5-Day Intensive Training Course

In

Instrumentation & Essentials of

Process Control
Abu Dhabi, 3 – 7 February 2008

Presented by:
Eng. Gamal Thabet

In Collaboration with:

www.wahibtraining.com
 Contents
Page
Sr. Subject
No.
1 Process Measurement 1

2 Process Control 136

3 Boiler Control 155

4 Combustion Control 164

5 Compressor Control 175

6 Distillation Control 182

7 Control Valve Data Sheet 191

8 “HIPPS” High Integrity Pressure Protection Systems. 206

9 Safety Integrity Level 222

10 Pressure Relief Device 235

 Chapter 1

Process Measurement

1. Oil and Gas Industry Instrument.

2. Temperature Measurement.
3. Pressure Measurement.
4. Flow Measurement.
5. Level Measurement.
6
6. Gas Detection Measurement
Measurement.

1
 1. Oil and Gas Industry

2
5

Process Flow Diagram – Turbo expander Process

6 for NGL Extraction

3
7

Process Flow Diagram – Simple Refrigeration

8
System

4
9 Continuous Distillation Control Enhancements

2. Temperature Measurement

• Temperature Scales
• Measurement Devices
• Measuring Circuits
• Fail Safe Features
• Temperature Tables

10

5
 Temperature Scales
Centigrade and Fahrenheit
• Fixed Points
– Melting
M l i pointi off water
– Boiling point of water
– 1 Barg

11

Centigrade and Fahrenheit

• Fixed points
•Melting point of water
•Boiling point of water
•1 Barg
• Inaccuracies
•Purity of water
•Change in atmospheric pressure
• Kelvin scale
•Increased accuracy
•Increased consistency

12

6
Kelvin Scale
• Accuracy
•More accurate than centigrade
•More accurate than Fahrenheit
•Two fixed temperature points
•Not substance dependent
Zero Kelvin
•Movement of atoms
•Slowest oscillations
Triple point of water
•Ice
•Liquid water
•Water vapour
•237.15k/0.01° C

13

Kelvin Scale Centigrade and Fahrenheit

14

7
 Temperature Measurement
‘Non Electrical’

• Thermometer
• Bi-metallic Strip

15

Glass Thermometer
• Suitability
•Not for industrial use
•Too fragile

Large volume mercury bulb Small bore tube (capillary

Bulb heats up Volume of mercury expands Mercury rises up the tube

16

8
Metal bulb thermometer
• characteristics
•Industrial applications
•Small- bore capillary
•Up to 60m capillary

17

Bimetallic Strip
• Single metal strip
•Expands with heat
•Length indicates temperature
•Small increase in length
• Bimetallic strip
•Amplifies metal expansion
•Fused steel and copper
•Copper has high temperature coefficient
•Steel has low temperature coefficient
•Heat bends the strip
•Bends
B d towards
t d steel
t l

18

9
Bimetallic Strip
• Single metal strip
•Expands with heat
•Length indicates temperature
•Small increase in length
• Bimetallic strip
•Amplifies metal expansion
•Fused steel and copper
•Copper has high temperature coefficient
•Steel has low temperature coefficient
•Heat bends the strip
•Bends towards steel
• Rotary motion
•Spiral bimetallic strip
•Pointer
•Calibrated temperature scale

19

Temperature Measurement ‘Electrical’

• Thermocouple Device
• Resistance Temperature Device (RTD)

20

10
 Thermocouple Devices

• Principle of Operation
• Construction
• Earthed / Non-earthed Thermocouples
• Compensating Cables
• Measuring Circuits

21

Principle of Operation
Thermocouple Devices-principle of operation
• See back Effect
•2 dissimilar metals
•Junction
•EMF generated
•Proportional to temperature
• Junctions
•“measuring” or “hot”
•“reference” or “cold”
• EMF
•Micrivolts
•Depends on metal

22

11
 Construction
Thermocouple Devices-Construction
• Simple Thermocouple
Porcelain insulator
•Braised dissimillar wires
•Porcelain insulators
• Mineral insulated metal sheatbed
•More robust
•Grounded
•under grounded
• Duplex design
•2 thermocouples
•Provides
Provides redundancy
•Critical applications
•Confirm values

23

Earthed & Non-earthed Thermocouples

Grounded Thermocouple
• Grounded
Porcelain insulator
•Hot junction welded to sheath tip
•Earthed output
•Faster response to temperature change

Hot junction

24

12
 Under ground Thermocouple
• Undergrounded
Porcelain insulator
•Hot junction insulated from sheath
•Floating output
•100 megohm insulating resistance

Hot junction

25

Compensating Cables
Compensating Cables
• Measuring circuit
•Some distance from thermocouple
•Extension leads
• Extensions Leads
•Can be expensive
•Cheaper compensating cables
•Do not use conventional connectors
•Use special connectors

26

13
 Compensating Cables
• Measuring circuit
•Some distance from thermocouple
•Extension leads
• Extensions Leads
Can be expensive
•Can
•Cheaper compensating cables
•Do not use conventional connectors
•Use special connectors

27

Compensating Cables Thermocouple cable

• Measuring circuit
•Some distance from thermocouple Plug
•Extension leads
• Extensions Leads Socket
Can be expensive
•Can
•Cheaper compensating cables
•Do not use conventional connectors
•Use special connectors
Different pin
diameters and
Cable Clamp materials

Flexible extension

28

14
 Compensating Cables
• International colour code
•Thermocouple
•Cables
•Not all countries conform

29

Measuring Circuits & Tables

Measuring circuits
• Measured Voltage
•Accurate
•Look-up
L k tables
bl
•Hot junction temperature
• Cold Junction Temperature
•Must be considered
•Tables reference 0°C

30

15
 Measuring circuits

31

Resistance Temperature Devices

Resistance temperature devices (RTD)
• Operating principles
•Resistance increases with temperature
• Duplex design
•2 RTD’s
•Provides redundancy Leads
•Critical applications
•Confirm values

32

16
Resistance temperature devices (RTD)
• Operating principles
•Resistance increases with temperature
• Duplex design
•2 RTD’s
Provides redundancy
•Provides
•Critical applications
•Confirm values

Conductor

The conductor and element

are insulated by every
lightly compacted
magnesium oxide powder

33

Resistance temperature devices (RTD)

• Operating principles
•Resistance increases with temperature
• Duplex design
•2 RTD’s
Provides redundancy
•Provides
•Critical applications
•Confirm values

End cap

The end cap and seemless

metal sheath are available
in either 316 stainless steel
or lconel with over all
diameters of 3.0 , 4.5 , 6.0 or
8.0 mm

34

17
Resistance temperature devices (RTD)
• Operating principles
•Resistance increases with temperature
• Duplex design
•2 RTD’s
Provides redundancy
•Provides
•Critical applications
•Confirm values

Resistance bulb

The platinum resistance

thermometer detector
elements are normally 100
ohms at 0°C with a
fundamental interval of
38.5 ohms

35

Resistance temperature devices (RTD)

