulminate of mercury – 32%
Corrosion – the chemical wear and tear of the inside of a gun barrel due to rust formation or chemical reactions by the
products of combustion after firing.
Erosion – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.

Gunpowder (whether black powder or smokeless powder)

 A substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a propellant in firearms.

Note: The Chinese were believed to be the first to invent black powder sometime in the 9th century during the Han Dynasty.

Wu ching tsun – the unrecognized inventor of gunpowder.

Constantine Anklitzen a.k.a. “Berthold” (14th century)
 German monk credited for the application of gunpowder in propelling a missile.
Roger Bacon (13th century)
 English monk, credited for the invention of gunpowder (black powder).
Paul Vielle (1886)
  Invented smokeless gunpowder with nitrocellulose, a single base propellant which was called Poudre B
(composition of either and alcohol).
Alfred E. Nobel
 Developed smokeless gunpowder and he called it Ballistite, a double base propellant.

Frederick Abel & James Dewar (1890)

 Obtained a patent of modifying smokeless gunpowder, they called it Cordite.

TWO TYPES OF GUNPOWDER

1. Black Powder - is a pyrotechnic composition, an explosive mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate(also known
as saltpeter or saltpeter) that burns rapidly, producing volumes of hot solids and gases which can be used as a propellant in
firearms and fireworks. The term "black powder" was coined in the late 19th century to distinguish prior gunpowder
formulations from the new smokeless powders and semi-smokeless powders. (Semi-smokeless powders featured bulk
volume properties that approximated black powder in terms of chamber pressure when used in firearms, but had
significantly reduced amounts of smoke and combustion products; they ranged in color from brownish tan to yellow to
white. Most of the bulk semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920s.)

- Oldest propellant
The pervasive formula for early propellants was a simple mechanical mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium
nitrate, known as a black powder.
-Most dangerous explosive to handle and store because it is easily ignited upon by heat, friction, flame, or spark.

Composition:
1. Potassium Nitrate (saltpeter) – 75%
2. Charcoal – 15%
3. Sulfur – 10%
Disadvantages:
1. It produces a large volume of white smoke.
2. Fouls the bore of firearms after relatively few shots.
3. It readily attracts moisture, hence, “keep your powder dry”.

Advantages:
1. When ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air.
2. In burning, it gives off a large volume of gas.
3. A considerable heat is evolved.

2. Smokeless Gunpowder - These are commonly nitrocellulose-based. The development of smokeless powders, such as
Cordite, in the late 19th century, created the need for a spark-sensitive priming charge, such as gunpowder.
Types of smokeless powder include Cordite, Ballistite, and, historically, Poudre B. They are classified as single-base,
double-base, or triple-base powders. The smokeless powder consists of nitrocellulose (single-base powders), frequently
combined with up to 50 percent nitroglycerin (double-base powders), and sometimes nitroglycerin and nitroguanidine
(triple-base), corned into small spherical balls or extruded into cylinders or flakes using solvents such as ether. Other minor
ingredients, such as stabilizers and ballistic modifiers, are also added. Double-base propellants are common in handgun and
rifle ammunition. Triple-base propellants are more common in artillery guns.

The reason that they are smokeless is that the combustion products are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55%
solid products for black powder (potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, etc).

THREE MAIN CLASSES OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single Base Propellant

- Nitrocellulose is the only energetic material. Contains only pure nitro-glycerine gelatinized with nitrocellulose.
2. Double Base Propellant
 - Contains nitro-glycerine and nitrocellulose mixed with other materials. Such as Vaseline phthalate esters,
centralite and inorganic salts.
3. Triple Base Propellant
- Contains three principal ingredients
a) Nitrocellulose
b) Nitro-glycerine
c) Nitro guanidine
Note: Triple base smokeless powders are used only as propellants in artillery ammunition.

Types/Forms of Gunpowder
 Flake Propellant
 Tubular or Cylindrical
 Flattened Ball Propellant
 Ball Propellant

EXPLOSIVES
An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can
produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An
explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may either be composed solely of one ingredient or be
a mixture containing at least two substances.
The potential energy stored in an explosive material may, for example, be
 chemical energy, such as nitroglycerin or grain dust
 pressurized gas, such as a gas cylinder, aerosol can, or BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion)
 nuclear energy, such as in the fissile isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239
Explosive materials may be categorized by the speed at which they expand. Materials that detonate (the front of the
chemical reaction moves faster through the material than the speed of sound) are said to be "high explosives" and
materials that deflagrate are said to be "low explosives". Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive
materials that can be initiated by a relatively small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives and materials that are
relatively insensitive are secondary or tertiary explosives.
A wide variety of chemicals can explode; a smaller number are manufactured specifically to be used as explosives. The
remainder is too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, or prone to decomposition or degradation over short
periods.
In contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding.