• Operating principles
•Resistance increases with temperature
• Duplex design
•2 RTD’s
Provides redundancy
•Provides
•Critical applications
•Confirm values
Sheath wall

The sheath wall thickness is

typically 15% of the over all
diameter and p provides a
very high resistance to bend
creasing and splitting
combined with high
pliability for ease of
installation

36

18
 Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD)
• Platinum
•Less sensitive
•Near liner characteristic
•Used for industrial RTDs

37

Resistance Temperature Devices Classification

38

19
 Resistance Temperature Devices Classification

39

Resistance Temperature Devices Classification

40

20
 Resistance Temperature Devices Classification

41

Resistance Temperature Devices Classification

42

21
 Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD)

43

Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD)

An (RTD) with a resistance of 152.46Ω corresponds to a temperature of 137 °C

44

22
 Measuring Circuits

• Wheat Stone Bridge

• 2 - Wire Measuring Circuit
• 3 - Wire Measuring Circuit
• 4 - Wire Measuring Circuit

45

Measuring Circuits
• RTD element resistance Wheat Stone Bridge
•Connected to a transmitter
•Includes connecting wires
• Wheatstone bridge
Resistance bridge
•Resistance
•Applied voltage
•Balanced when zero output

46

23
 Measuring Circuits
• RTD element resistance
•Connected to a transmitter
•Includes connecting wires
• Wheatstone bridge
•Resistance bridge
•Applied voltage
•Balanced when zero output

47

Measuring Circuits
• RTD element resistance
•Connected to a transmitter
•Includes connecting wires
• Wheatstone bridge
•Resistance bridge
•Applied voltage
•Balanced when zero output

48

24
 2 - Wire Measuring Circuit Wheatstone bridge

2-Wire Measuring Circuit

• Bridge Circuit
•RTD is one
•Resistance of RTD at 0°C

49

2-Wire Measuring Circuit

• Bridge Circuit Wheatstone bridge

•RTD is one
•Resistance of RTD at 0°C
• Cable resistance
•Measured by bridge
•Compensate with R3
•Affected by atmospheric temperature
•Appreciable errors

50

25
 3 - Wire Measuring Circuit 2 Wire Circuit

3-Wire Measuring Circuit

• Application
•Accuracy
•Most industrial uses

51

3-Wire Measuring Circuit

• Application 2 Wire Circuit
•Accuracy
•Most industrial uses
• Measured Resistance
•RTD resistance
•Measuring Lead
•Error on long cable runs
•Effected by ambient temperature changes

52

26
 4 - Wire Measuring Circuit 3 Wire Circuit

4-Wire Measuring Circuit

• Application
•Critical temperature measurement
•Immune to atmospheric temperature

53

Fail Safe Mode Fail Safe Mode

• Burn- out
•Thermocouple
•RTD element
•Connecting lead fault
• Fault
•Unreliable
U li bl signal
i l
•Indicate lower temperature
•Indicate higher temperature
•Lost signal
• Transmitter
•Constantly monitors leads
•Configures fail action on burn-out
• Burn-out
•Up-scale-mA signal maximum
•Down-scale-mA signal minimum
•Impacts on control and ESD systems
•Fail safe

54

27
 Fail- Safe on Regeneration Furnace
• Control Scheme
•PV-actual furnace temperature
•SP-required furnace temperature
• PV lower than SP
•Furnace too cool
•Output signal increased
•Increase fuel
•Increase heat
• PV Higher than SP
•Furnace too hot
•Output signal decreased
Decrease fuel
•Decrease f el
•Decrease heat

55

Fail- Safe on Regeneration Furnace

• Without burn-out protection
•Lower temperature to controller
•Increased output to fuel valve
•Increased furnace temperature
•dangerous

56

28
 Fail- Safe on Regeneration Furnace
• Without burn-out protection
•Lower temperature to controller
•Increased output to fuel valve
•Increased furnace temperature
•Dangerous
• With burn-out protection
•Burn-out up-scale
•Transmitter output to top-scale
•PV higher than SP
•Reduced output to fuel valve
•Reduced furnace temperature
Forced to fail safe
•Forced

57

Thermo Wells & Head Mounted Transmitters

Construction

58

29
 Thermowells
• Functions
•Removal of thermal elements
•Mechanical and chemical protection
• Construction
Usually metal
•Usually
•Depends on process duty
•Manufacture’s tables
• Installation
•Secured by Screw thread or flange
•Minimise vibration
•Ensure good heat conduction
•Depends on well style

59

Construction

60

30
Head mounted Transmitters
• Advantages
• Minimises connecting
leads
• savings for
thermocouples
• Level signal not
transmitted long
distance
• Reduced susceptibility
to noise
• Manufacture
• Digital technology
• Accurate linearisation
• Programmable
• All types of
thermocouples and
RTDs

61

Construction - Summery
• Thermo well
• Removable temperature-measuring device
• Protection from environment
• Head-mounted transmitter
• Minimises connecting leads
• Savings for thermocouples
• Reduced susceptibility to noise

62

31
 Maintenance
Thermal Element
• maintenance
• Inspection
• Replacement

63

Thermal Element
• Continuity A-B
• 0-1 ohm

64

32
Thermal Element
• Continuity A-B
• 0-1 ohm
• affected by lead
length
• Continuity A-C or B-C
• Depends on element
• Consult
manufacturer’s data
• Continuity more
important than value

65

Thermal Element
• Sand bath
• Ambient to 600°C
• Heater air and sand
• Immerse RTD under test
• Immerse thermal element
source
• Compare test and source
temperatures
• Assess performance

66

33
 Decade Box

Decade Box
• characteristics
• Precision calibrated instrument
• Variable resistance
• Simulate resistance values

67

Decade Box
• characteristics
• Precision calibrated instrument
• Variable resistance
• Simulate resistance values
• calibration check
• At least 5 equal intervals
• Consult manufacturer’s tables
• Out of calibration
• Adjust zero and span controls
• Re-confirm calibration
• Re-adjust if necessary

68

34
Temperature Calibrator
• characteristics Temperature Calibrator
• RTD
• thermocouples
• No data tables
• Pre-set data
• Operation
• Select style and type of element
• Key in required temperature
• Calibration check
• At least 5 equal intervals
• Consult manufacturer’s tables
• Out of calibration
• Adjust zero and span controls
• Re-confirm calibration
• Re-adjust if necessary

69

Maintenance summery
• Thermocouples and RTDs
• Thermal element continuity
• Insulation
• Transmitter
• Checking calibration
• Calibration equipment
• Decade box
• Thermal calibrate

70

35
 Temperature Tables

71

72

36
73

74

37
75

76

38
77

78

39
79

80

40
81

82

41
83

84

42
85

86

43
87

88

44
89

90

45
91

92

46
93

3. Pressure Measurement

• Atmosphere,
p absolute, and ggauge
g pressures
p
• Vacuum
• Sensing devices
• Pressure switches
• Pressure transmitters

94

47
 1.1 Atmosphere, absolute, and gauge pressures
• The pressure unit is defined by pounds per square inch,
abbreviated to " psi "