1. Class Characteristics
 Intentional or design characteristics that would be common to a particular group or family items.
 Characteristics that are determinable even before the manufacture of the firearms.
 These are factory specifications and within the control of man.
 These serve as the basis for identifying a certain group or class of firearms

The following are class characteristics of firearms that can be determined in fired bullets:
 Bore diameter – this can be measured from land to land
 Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm

Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm consist of the following items:
 Number of lands and grooves- the number of raised and depressed portions in the bore
 Width of lands and grooves
 Depth of grooves
 Direction of twist – rifling either twist to the right or the left.
 Pitch of rifling – this is also called the degree of rifling twist. It simply refers to the distance (measured either in
inches or centimeters) traveled by the lands and grooves to complete a single rotation (360 degrees).
 All class characteristics are measurable

- Caliber - Direction of Twist

- Num tober of Lands and Grooves - Depth Grooves
- Width of Lands and Grooves - Pitch of Rifling

Class characteristics ACCORDING TO TYPES OF RIFLING:

1. Steyr type
 4 lands, 4 grooves right-hand twist, and lands and grooves are of equal width. (4–R –G=L)
2. Smith and Wesson Type
 5lands and grooves, right-hand twist and lands and grooves of equal width. (5-R-G=L)
3. Browning Type
 6 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands, and broad grooves. (6-R-G-2x)

4. Colt Type
 6 lands and grooves, left twist, narrow lands, and broad grooves. (6-L-G-2x)

5. Webley Type
 7 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands, and broad grooves. (7-R-G3x)

6. Winchester Type
 6RG3X (six lands and grooves twist to the right, groove width is three times wider than the land.)

7. Carbine Type
 4RG2X which means there are 4 lands and grooves that twist to the right but the grooves are twice wider than
the lands.

8. Army Type
 4 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow land, and broad grooves (4-R-G3x).

2. Individual Characteristics
 Also called accidental characteristics.
 When a firearm is manufactured, the individual parts are made with tools that are in a constant state of change.
 As a result, no two guns will leave the same marks on the ammunition components.
 Separate a single item from a large of items.
 Considered “fingerprints” in that they are unique to that item.
 This is caused by randomness like cutting, grinding, and shearing on a microscope level.

Sources of individual characteristics of firearms:

a) The wear and tear of the tools used in the manufacture of the firearm.
b) The action of oxidation.
c) The care of the firearm by the holder.
d) The use of the firearm by the holder.
WEEK 10: ASSESSMENT

History Rifling
Early firearms had smooth barrels and fired projectiles with no significant spin. These projectiles had to be stable
shapes, such as finned arrows or spheres, to minimize tumbling during flight. However, spherical bullets do tend to rotate
randomly during flight, and the Magnus effect means that even a relatively smooth sphere will curve when rotating on any
axis not parallel to the direction of travel (see knuckleball for an example of intentional random tumbling.)
 Rifling imparts a spin to the projectile, which stabilizes it and prevents it from tumbling. This does two things; first,
it increases the accuracy of the projectile by eliminating the random drift due to the Magnus effect, and second, it allows
longer, heavier bullets to be used from the same diameter barrel, increasing range and power. In the 18th century, the
standard infantry arm was the smoothbore musket; by the 19th century, rifled barrels became the norm, increasing the
power and range of the infantry weapon significantly. Most modern pistols, revolvers, rifles, and some shotgun barrels have
what are called rifling in their barrels.
Rifling consists of grooves cut or formed in a spiral nature, lengthwise down the barrel of a firearm. Rifling is placed
in the barrels of firearms to impart a spin on the bullets that pass through it. Because bullets are oblong objects, they must
spin in their flight, like a thrown football, to be accurate. Looking down the barrel of a firearm you might see rifling like that
depicted on the right. This image shows a pattern of rifling containing six grooves with a right twist. In firearm examiner
lingo we refer to the rifling as lands & grooves. The lands are the raised areas between two grooves. A rifling pattern of
eight grooves also has eight lands.
Firearms can be manufactured with any number of lands and grooves in their barrels. They can also spiral either
left or right. A few of the more common rifling patterns are 4/right, 5/right, 6/right, 6/left, 8/right, and 16/right.
When barrels are manufactured, they start as a solid rod of
steel. A hole is drilled down the center of the rod and the rifling is then placed in the barrel.

Manufacturing of Firearm Barrels

STEPS:

1. Drilling the Hole

- This operation results in drilling deep accurate rough holes longitudinally uniform in diameter from one end of
the barrel to the other.

2. Reaming the Hole

- This operation removes some of the scars and scratches left by the drilling operation. The hole is reamed
carefully to the exact bore diameter.

3. Cutting or Putting the Rifling

- Firearm barrels have grooves cut or pressed, in the bore which produces RIFLING.
- These grooves are cut in a spiral pattern.
- Between the grooves are raised areas. These are called lands.

 In firearm examiner lingo, rifling refers to the LANDS and GROOVES. The lands are the raised portion between two
grooves, while the grooves are the depressed portion.

RIFLING METHODS

a) Broach Rifling
A tool having a series of cutting edges of slightly increasing height is used to cut the spiral grooves in a
barrel. All grooves are cut with a single pass of the broach. The modern broach method of rifling uses a hardened
steel rod with several cutting rings spaced down the rod. Like the one shown below. Broaches can be over 16
inches long and because they have several cutting rings, they are referred to as gang broaches.

b) Button Rifling
 A hardened metal plug with a rifled cross-section configuration. It is pushed or pulled through a drilled and
reamed barrel to form the spiral grooves to the desired depth and twist.

c) Hammer Forging
The newest mechanical method of rifling barrels is accomplished through a process called hammer forging.
Hammer forging produces a type of rifling called polygonal rifling. A hardened steel mandrel is produced with the
shape of the rifling formed on its outer surface. The mandrel is inserted into a barrel blank and the outer surface
of the barrel is machine hammered. The hammering forces the barrel material down against the mandrel and the
inner surface of the barrel takes on the shape of the mandrel. The mandrel is then removed from the barrel and
the outer surface of the barrel is cleaned up. Just as in the other types of rifling, polygonal rifling can have
different patterns. The most common polygonal patterns are 6/right and 8/right. This form of rifling is used by
Glock, Steyr, IMI, and a few other manufacturers.

d) Hook Cutter
A cutting tool that has a hook shape and only cuts one groove at a time.
e) Scrape
A cutting tool that cuts two opposing grooves at a time.
f) . Electrochemical Rifling
In a process that eliminates the conventional machining of metal, rifling is formed by wet-etching the
interior of a barrel under an electric current. The metal inside the barrel is eaten away or dissolved to create
grooves in the barrel. An electrode (cathode) that has metal strips in the shape of the rifling is placed in the barrel
(anode) and the assembly is submerged in a salt solution. An electric current is applied and the electrode is moved
down the length of the barrel and twisted to create spiral-shaped grooves. As the current travels from the barrel
to the electrode metal are removed by electrolysis thus forming the grooves in the barrel. This process creates
rifling in the barrel very quickly and does not require consumable tooling.
4. Lapping
- It follows after the rifling operation is completed.
- This is the smoothening of the inner surface of the gun barrel. Polishing the inside of the barrel like a mirror
with a polishing compound.
5. Chambering
- The final step is chambering or cutting away the breech end of the barrel where the cartridge or shotgun shell is
to fit.

TYPES OF RIFLING

1. Cut Rifling – made by a broach cutter or button which produces rifling with sharp edges.
Bore – refers to the cylindrical passage of a barrel through which the bullets travel.

2. Polygonal Rifling – lands, and grooves having a rounded profile. This type of rifling is
produced with Hammer Forging.
INTRODUCTION

Firearms evidence is usually encountered in crimes against persons such as homicide, assault, and robbery; but may also be
found in other crimes such as burglary, rape, and narcotics violations.

While comparisons of bullets and cartridge cases to specific firearms are the most common examinations requested, other
examinations are possible such as distance determinations based on powder residue or shot spread; examination of
firearms for functioning or modification; sequence of shots fired and trajectories; list of possible weapons used; serial
number restoration and ownership tracing.

Evidence of firing or handling a firearm may be detected through the analysis of gunshot residue collected from a person’s
hands or other body surfaces.