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

SEA LEVEL

14.7 PSIA

Atmospheric pressure at the top of a mountain is less

than at sea level

95

1.1 Atmosphere, absolute, and gauge pressures

Atmospheric
p p
pressure at sea Atmospheric
p Pressure at sea level is 14.7
level is 14.7 psi psia equals 0 psig

Zero psig = 14.7 psia

96

48
 1.1 Atmosphere, absolute, and gauge pressures
Pressure conversion
• Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
psig = psia + 14.7
psig = psia - 14.7
14 7
Examples
1. The pressure of the vapors in a tank is 43 psig. Convert this
pressure to psia.
Psia = 43 + 14.7 = 57.7

2. The vapor pressure in a tank is 60 psia. What is the equivalent

gauge pressure?
Psig = psia - 14.7 = 45.3

97

1.2 Vacuum
The pressure below the atmospheric pressure is called "VACUUM“
For example:
The vent is closed so no air can enter the tank.
1.2 psia
The pressure inside the tank is less than the
pressure outside.
Vent (2)
Inside
Air Air pressure

Air space

Tank
Inside
PUMP
pressure

A product being pumped from a tank

A high vacuum has been produced
(1) in the tank and the tank is
crushed.
The pressure outside is 4.5 psia more
than it is inside.. (4)
(3)
98

49
1.2 Vacuum
UNIT OF VACUUM :

PSIG ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

0 Vacuum is also often shown

-5 in pounds. Pounds of vacuum
means the number of pounds
-10
per square inch less than the
-14.7 atmospheric pressure.
TOTAL OR ABSOLUTE VACUUM

POUNDS VACUUM

Vacuum is always below the

atmospheric pressure

99

1.3 sensing devices

Pressure sensing devices are parts of a The “C” TYPE BOURDON TUBE:
pressure instrument such as pressure gauges
and controllers.
Sealed end

These sensors are elastic devices,

devices often called
ELASTIC ELEMENTS. Three basic types of
elastic elements are used for most
End to be connected
to process pressure

Pressure Tip of the

instruments: scale tube
• BOURDON TUBE
Pointer
• DIAPHRAGM
• BELLOWS
Link

C-Type bourdon tube Pressure

100

50
 The diaphragm
NO PRESSURE

Diaphragm Pressure
DIAPHRAGM NO PRESSURE

Pointer

Links
15 psig

Atmospheric
pressure
15 psig
Diaphragm Process
Pressure Diaphragm

Process pressure
101

THE BELLOWS

SCALE
The Bellows

SPRING

BELLOWS

PRESSURE
The Bellows
Bellows gauge

The bellows gauge is more exact than a diaphragm gauge because

1. There is more area in the bellows for pressure to work on
2. Bellows are more sensitive to smaller changes in pressure

102

51
 1.4 manometers and differential pressure

FLUID

A Manometer
LEGS

LEVEL In this manometer,

manometer the left leg (A) is connected to a gas line with
MERCURY pressure in it. The right leg (B) is open to the atmosphere

A Mercury Manometer
103

A Small Holeplate In A Water Line

A Manometer Connected Across The Plate

A Manometer Connected Across A Small Hole Plate Two Columns Of A Manometer

104

52
 1.5 pressure switches

A pressure switch is a device for monitoring pressure and operating an electrical

switch or micro switch.
switch

ELECTRIC
MICRO SOURCES
SWITCH

PRESSURE
105

Pressure switches
The purpose of the pressure switch is to monitor the pressure as part
of a protection system. This prevents the pressure from going either
too low or too high. The function of the pressure switch is to send an
electrical signal to relays to stop or start pumps, and to the enunciator
when
h pressure reaches h theh switch
i h setting
i
ELECTRIC
PRESSURE SOURCES
RELAY
SWITCH

Electric
equipment i.O.
PROCESS
Pump
PRESSURE
annunciator

The two most important functions of a pressure switch are:

a. To give an alarm or indication.
b. To give an alarm or indication as well as to trip the equipment
such as a motor, a turbine, an electric heater, etc.
106

53
 Pressure switches

To know how a pressure switch works, you should know the

abbreviations written above the micro switches. They are:
No nc c

MICROSWITCH
LEVER

107

Normally open (no):

• The letters "NO" identify the terminal used for wiring a switch that is
normally open during plant operation.

Normally closed (nc) :

• The tatters "NC" identify the terminal used for wiring a switch that is
normally closed during plant operation.

Common (c) :
• The letter "C" identifies the common terminal used for wiring a switch
either
i h ini the
h normally
ll open or normally
ll closed
l d condition
di i

108

54
How does a pressure switch energize and de-energize?
The switch can be used either as normally open or normally closed.
Some pressure switches open when their trip point is reached, some
close.

NC NC
NO NO

Electric source Electric source

Spring bulb

Sensor plunger

Switch Contact Is Open, Circuit Is De- Switch Contact Is Closed. Circuit

Energized Is Energized
109

There are three types of pressure switches :

1. Single switches.
• These switches control only one pressure to one limit
2. Multiple switches.
p switch is divided into two models:
• The multiple
a) Dual switch model.
• This is used to control one pressure between two limits.
b ) 3-switch model.
• This switch is used for three limits of pressure
3. Differential pressure switches.
• These switches act on the difference between two pressures
acting
i on either
i h side
id off the
h pressure sensing
i element,
l either
ih
diaphragm or bellows. There are two kinds of differential
pressure switches
a ) Single switch.
b ) Double switch.
110

55
 1.6 pressure transmitters
• The common pressure transmitters use the following mechanisms
for pressure sensing:
– Force balance
– Capacitance
– Strain gauge
• These devices generally measure differential pressure. If the
pressure on the reference side of the pressure element (diaphragm) is
atmospheric then gauge pressure is measured by the device. If the
reference side is evacuated to O ppsia then absolute ppressure is
measured. If the pressure element is designed for a differential
pressure application then provision is made to receive a high and a
low pressure of the process fluid.

111

Balance pressure transmitters

• Thi
This type
t off device
d i uses itsit power supply l (pneumatic
( ti or electric)
l t i ) to
t
generate a force that opposes the force from the process pressure
that appears over a diaphragm area. When the two forces are equal
then the value of the unknown process pressure is found and a signal
proportional to the opposing force is transmitted for presentation

112

56
113

114

57
115

Reference
pressure

High Frequency
Output Oscillator

Process
pressure

Preference Aluminum Electrode

Electro de Connection for C2 pressure on Glass Substrate

Etched Silicon Glass

p g
Diaphragm Substrate

Aluminum Electrode
Electro de Connection for C1 Process on Glass Substrate
pressure
Capacitance – Based pressure Cell

116

58
117

118

59
119

120

60
121

122

61
123

124

62
125

126

63
127

Pressure Transmitters

1. Pneumatic Pressure Transmitter

– The pressure is applied to a metal diaphragm that is welded to
the sides of a chamber.
– A balancing force developed by a pneumatic feedback bellows
opposes this force.
– Imbalance between the capsule force and the feedback bellows
force is sensed by a pneumatic nozzle-baffle.
– an output signal (usually 3 to 15 psig).
psig)

128

64
 Electronic Pressure Sensors
1. Sensor Characteristics
– Two important characteristics of sensors are sensitivity and
accuracy.
– Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of a sensor in
response to a change in input.
– When a pressure sensor outputs 10 mV per psi, the sensitivity is
10 mV/psi

129

– Temperature affects pressure sensors the most.