A. EVIDENCE FIREARMS-HANDLING AND SAFETY

The location and condition of firearms and related evidence at a crime scene should be diagramed and photographed
before recovering and securing. Although physical evidence is important, safety must be the first consideration. Each
situation should be evaluated before deciding to unload an evidence firearm. (Caution, treat a firearm at all times as if it
were loaded). If the weapon is a type that can be safely transported in a loaded condition, this can be done. However,
depending on the circumstances it may be unnecessary or unwise to transport a loaded firearm. It should then be
unloaded, with care taken to preserve all types of possible evidence. This evidence includes fingerprints, blood, hair or
fibers, cylinder "halos", and debris in the barrel and/or cylinder. The weapon should be handled in those areas least likely to
retain latent fingerprints such as knurled or checkered areas.

B. UNLOADING REVOLVERS

Before moving the cylinder it should be marked to indicate its position as found. This can be done by two pen or scribe
marks on the top of the cylinder along each side of the top strap of the frame. The position of each cartridge/case in the
cylinder should be recorded in field notes as diagramed below. All cartridges/cases removed should be handled to preserve
possible fingerprints. Each cartridge case should be packaged separately and referenced to the information in the field
notes. Do not mark the actual cartridge/case.

EXAMPLE NOTES
Chamber Position Condition Cartridge Headstamp
---------------------- --------------- ---------------------------
 1 Fired U.S.C. Co.
2 Fired REM-UMC
3 Fired WRA
4 Misfired D.C. Co.
5 Loaded WESTERN
6 Loaded PETERS

C. UNLOADING SINGLE SHOT OR AUTOLOADING FIREARMS

Before securing the firearm as evidence make a record of the position, as found, of any safety, cocking indicator, loaded
chamber indicator, selector, or other control feature. With the firearm pointed in a safe direction, remove the magazine.
Next, clear the chamber by slowly drawing back the slide/bolt handle. With the slide/bolt to the rear, examine the chamber
visually to ensure that no cartridge is in the chamber. Separately package the firearm, any detachable magazine, and/or
extracted cartridges/cases. Again, take care to preserve any possible fingerprints or trace evidence. Do not remove
cartridges from the magazine, or mark the cartridges/cases directly.

D. TRACE EVIDENCE AND FINGERPRINTS

Examine the weapon for possible trace evidence such as blood, hair, fibers, tissue, or paint that may be relevant. If in doubt,
do not dust for prints. Submit in-person to the laboratory and request that the firearm is processed for prints.

E. TRANSPORTATION TO LABORATORY

Personal delivery is preferred. A loaded handgun may be transported in a specially constructed box that has a means of
securely holding the firearm and has a metal plate blocking the muzzle. If the firearm is to be sent by mail it must be
unloaded and securely packaged.

F. NOTE-TAKING AND EVIDENCE MARKING

Sketch the area which shows the location of each evidence item collected. The sketch should contain location
measurements that reference each evidence item to a fixed object or a reference point. Photographs should be used to
supplement notes and sketches, but not as a substitute for them. For later identification, the serial number of a firearm
should be recorded. Some older rifles and shotguns, however, may not have a serial number. If the firearm is marked for
identification by scribing, the marks should be placed in a location where they will not damage the appearance or value of
the firearm.

G. BULLETS EMBEDDED IN WOOD OR PLASTER

Do not attempt to dig a bullet out. Remove by cutting out a portion of the tile material in which the bullet is embedded.
Send the piece of material containing the bullet to the laboratory.

H. REMOVAL OF AN EVIDENCE BULLET FROM THE BODY OF A DECEASED PERSON

X-ray the body first. Ask the doctor not to use forceps, but, if possible, to use his fingers or rubber-tipped forceps to remove
bullets. Bloody bullets should be washed in running water without scrubbing. Do not wash a projectile if trace evidence
might be present such as may occur in a ricochet or deflection. If a bullet is washed do not use a brush or other item for
cleaning. After washing it is IMPERATIVE bullets be dried before packaging. Dry the bullets by blotting (not rolling) with a
soft dry facial or toilet tissue. Sealing a bloody or wet bullet in an air-tight package can cause corrosion of identifiable detail
on the bullet. Wrap in soft tissue paper and seal in a labeled paper envelope or box. Package each bullet separately. DO
NOT MARK the bullet or allow it to be marked. Mark the sealed container with a description of the bullet and all other
pertinent data. You may wish to sketch the bullet for your records. If you wish consultation on these procedures as they
relate to your specific case, call the local criminalistics laboratory.

I. FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES, WADS, AND PELLETS

CARTRIDGE CASES: It may be possible to determine the position of a shooter by the location of ejected cartridge casings.
Sketch with ACCURATE measurements of the location of fired cartridge cases. Again, package each item separately and
mark the packages with the pertinent information.

SHOT WADS: When a shotgun is fired, the wads travel along with, or behind, the shot charge for a short distance. In those
cases involving close shots, wadding may be found in either the victim's body or in his clothing. Follow the same packaging
procedure as for bullets.

SHOT PELLETS: For pellets embedded in the wood, plastic, etc., handle in the same manner as bullets
embedded in solid objects. If it is not possible to submit the material in which pellets are embedded, pellets may be dug
out, taking care not to mutilate them any more than is necessary. In the removal of pellets from the body of a deceased
person, x-rays can help locate the pellets. Use special care in recovering pellets so that there will not be undue damage to
them. Rubber-tipped forceps should be used. After washing, wrap collected pellets in soft tissue paper and place them in a
labeled pillbox, or small envelope.
LOADED SHELLS OR CARTRIDGES: Collect and submit to the laboratory all ammunition associated with a case. It can be used
for test firing and distance determinations. Exactly duplicating the ammunition used may be critical. Document where such
ammunition was found. If the number of cartridges is relatively few, they can be handled in the same manner as fired
bullets. Large quantities should be placed in a cardboard box or wooden container. Label, seal and deliver to the laboratory.

J. DISTANCE DETERMINATIONS

In some cases, such as suicides and alleged struggles for the gun, the distance between the muzzle of the gun and the victim
may become an issue and it will be desirable to examine garments for powder residue and other indications of close firing.
For protection in transporting, the clothing of the victim should be rolled (after air-drying) with paper on each surface.
Package separately so that the area surrounding the bullet hole does not rub against other clothing or objects. When bullets
have passed through garments into the body, a clear photograph of the bullet hole positions in the victim is desirable.
Include a ruler in all photographs. Submit the firearm and the unfired ammunition associated with the incident. The use of
identical ammunition is an essential part of firing distance determinations.
Further information on firearms evidence can be obtained from the local criminalistics laboratory serving your agency.

K. RECOGNITION OF EVIDENCE
- The process of applying keen observation in search of physical evidence at the crime scene for proper
identification.

L. COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

- The process of gathering physical evidence at the crime scene. Photograph and sketch the physical evidence
before collecting them from the crime scene and maintain records to when, where, who, what, and how the
evidence was recovered. Great care should be exercised when collecting physical evidence.

Be sure not to MAC the very nature of the evidence

M – Mutilate
A – Alter/Adulterate
C – Contaminate
M. SPECIMEN SUBJECT FOR PROCESSING /RECOVERY FROM THE CRIME SCENE:

a) Firearms
b) Ammunition
c) Ammunition Components, such as:
 Bullet  Propellant
 Pellet  Wads
 Cartridge Cases  Bullet fragment
 Primer  Another related specimen

Marks Found on Fired Bullets

  A bullet is slightly larger in diameter than the bore diameter of the barrel in which it is designed to be fired. As a
result, a rifled barrel will impress a negative impression of itself on the sides of the bullet.

IMPRESSED TOOLMARK
 Features are produced when a tool contacts an object with enough compressive force that it leaves an
impression.

STRIATED TOOLMARK
 Features are produced when a tool contacts an object with lateral force and motion.

a) Land Marks – depressed portion found on fired bullet caused by the land.

b) Groove Marks – raised or elevated portion caused by the grooves.

 Land and groove marks together are called Rifling Marks. These are striations found on the periphery/bearing or
cylindrical surface of the fired bullets.

 Rifling is a series of helical grooves in the interior of the barrel which cause the bullet to spin and make it more
stable (like a spiral on a football).

c) Skid Marks – this happens when the bullet enters the rifled bore from a stationary position and is forced abruptly into
the rifling, its natural tendency is to go straight forward before entering the regular rifling twist.
- These markings are more pronounced in the revolver and caused due to worn-out barrels.

d) Slippage/Stripping Marks – these are marks found on bullets fired from a worm-out barrel and only barrels.

e) Shaving Marks – most commonly found on bullets fired from a revolver due to a poor alignment of the cylinder with the
bore.