So = aP + bT (5-15)
So = the sensor output
P = the pressure signal
T = the temperature
a and b = constants
– Accuracy is a term used to specify the maximum overall error to
be expected from a device

130

65
 Potentiometric-type Sensor
• It converts pressure into a variable resistance. A mechanical device
such as a diaphragm is used to move the wiper arm as the input
pressure changes.
• A direct current voltage (dc V) is applied to the top of the
potentiometer (pot).
• The voltage is sent to an electronic unit.
• The output of the electronic unit is normally a 4 to 20 maDC
current.
• Cover a range of 5 psi to 10,000 psi.
• Resolution is determined by the potentiometer’s element.

131

132

66
133

• Disadvantages :
1. Wire-wound resistive elements have poor resolution while
plastic elements have infinite resolution.
2. Potentiometers are subject to wear because of the mechanical
contact between the slider and the resistance element. they tend
to become noisier as the pot wears out.

134

67
 Piezoelectric-type Sensor

• It is a class of crystals
• The voltage level of the signal is proportional to the amount of
deformation.
• The output voltage signal from the crystal is very small (microvolt
range), so using high input impedance amplifier.
• The amplifier must be mounted within a few feet of the sensor to
prevent signal loss.
• The crystals can tolerate temperatures up to 400°F, but they are
affected by varying temperatures and must be temperature
compensated.

135

Capacitance-type Sensor

• the variable capacitor pressure-sensing cell.

• the change is detected by measuring the magnitude of an AC voltage
across the plates when they are excited.
• Another method, the sensing capacitor forms part of an oscillator,
and the electronic circuit changes the frequency to tune the
oscillator.
• These changes in frequency are then electronically converted into a
pressure change.

136

68
 Variable Inductance Sensor

137

4. Flow Measurement

1.
1 Terms
2. Differential Pressure Methods
3. Velocity Methods
4. Mass Flow Meter

138

69
 1. Flow Terms
• Fluid
• Flow Rate
• Flow Types
• Flow meter

139

Fluid
Fluid
• gases
• liquids
• Some solids Compressor
• mixtures of solids and
liquids
• slurries
Gases
• differ from other fluids
• they are compressible
• volume of given mass
• varies
i withith applied
li d Pump
pressure
Fluids
• other than gases
• considered
140
incompressible

70
 Flow Rate
Flow rate
• quantity of fluid
• per unit time

Flow rate
Liters per minutes
1 / min

Fl rate
Flow
Tonnes per hours
T/H

141

Flow Types

• Laminar
• Transient
• Turbulent

142

71
 Laminar Flow
Laminar flow
• all elements parallel
• flowing in the same direction
Middle layer
• one furthest away from pipe wall
• traveling the fastest
Velocity (v) is zero
• due to viscous force being greater at walls

Velocity profile
143

Transient Flow

Transient flow
• elements
l t off fl
flow
Transient flow
break away from
laminar condition
• contains both laminar
and turbulent elements

144

72
 Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow
• increased velocity
• internal force exceed viscous force
• elements of flow move across pipe as well as along it

145

Turbulent flow
• increased velocity
• internal forces exceed viscous forces
• elements of flow move across pipe as well as along it

Velocity of fluid elements

• no longer depends solely on distance from pipe wall

146

73
 Flow Meter
Flow controller

Flow meter
• forms part of control Flow
loop transmitter

Flow
Flo
w Flow meter
147

2. Differential Pressure Methods

• Differential Pressure
• Orifice Plates
• Venturi Tubes
• Pitot Tubes
• Variable Area Devices

148

74
 Differential Pressure
Differential pressure methods

Flow

Orifice plate
149

Orifice Plates

150

75
Head losses
• attributable to
• sound and heat
energy escaping

151

Different Pressure Methods – Orifice Plates

152

76
D & D/2 tappings
• Provide greeted
Pressure different
Flange and corner tappings
• Preferred for convenience
and space savings
• Although higher renolds
number values required
• 100,000 minimum

153

Concentric type
• Standard Type.
• Suitable for most
application.
Eccentric Type
• Mounted on horizontal
pipes.
• Gas application which
contain liquid.

Segmental type
• Mounted on horizontal
pipes.
• Liquid application.
• Containing large amounts
of entrapped solids.

154

77
Venturi tube Venturi Tubes
• Smaller permanent pressure drop
than orifice plate.
• Able to measure flows containing
high levels of suspended solids.
• Provides less abrupt expansion
than orifice plate.
• More expensive than orifice
designs.
• More expensive to implement
range changes.
Inlet cone
• Made with steeper angle.
angle
• Provides smooth approach
to throat section.
Outlet
• More gentle angle.
• Acts as diffuser or expansion cone.
155

Pitot Tubes
Pitot tubes
• Velocity measuring device.
• Produces differential
pressure proportional to
flow rate.
• Small flow rates in large
diameter pipes.

156

78
 Double-tip pilot tube
• Tube divided into two semicircular
compartments
• Different pressure between
-Impact pressure at upsteam hole.
-Suction
S ti pressure att downsteam
d t hole.
h l

157

Variable Area Devices

Variable area flow
meters
• Employed on
small bore.
bore
• Relatively low
flow applications.

158

79
 Tube

Tube
• Tapered along whole length.
Plummet
• Sliging fit at small end of tube.

159

Tube

Tube
• Tapered along whole length.
Plummet
• Sliging fit at small end of tube.
• Position can be used to determine
flow.

160

80
 Tube

Tube
• Tapered along whole length.
Plummet
• Sliging fit at small end of tube.
• Position can be used to
determine flow.
High pressure applications
• Stainless steel tube.
• Plummet contains a magnet.
• Moves a pointer via a lever
lever.

161

Float
Plummet
• Or float.
• Shaped so that flow centres it.
• Designs vary.
•straight
t i ht forward
f d balls
b ll for
f simple
i l instruments.
i t t
•Fairly elaborate cylinder cones.
• Made of various materials.
•Usually metal.
•Other material such as Teflon and porcelain used for corrosive
fluids.
Important tbat.
• Top of plummet is recognizable to ensure correct fitting.
• Widest part of the plummet.
•Metering edge.
•Used to measure displacement.

162

81
 Float

163

Summary

164

82
 3. Velocity Methods
• Vortex Meters
• Turbine Meters
• Magnetic Flow meters
• Ultrasonic Flow meters
• Target
T Meters
M

165

Vortex Meter
Vortex flow meter
• Measures gas, liquid or steam
flow rates.
Vortex
V t shedding
h ddi
• Can occur when non-streamlined
obstruction.
• Placed in a flowing stream.
• Stream unable to follow sharp
contours.
• Separates from body.