Marks Found on Fired Cartridge Case

1. Firing Pin Impression – the indentation in the primer of a centerfire cartridge case caused when it is struck by the firing
pin.
2. Breechface Markings – negative impression of the breech face of the firearm found generally on the base or the head of
the cartridge case after firing.
3. Chamber Marks – marks upon a cartridge case by the chamber wall as a result of any or call of the ff:
a) Chambering
b) Expanding during firing
c) Extraction
4. Extractor Marks – marks produced upon a cartridge case from contact with the extractor.
- These are usually found on or just ahead of the rim.
- These are usually found on shells fired from pistols, rifles, shotguns, and machineguns.
5. Ejector Marks – a part of the firearm that is designed to expel the cartridge case from the action of the firearm.
6. Shear Marks or the Secondary Firing Pin Marks – found in the primer near the firing pin mark.
7. Firing Pin Drag Marks – it is caused by the protruding nose of the firing pin.

Other Marks Found on Fired Shells:

1. Pivotal Marks
2. Magazine Lip Marks
3. Breach Closure or Anvil Marks

A. CARTRIDGE CASE EJECTION PATTERN TESTING

The location of the shooter in a shooting incident is critical information that an investigator needs for scene reconstruction
of a shooting event. However, this becomes challenging when the shooter’s location during an incident is not available or
unknown. In such circumstances, investigators can make use of physical evidence available in the scene to help determine
the shooter’s approximate location with empty case location of ground (spent cartridges) being one such relevant evidence.
This is important in investigating a shooting incident to determine the position of the shooter and to collaborate with other
evidence.

The cartridge case ejection pattern test is used to define how a particular firearm arrays the fired cartridges cases ejected
from it during the firing process under specific test conditions. Such tests are usually conducted on a firing range (as shown)
under a specific set of conditions. However, it may be necessary in certain cases to conduct the test under conditions as
close as possible to the conditions at the actual shooting scene. Such conditions as gun height, angle, surface the cartridge
cases land on, etc. may have great bearing upon the pattern displayed.

INTRODUCTION
Gun Shot Residue, or simply GSR, is a means of testing for the presence of certain materials on the hands and clothing of a
subject in hopes of determining that this individual may have discharged a firearm. The concept is an old one and dates
back many years. Advances in testing technology make this examination much more specific than it was some 30-40 years
ago.

Gunshot residue (GSR) analysis is a standard method to determine if a firearm has been used. Particles for GSR analysis
typically range from 0.5 to 10 microns. Often the primer particles containing lead (Pb), barium (Ba), and antimony (Sb) are
detected and analyzed using EDS in a scanning electron microscope. Titanium (Ti) and zinc (Zn) are becoming more common
as lead-free ammunition. To be statistically valid, imaging and analysis are automated to process multiple samples in an
SEM.

WHAT IS GSR?
Gunshot residue contains burned particles (potassium nitrite) and some unburned particles (potassium nitrate), and for
decades criminal investigators collected these particles by applying melted paraffin wax to a subject’s hands. Upon removal
of the wax cast, a reagent containing diphenylamine and sulfuric acid was applied to the cast. The development of blue
specks was indicative of the presence of nitrates.
But in the 1970s the courts took the position that the presence of nitrates in the environment was a common occurrence,
and the dermal nitrate test was no longer a valid means to determine that the subject had fired a gun.
PRIMER RESIDUE
When a gun is fired, the gunshot residue particles - small particles produced during the gunpowder explosions - are emitted
from the back of the weapon and the muzzle. These particles fly onto the skin and clothing of the person holding the gun.
They contain elements that result from the propellant and primer decomposing, as well as from the bullet (which normally
contains a large amount of lead), bullet coating or jacket, cartridge components, and previous residues in the barrel.
Characteristic elements include antimony (Sb), lead (Pb), barium (Ba), and, for special types of ammunition, titanium (Ti),
and Zinc (Zn). These cannot be completely removed by normal washing or cleaning, and samples of the particles can be
taken from suspects with adhesive collection devices for further investigation.

Two Types of Gunshot Residue

1. GSR deposited on victim, clothing, or target that follows the path of the bullet.
2. GSR deposited on the shooter’s hands primarily from the primer.

TRACE EVIDENCE

Locard’s Principle – when two objects come into contact, exchange of material takes place.

Common areas of trace evidence:

1. Hands – most common
2. Face
3. Clothing
4. Objects near the place of incident
Shapes of trace evidence:
1. They are generally spherical
2. Particles show overall cracking characteristics
3. Edges are straight or jagged to partially round

Collection of Plumes:
PLUMES – refer to the gunpowder residue that exits on all openings of the firearm after discharge.