166

83
Vortex flow meter
• Measures gas, liquid or steam flow rates.
• Using principle of vortex shedding.

Vortex shedding
• Can occur when non-streamlined obstruction.
• Placed in a flowing stream.
• St
Stream unable
bl tto ffollow
ll sharp
h contours.
t
• Separates from body.
• Generates small eddies.
Vortices
• Cause areas of fluctuating pressure.
• At same frequency as formation of
vortices.
• Alternating
Alt ti forces
f on flexure
fl section
ti
transmitted to the sensor.
Piezoelectric element
• Converts movement into output signal.
• Proportional to volumetric flow.

167

Turbine Meters
Turbine Meters
• Used where accurate
measurement of liquid flows
required.
• Multi-bladed rotor mounted
within pipe.
• Rotor spins at velocity
proportional of fluid velocity.
Rotational Speed
• Direct function of flow rate.
• Sensed by magnetic pick-up.
• As series of pulses each time
blade tip passes sensor.
Tachometer
• Used to measure rotational speed.
• And determine liquid flow rate.
168

84
 Electromagnetic Flow meter
Magnetic flow meter
• Principle of operation.
• Based upon Faraday’s low of
Electromagnetic Induction.
A voltage will be induced in a
•A
conductor moving through a
magnetic field.
Where
• E= induced voltage.
• V= velocity of conductor.
• D= width of conductor.
• B=
B Strength
St th off magnetic
ti field.
fi ld
Only variable
• Velocity of conductive liquid
Output voltage E
• Directly proportional to liquid velocity V
169

Ultrasonic Flow meter

Ultrasonic flow meters
• Use sound waves to determine flow rate of fluids.

Transit-time method
• Two opposing transducers at 45° to direction flow.
flow

170

85
Ultrasonic flow meters
• Use sound waves to determine flow rate of fluids.
Transit-time method
• Two opposing transducers at 45° to direction flow.
• Sound pulse from upstream transducer.
• Pushed along by process flow.
•Speeds pulse up.
• Sound pulse from downstream transducer.
• Slowed by process flow.
• Transit time.
• Representative of fluid velocity.

171

172

86
 Target Meter
Target flow meter
• Consists of a disc or target.
•Centred in pipe.
• At right angles to direction of flow.
• Measurement of fluid flow rate
results from force of fluid on target.
• Used for tarry, dirty or corrosive
fluids.
• Require no external connections.
• Calibration required for proper
operation.

173

4. Mass Flow Meter

1 Introduction to Coriolis:
Whether for liquid, gases or slurries, Micro
Motion's Coriolis technology offers many
advantages
d t over ttraditional
diti l volumetric
l t i
technologies.
•Multi-variable measurement:
Mass flow rate Volumetric flow rat Density
Temperature CMF300 Sensor
Micro Motion sensors are
•High accuracy (+/-0.1%) and repeatability
available in a variety of
which means improved product quality and sensor types, materials and sizes.
reduced waste.
•Easy installation because there are no
special mounting, no flow conditioning, and
no straight pipe run requirements.
•Low maintenance because there are no
moving parts, and it's non-intrusive.

174

87
 2.What is a flow meter?
A flowmeter consists of a sensor,
a transmitter and, in many
cases, peripheral devices to
provide monitoring, alarm,
and/or control functions. This
diagram is a typical example.

Sensors:
Sensors detect flow rate, density and temperature.
Transmitters:
Transmitters pprocess signals
g from the sensor and provide
p this
information as outputs.
Peripherals:
Peripherals provide additional functionality, such as batch
control and enhanced density functions.
175

3. What Is a transmitter?

The transmitter is the brain of the

system and provides three
actions.
actions
First, the transmitter sends a
pulsed current to the sensor drive
coil causing the flow tubes to
vibrate.

176

88
 Secondly,y, the transmitter
processes the sensor input
signals, performs
calculations, and produces
various outputs to
peripheral devices.

177

And, finally, the

transmitter allows
communication
with an operator or
control system.

178

89
 4. Parts of a Typical Sensor: (Curved Tube Version)

Size and shape may differ, but certain components are common to all
Micro Motion sensors. Select below to view:
Sensor Parts:
1.Overview:

179

2. Sensor Flow Tube:

180

90
 3.Drive Coil and Magnet:

181

4.Pickoff Coil and Magnet:

182

91
 5.RTD:

183

6.Process Connection:

184

92
 7.Flow Splitter:

185

8.Junction Box:

186

93
 9.Case:

187

5.Flow Operating Principle:(Curved Tube)

1.Introduction:

After completing this next section, you should be able to answer the
f ll i questions:
following i
•How does a flowmeter measure mass flow?
•Why do the sensor flow tubes vibrate?
•How does the sensor detect mass flow measurement?
•What is the flow calibration factor and how does it
relate to the mass flow rate?

188

94
 2.Tube Vibration:

Process fluid entering the sensor is split, half passing through each flow
tube. During operation, a drive coil is energized. The drive coil causes
the tubes to oscillate up and down in opposition to one another.

189

3.Signal Generation:
Magnet and coil assemblies, called pick-offs, are mounted on the flow tubes. Wire coils are
mounted on the side legs of one flow tube, and magnets are mounted on the side legs of the
opposing flow tube.

Each coil moves through the uniform magnetic field of the adjacent magnet. The voltage
generated from each pickoff coil creates a sine wave. Because the magnets are mounted on
one tube, and the coils on the opposing tube, the sine waves generated represent the
motion of one tube relative to the other.

190

95
 3.1.No Flow - Tube Motion:
The flow tubes oscillate 180 degrees in opposition to one another; while one tube moves
downward, the other tube moves upward and then vice versa.

Both pickoffs - the one on the inlet side and the one on the outlet side - generate sine
wave current continuously when the tubes are oscillating. When there is no flow, the
sine waves are in phase.

191

3.2. No Flow - No Coriolis Effect:

During a no flow condition, there is no Coriolis effect and the sine
waves are in phase with each other.

192

96
 3.3. Flow - Coriolis Effect:
• When fluid is moving through the sensor's tubes, Coriolis forces are induced.
These forces cause the flow tubes to twist in opposition to each other. When
the tube is moving upward during half of its vibration cycle, the fluid
flowing into the sensor resists moving upward, by pushing down on the tube.
• H i the
Having th tube's
t b ' upward d momentum
t as it travels
t l around
d the
th bend,
b d the
th fluid
fl id
flowing out of the sensor resists having its vertical motion decreased by
pushing up on the tube. This causes the tube to twist.

193

3.4. Flow - Delta-T:

• As a result of the twist in the flow tubes, the sine waves generated
by the pickoffs are now out of phase because the inlet side is
lagging behind the outlet side.
• The amount of time difference between the sine waves is measured
in microseconds, and is called Delta-T.
• Delta-T is directly proportional to the mass flow rate. The greater
the Delta-T, the greater the mass flow rate.