Types of Collection:
1. Cotton Swabs – with the use of cotton with 5% nitric acid solution, particles may be collected.
2. Adhesive Stubs – used for scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis.

Evaluation of crime scene (Relative to GSR)

1. Time factor is the most important consideration in dealing with GSR evidence.
2. The standard time frame is 3-6 hours from the time of shooting BUT in some cases, it may persist much longer.
3. Careful preservation of clothing should be made.
4. The traditional belief to remove GSR on hands is by application of Vinegar.

Chemical Testing of GSR

1. Diphenylamine Test – detects the presence of nitrates and nitrites,
2. Sodium Rhodizonate Test – specific for lead (Pb)
- Vaporous lead is usually found closer than arm’s length.
3. Walker Test – Used by the investigator to detect the Range.
4. Modified Griess Test – Specific for partially burned and unburned gunpowder particles, most specifically, nitrites
found in the partially burned gunpowder.
5. Lunge Reagent – the chemical used to indicate the presence of Nitrocellulose.
Methods of Examination of GSR

1. NAA = Neutron Activation Analysis

2.
3. ICP-MSP = Inductively Coupled Plasma – the most efficient method employed in the analysis of GSR,
computerized.
4.
5. GFAAS = Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy – used in the analysis of inorganic materials in
primer residues such as Ba and S
THREE METHODS FOR TESTING GSR: (actually a color test)

1. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)

2. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)
3. Scanning Electron Microscopy /Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (SEM/EDX)
 For these methods, samples must be obtained from the skin surfaces of a shooter’s hand at the scene.
 Barium, antimony, and lead are the traces of metals being detected originating from the primer of the
cartridge.

ATOMIC ABSORPTION
 Uses nitric acid swab to test for the presence of lead, barium, and antimony
 Simple, low cost, reliable results

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

 Coupled with x-ray analysis, test for the presence of different particles with characteristic morphology.
 Tests for Lead, Antimony, and Barium particles.
 AA and SEM cannot place the gun in the suspect’s hands. Both tests can only show that the suspect was “close” to
a weapon during discharge.

NOTE: The lack of GSR does not mean the suspect was not the shooter, nor does the presence of GSR mean the suspect was
the shooter.
 GSR ELEMENTS

The major primer elements are:

1. Lead (Pb)
2. Antimony (Sb)
3. Barium (Ba)
 All three must be present in 1 particle to be considered specific for GSR

Results of GSR Hand Tests

Negatively results may be caused by:
1. Washing the hands
2. Shooter may have been wearing gloves
3. Lead-free ammunition

 A rifle or shotgun may not deposit GSR on hands

DERMAL NITRATE OR PARAFIN TEST

 Is NO LONGER USED and is generally considered unreliable in GSR testing because of its no specificity. The main
problem was recently realized cosmetics and other everyday preparations as well as being present in cigarettes
and cigars so that the value of a swab as a positive indication of recent gun handling is lost.
 This kind of test was developed by TEODORO GONZALES of Mexico in 1993.

1. Bullet Comparison Microscope

- is used to determine the similarities and dissimilarities of evidence and test evidence.
- With this microscope, the firearm examiner can take photomicrographs of his observation and findings under the
eyepiece of the comparison microscope.

Col. Calvin H. Goddard, MD – 1st to own Bullet Comparison Microscope in 1925.

- Father of Modern Ballistics

Two Positions in Comparing Evidence & Test Bullet

A. Intermarriage – half of the evidence & test bullet is projected.

a) At the same time – clock positions
b) At the same direction – left or right
c) At the same magnification –the same size when viewed (small vs. small; bigger vs. bigger)
d) At the same image – Landmarks vs. Landmarks
e) At the same level or plane – refers to height elevation of stage plate

B. Juxtaposition - the critical side-by-side examination of evidence and test bullet/shell.

Juxtapose – means putting two things together to emphasize their contrast between them.

2. Stereoscopic Microscope
-This is generally used in the preliminary examinations of fired bullets and fired shells to class characteristics for
orientation purposes.
- It can be used also in the close-up examination of tampered serial numbers. No photomicrograph can be taken in
this equipment.

Cherubin d’Oreans – invented the 1st Stereoscopic Style Microscope with two eyepieces in 1671.

Honorato S. Greenough (1890) – introduced a “novel” design that led him to become the Forefather of Modern
stereoscopes.
Francis Herbert Wenham (19th) of London – designed the first successful stereomicroscope. This was introduced in the US
and was named Cycloptic in 1957.