194

97
 4. Flow Calibration Factors:
• The Flow Calibration Factor consists of 10 characters, including
two decimal points. A typical flow calibration factor for a CMF
sensor would be: 4.27454.75
The value has two components:
1 The
1. Th first
fi t five
fi digits
di it (4.2745)
(4 2745) are the
th flow
fl calibration
lib ti factor.
f t Each
E h
sensor has a unique calibration factor. This calibration factor,
multiplied by a given Delta-T (measured in micro seconds), yields
mass flow rate in grams/sec.
Example:
given 5 microsec Delta-T
5 X 4.2745
4 2745 = 21.3725
21 3725 grams/sec flowrate
• The last three digits (4.75) are a temperature coefficient for the
sensor tube material. This coefficient compensates for the effect
of temperature on tube rigidity. It is expressed in terms of a percent
change in rigidity per 100°C.
195

196

98
 5.Flow Calibration:
• Each transmitter/sensor pair is factory calibrated before shipment.
• After process fittings have been attached and the sensor has been
hydrostatically tested, it is ready to be calibrated to customer
specifications. At this point, the sensor is married with a transmitter,
and meter zero and calibration factors are determined. Batches are
run at various flow rates to ensure the meter performs within
specification. A density calibration is also performed, on air and
water. Validation measures include an DeltaV-based calibration
program that prevents the calibration procedure from being
completed
l t d if any data
d t point
i t is
i outt off specification.
ifi ti Thi process also
This l
serves as a functional test of the sensor/transmitter pair.

197

6.Density Operating Principle

Mass and Frequency Relationship:
• The relationship between mass and natural frequency is the basis for
density measurement in the Micro Motion flowmeter. To understand
this relationship, consider the spring and mass system.
• As the mass increases, the natural frequency of the system decreases. |
Increase the mass
• As the mass decreases, the natural frequency of the system increases. |
Decrease the mass

198

99
 Natural frequency:
• In the Micro Motion sensor, the tubes correspond to the spring. The
mass of the tubes plus their contents correspond to the mass at the
end of the spring. During operation, a drive coil energized by the
flow transmitter causes the tubes to oscillate at their natural
frequency.
• As the mass of the process fluid increases, the natural frequency
decreases. | Increase the mass |
• As the mass of the process fluid decreases, the natural frequency
increases. | Decrease the mass |

199

Density calibration:
• Every Micro Motion sensor/transmitter is calibrated for density
using air and water prior to shipment.
• The sensor is operated with the flow tube full of air and the tube
pperiod is recorded as K1. The actual densityy of air,, which has been
determined independently is recorded as D1. The tubes are then
filled with water and the tube period is recorded as K2. The density
of the water, again determined independently, is recorded as D2.
These data points, K1/D1 and K2/D2 characterize the response of
that particular sensor to process density.
• The illustration shows the densities of the two calibration fluids
plotted against the tube periods generated.

200

100
201

Density calibration factor:

• When a transmitter is configured for use with a particular sensor,
density calibration factors are stored in the transmitter's memory:
1. Tube period of air (K1) 10484
2. Tube pperiod of water (K2)
( ) 10966
3. Density of air (D1) 0.0010
4. Density of water (D2) 0.9982
5. Temperature coefficient 4.39

• The temperature coefficient is used by the transmitter to compensate

for the effect of temperature on the elasticity of the flow tubes
(expressed as a percentage per 100° C.

202

101
 203

Determining process density:

• The relationship between density and tube period is a well
defined function. If two density/tube-period points are known,
density at other tube periods measured during flow operation
can be inferred with great accuracy.
• The transmitter automatically performs a calculation
based upon data points stored in its memory during
calibration.

204

102
 205

5. Level Measurement

• Mechanical Level Measurement

• Electrical Level Measurement

206

103
 Mechanical Level Measurement

• Dipstick
• Sight Glass
• Magnetic Follower
• Floats

207

Dip Stick
Mechanical Level Measurement -Dipstick

Wet/Dry Line

Dipstick

208

104
 Sight Glass
Mechanical Level Measurement –Sight Glass

Level

209

Mechanical Level Measurement –Sight Glass

Ball check

Level

Internal Bore

210

105
 Transparent Design

Sight Glass - transparent design

211

Reflex Design
Sight Glass - Reflex design

Gage Section

U-Bolt

Silver White
Chamber

Prisms Gasket
Glass
Cushion
Black
Cover

212

106
 Magnetic Follower
Mechanical level measurement- magnetic follower

Indicator
Wafers

213

Floats
Mechanical level measurement- Float

Cord

Gauge Board

Float

g
Counterweight

214

107
 Summary
Mechanical level measurement- Summery
Subject covered in this section
• Dipstick
• Sight glass
• Magnetic follower
• floats

215

Electrical Methods

•Pressure Techniques
• Displacer
Di l T
Techniques
h i
• Float Techniques
• Capacitance Techniques
• Ultrasonic Techniques
• Conductivity Techniques
• Weighing

216

108
 Pressure Techniques

•Head
Head Pressure
• Open Vessel
• Closed Vessel
• Purged Dip Pipe

217

Electrical level measurement- Open tank

218

109
 Electrical level measurement- Closed tank

219

Electrical level measurement- Closed tank

220

110
 Electrical level measurement- Purged Dip Pipe

221

Electrical level measurement- Purged Dip Pipe

222

111
 Displacer Techniques
Electrical level measurement- Displacer Technique
Principle

223

Electrical level measurement- Displacer Technique

Principle

224

112
 Electrical level measurement- Displacer Technique
Principle

225

Float Techniques
Electrical level measurement- Float Technique

226

113
Electrical level measurement- Float Technique

227

Electrical level measurement- Float Technique

228

114
 Capacitance Techniques
Electrical level measurement- capacitance Technique

229

Ultrasonic Techniques
Electrical level measurement- Ultrasonic Technique

230

115
Ultrasonic Technique- Continuous ultrasonic level detector

231

Conductivity Techniques
Electrical level measurement – Conductivity techniques

232

116
Conductivity techniques – Conductivity Probes

233

Conductivity techniques – Conductivity Probes

234

117
Conductivity techniques – Conductivity Probes

235

Conductivity techniques

236

118
Conductivity techniques

237

Transmitter

238

119
 Transmitter

239

Repeat indicator

240

120
 Weighing
Electrical level measurement - Weighing

241

Summary

Electrical level measurement - Summery

•Pressure techniques
• Head pressure h=press/d
• Open tank
• Closed tank
• Purged dip pipe

242

121
 Electrical level measurement - Summery

•Pressure techniques
• Head pressure h=press/d
• Open tank
• Closed tank
• Purged dip pipe

•Displacer techniques

243

Electrical level measurement - Summery

•Pressure techniques
• Head pressure h=press/d
• Open tank
• Closed tank
• Purged dip pipe

•Displacer techniques

•Float Techniques

244

122
 Electrical level measurement - Summery
•Pressure techniques
• Head pressure h=press/d
• Open tank
• Closed tank
• Purged dip pipe

•Displacer techniques
•Float techniques
•Capacitance techniques

245

Electrical level measurement - Summery

•Pressure techniques
• Head pressure h=press/d
• Open tank
• Closed tank
• Purged dip pipe
•Displacer techniques
•Float techniques
•Capacitance techniques
•Ultrasonic techniques
• Ultrasonic transducers
• Dampened Vibration switches
• Absorption or gap type switches

246

123
 Electrical level measurement - Summery
•Pressure techniques
• Head pressure h=press/d
• Open tank
• Closed tank
• Purged dip pipe
•Displacer techniques
•Float techniques
•Capacitance techniques
•Ultrasonic techniques
• Ultrasonic transducers
• Dampened Vibration switches
• Absorption or gap type switches
•Conductivity techniques
• Conductivity probes
• Hydrastep TM

247

Electrical level measurement - Summery

•Pressure techniques
• Head pressure h=press/d
• Open tank
• Closed tank
• Purged dip pipe
•Displacer techniques
•Float techniques
•Capacitance techniques
•Ultrasonic techniques
• Ultrasonic transducers
• Dampened Vibration switches
• Absorption or gap type switches
•Conductivity techniques
• Conductivity probes
• Hydrastep TM
•Weighing
248

124
 6. Gas Detection Measurement
Combustible detection technologies
• Combustible gas detectors can be divided into two general categories.
The first category includes a variety of “passive” technologies of
which the electrocatalytic (catalytic bead) type is the most common.
common
The second category is based on technology that uses infrared
absorption as the detection technique. This technology is considered
“active” since an IR source emits a signal many times a second, and
the amount of energy falling on the detector serves as an active
measure of the gas concentration at that moment. Any failure of the
source or detector,
detector or blockage of the signal by dirt,dirt is detected
immediately as a malfunction. For this reason, IR detectors are also
considered to be fail-to-safe. IR gas detectors can be used for “point”
(single location) or “open path” (line of sight) applications. In the
following chapter we will discuss the basic design operation, as well as
the advantages and limitations of each detector type.
249

Electrocatalytic Detectors
• Electrocatalytic or “catalytic” detectors have been around for over
30 years and are widely used in a variety of industries as single-
point detectors for combustible gases. They function on the
relatively simple and reliable principle that a combustible gas can be
oxidized to produce heat. The resulting temperature change can be
converted, via a standard Wheatstone Bridge, to a sensor signal.
That signal can then be used to activate alarms and initiate fire
preventative action.

250

125
 Operating Principles
• The heart of this system is a heterogeneous catalytic element that
assists oxidation. Generally these elements consist of a platinum coil
embedded in a catalyst. Since the reactants are all gaseous, the
reaction takes place on the surface of this element with the
combustible gases reacting exothermically with oxygen in the air to
heat up the catalytic element. This causes a change of resistance
within the embedded coil that is measured and monitored.

251

• One such sensor uses two identical beads, one active, which
oxidizes any combustible gases present, and one glass coated, which
is used for reference. The glass coating on the reference bead allows
it to respond to changes in temperature, humidity and pressure
p
without responding g to combustible ggases,, which cannot ppenetrate
the glass coating. The reference bead serves as a “baseline” signal,
which can then be compared to the resistance of the active bead to
determine the concentration of gas present. As gas oxidizes on the
active bead, the bead temperature increases in direct proportion to
the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere. This temperature rise
increases the resistance of the active bead, and when compared with
the reference bead resistance, results in a measurable voltage
differential, which is used by the instrument.

252

126
253

• The catalyst employed in these sensors is critical to the accuracy and

life of the sensor, and determines the range of combustible gases the
sensor can detect. As a rule, the entire surface of a bead may not be
catalytically active, and therefore, the oxidation reaction may occur
only at certain points. In the manufacture of the sensor, the catalytic
material
i l must be
b chosen
h andd fashioned
f hi d in i suchh a way as to maximize
i i
the number of these “active” sites.

Contamination and Poisoning

• The sensitivity of catalytic detectors is typically affected by two
things — contamination or poisoning of the active bead, or blockage
of the flame arrestor which gas must pass through to reach the
beads.

254

127
 • In some cases the sensor may lose response due to the reference
bead becoming “active” to gas with aging. Reference bead activity
is avoided in high quality sensors by glass coating, which renders it
completely passive for the life of the sensor. Contamination of the
sensor can be caused by a variety of factors, depending primarily on
the
h environment
i i which
in hi h the
h sensor is
i used.
d If the
h sensor is
i exposedd
to dust or other particulate matter, particles can become trapped in
the flame arrestor or deposited on the beads. In marine
environments, the sensor can be affected by salt and mineral
deposits. If the sensor is exposed to heavy oil or grease, the
assembly can become coated resulting in lost sensitivity. Exposure
to paint,
paint lacquer,
lacquer or varnish vapors may also result in the sensor
becoming coated. During normal maintenance of the system, an
increase in the response time to calibration gas, an increase in
recovery time after exposure, or a loss of sensitivity, may indicate
contamination.
255

• Poisoning of the catalytic element is the result of the strong

absorption of the poison on the sensor’s active sites. This inhibits
the access of the reacting substances to these sites and results in
reduced sensor output in response to the presence of a combustible
gas. Since the active sites in some devices constitute only a fraction
off the
h totall surface
f area, relatively
l i l small
ll amounts off poison
i can have
h
a considerable effect on the response of the sensor.

• Various substances can act as catalyst poisons. These include

silicones and silicon compounds including silanes, halogens,
halogenated hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds, strong acids, bases,
and heavy metals. These substances contaminate the sensor in
different ways. For example, silicon compounds form a glass (SiO2)
layer on the bead while strong acids or bases can attack and remove
the catalyst’s metal itself. In all cases, poisoning the catalyst will
reduce the sensitivity of the sensor.
256

128
 • In some cases, sensor poisoning is temporary. In the case of fire
extinguishant gases, for example, full sensitivity can be restored
within a few hours if the extinguishant is removed. In general, heavy
metal compounds and silicon compounds are considered permanent
poisons and, in severe cases, the sensor must be replaced. However,
there are many examples of sensors continuing to operate for
considerable periods of time in environments containing catalyst
poisons. Moreover, recent improvements in catalyst formulation
have increased sensor resistance to poisoning.

• The onlyy means of identifying

y g detector sensitivityy loss due to
catalytic poisons is by gas-checking and calibration. When a sensor
is located in an area known to contain potential poisons, it should be
gas-checked at regular intervals and calibrated if necessary.

257

• A recommended calibration interval should be provided by the

manufacturer, and followed in the field. The degree of potential
poisoning is dependent upon the concentration and exposure time to
the poison, bead temperature and, most significantly, the fine
structure of the catalyst support material, which can vary between
manufacturers.
manufacturers

Mechanical Damage
• Sensors may be damaged by shock or vibration causing the fine
platinum wire to break. In a good quality catalytic sensor, the beads
are mounted on a support to minimize this possibility and extend the
sensor life.
life

• While other methods of detecting combustible gases are available,

electrocatalytic sensors offer simplicity, accuracy and relatively low
unit cost in a single-point detector.
258

129
 Infrared Detectors
• An alternative method of measuring gas concentration is based on
absorption of infrared (IR) radiation at certain wavelengths as it
passes through a volume of gas. Devices using this technology have
a light
li ht source andd a light
li ht detector
d t t andd measure the
th light
li ht intensity
i t it att
two specific wavelengths, one at an absorption (active) wavelength
and one outside of the absorption (reference) wavelength. If a
volume of gas passes between the source and detector, the amount
of light in the active wavelength falling on the detector is reduced,
while the amount of light in the reference wavelength remains
unchanged Much like the catalytic detectors,
unchanged. detectors the gas concentration
is determined from the relative difference between the two signals.