3. Comparison Projector 6 (CP-6)

- Similar to the Comparison Microscope, but this equipment is capable of comparing two fired bullets and shells
with a large screen.
William Howard Livens – Engineer and British Army was the inventor.

4. Bullet Recovery Box

- used in test firing to acquire test shells and bullets for comparison. The same caliber or brand of ammunition
should be used and manufactured in the same year.
Original Design (Square)
a) Length = 8ft or 96 in
b) 1ft or 12 x 12 in on each side
c) ¼ in thick
d) 1/8 in thick = tip

Modern Design (Tube)

a) Length = 92 inches
b) Diameter of body = 18 inches
c) Thickness of iron used = 1/8 inch
d) Frontal ring = 20 inches

5. Measuring Projector 6 (MP-6)

- used in determining the width of lands, the width of grooves, diameter, and twist of fired bullets.

6. Vernier Caliper
- Generally used to know the caliber of FA, bullet, and shell.

Caliper is used to determine the:

a) Bullet diameter
b) Rim diameter
c) Shell mouth diameter
d) Bore diameter
e) Shell length
f) Barrel length

7. Micrometer (C-clamp like)

- Similar in use with Caliper.
- Derived from Greek words Micros (small) and Metron (to measure).
- This instrument then is used to measure small things and small distances.
- This is an enhancement of the Vernier Caliper.
William Gascoine (17th) – 1st ever inventor

Jean Laurent Palmer (1848-France) – inventor of Palmer, which is used in measuring handled objects. It was introduced in
Spain and was called Tornillo de Palmer.

8. Analytical or Torsion Balance

- Determines the weight of the fired bullet, shots/pellets to know its caliber, type, and make of FA used.
- Measurements are expressed in Grains or Grams.

Note:
If the bullet is shaved, it must be noted for its weight will differ from the standard.

9. Taper Gauge
 - Used to determine the bore diameter of FA or Caliber.

Comparison: Ring measurer, used in determining the right measurement for welding, graduation, and personalized rings.

10. Onoscope
- This is a small instrument used in the examination of the interior surface of the barrel.
- It has a tiny lamp at its end and is being inserted in the barrel to detect irregularities and imperfections,
roughness, and scratches.

11. Helixometer
- This measures Pitch of Rifling, which refers to a complete turn (360°) of a bullet inside the barrel.

Procedure: This instrument is used by inserting the telescope and aligning it with the axis of the bore.

12. Chronograph
- This measures the speed of the bullet or muzzle velocity of the bullet.

Alfred Lee Loomis (1918) – inventor

Before Chronograph, Boulenge Chronograph was invented but was not much reliable/accurate.

13. Electric Gun Marker

- Used in marking fired bullets, shells, and FA’s submitted for examination.
- This is being plugged into a female outlet.
- Used only when there is a power supply.

14. Shadowgraph
- Used in orientation / preliminary examination of fired bullets and shells with the use of series of microscopic
lenses of different magnifications.
- This instrument contains a large circular ground glass that is about 14 in where the observation and comparison
of the characteristics are done.
- This can also take photomicrographs.

15. Stylus – A pointed instrument used to mark:

1. Fired bullets
2. Fired shells
3. Firearms
4. Metallic fragments

-This must be solid and harder metal than the evidence to be marked.
-This is used in manually engraving the initials and date.

16. Integrated Ballistics Identification System

17. Fuming Cabinet

- Is used in a fumigation process to develop latent prints from FA’s allegedly used in a crime.

Eight Problems Involved in Firearms Identification

1. Given a Bullet
- To determine the caliber, type, and possible make of firearm from which it was fired.

2. Given a Fired Cartridge Case

- To determine the caliber, type, and possible make of firearm from which it was fired.

3. Given Two or More Fired Bullets

- To determine whether or not the fired bullet were fired from the same firearm.
4. Given Two or More Fired Cartridge Cases
- To determine whether or not the fired bullet were fired from the same firearm.

5. Given a Firearm and Fired Bullet

- To determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.

6. Given a Firearm and Fired Cartridges Case

- To determine whether or not the fired cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm.

7. Firearm, Ammunition, Shot Pattern & Victim’s Clothing

- To determine the approximate distance at which the shot was discharged.

8. Shot Pellets and Wads

- To determine the approximate size of shots and gauge of the gun.