259

There are several key advantages to using IR-based detectors:

• Immune to all chemical poisons

• Does not need oxygen or air to detect gas
• C workk in
Can i continuous
i exposure gas environments
i
• Fail-to-safe technology
• Internal compensation virtually eliminates span drift

260

130
 • IR-based detectors can be either single-point or open path devices
and, with the sophisticated optical designs currently being used, are
factory calibrated and virtually maintenance free. This is particularly
desirable when sensors must be located in inaccessible areas and
cannot be easilyy calibrated on a pperiodic basis. Maintenance of IR
detectors is typically limited to periodic cleaning of the optical
windows and reflectors to ensure dependable performance. The
current availability of reliable, low cost electronics and solid state
IR detectors has reduced costs and made the technology feasible for
many commercial applications. However, IR detectors cannot be
used for the detection of hydrogen and certain other gases for which
the catalytic method is suitable.

261

262

131
 Theory of Operation
• Infrared gas detection is based on the ability of some gases to absorb
IR radiation. It is well known that almost all hydrocarbons (HC)
absorb IR at approximately 3.4 µm and at this region H2O and CO2
are not absorbed, making the system immune to humidity and
atmospheric
t h i changes.
h It follows
f ll th f
therefore th t a dedicated
that d di t d
spectrometer operating at that wavelength could be used to detect
hydrocarbons in air. Such a system would follow the Beer-Lambert
Law which states:
T=exp (-A x C x L)
Where :
T is the transmittance of IR
A is the absorption coefficient of the particular gas molecule
C is the concentration of the gas
L is the path length of the beam through the gas

263

Open Path IR Detectors

• Gas leaks can either form a relatively stationary cloud or readily
dissipate depending upon such factors as wind, rate of leak, density
of leaked gas, and the structural environment around the leak. If a
gas leak creates a cloud it will generally have the following
characteristics:
• The highest gas concentration of a cloud is at the source and it
decreases in concentration towards the edges

• The shape of the gas cloud is elongated or has an irregular pattern,

d
depending
di upon airi currents
t

• In outdoor environments gas clouds dissipate faster and can have very
low gas concentrations (see Figure 3)

264

132
265

• Open path IR detectors are particularly useful in situations where a

gas release has been dispersed by wind or natural diffusion. The gas
can still be detected, even though its point concentration may have
fallen below normal alarm settings. Open path systems also have the
advantage of being able to cover large open areas or a line of several
potential leak sources, such as a row of valves or pumps.

• With an open path system the path length is not fixed, so the
measurement is expressed as a product of the average gas
concentration and the gas cloud width passing between the source
and receiver. This means that a small dense cloud of hydrocarbon
y
gas could give the same output signal as a large dispersed cloud if
the product of the concentration of the leak and the path length were
the same. In essence the system “counts” the number of HC
molecules that absorb IR radiation in the beam path.
266

133
 • The gas concentration output for open path detectors is expressed in
ppm•meters (parts per million of combustible gas times the path
length in meters: a highly sensitive range for detection of low level
leaks) or LEL •meters (a hazardous gas level). Typical readings are
as follows:
Gas Cloud Calculation
Concentration Length Concentration x Length = Measurement
50 ppm 2 meters 50 x 2
.
= 100 ppm meters
10 ppm 10 meters 10 x 10
.
= 100 ppm meters
100 ppm 20 meters 100 x 20
.
= 2000 ppm meters
100% LEL 2 meters 100 x 2
.
= 2 LEL meters

267

As a reference, methane gas concentration can be defined as:

1% LEL methane = 500 ppm = .01 LEL
10% LEL methane = 5,000 ppm = 0.1 LEL
100% LEL methane = 50,000 ppm = 1.0 LEL

• Open path IR detection offers immunity to poisons, high sensitivity

gas leak detection, hazardous level gas detection, low maintenance,
easy installation and fail-to safe operation. However, it is not an all-
encompassing answer to combustible gas detection. It offers an
alternative solution to gas detection challenges and should be used
in combination with point gas detection due to its limitations in
targeting the specific location of gas leaks.

268

134
 Point IR Detectors
• In the case of Point IR Detectors, there is a fixed path length
between the IR source and the IR detector. Typically the length is a
few inches and the gas is assumed to be uniform across this length.
With the ppath length
g beingg fixed,, the Point IR Gas Detector is able
to give a direct measurement of gas concentration in percent of the
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL).

269

135
 Chapter
p 2

Process Control

270

1. Control Principle
2. Control Modes
3. Simple control loop
4. Control Tunning

271

136
 1. Control Principle

T i l manuall controll
Typical

Process

Manipulated Controlled
flow quantity
272

• Originally the control functions was performed manually by

operators.

p
• The operator use the sense of sight,
g , feel smell to measure the
process.

• The operator adjust a device such as manual valve to maintain the

process within the set limits.

273

137
 2. Control Modes

• The two basic modes of control are:

– On-off control
– Modulating control

• On-off control known as discrete control or two position control

274

On-Off Control
Raw feed
liquid – A
Level
Temperature
Solenoid
S l id Solenoid
S l id
valve Vc valve Vb

Tank

Pushbutton
Hot oil – C Vc Pushbutton Hot feed – D

275 Vb

138
 Modulating Control

• Proportional (P) (Gain)

– Provides an output
p p proportional
p ((linear relation)) to the direction
and magnitude of the error signal. The larger the gain, the greater
the larger the change in controller output caused by a given error.

– The relation between a controller gain and proportional band is

276

Proportional control

277

139
 Proportional control

278

Proportional control

279

140
 Proportional control
Response to load change
Max

Temperature
Process
Variable S.P. Temperature offset
300°F

Without Control
Min
Time
Max
Raw feed
Flow - A

Min Time
280 Response to Load Change

Integral (I) (Reset)

• Provides an output proportional to the time integral of the input. i.e

the output continues to change as long as error exists.

• In other words the integral mode acts only when the error exists for
a period of time between set point and the controlled variable.

281

141
 Proportional Plus Reset Control (Integral)
Ti Hi-reset adjustment
Open
Reset
Or
(integral) Resent response Contribution
time
Valve Low-reset
Low reset adjustment
K(E)
Position

K(E) Proportional Response Contribution

Closed
Time

+E

Error (SP - PV)

Zero error
(SP- PV)

-E
282 Time

Proportional Plus Reset Control (Integral)

With Proportional and reset control
Max
S.P.
300°F
Temperature
Process
variable
Without Control

Min
Time
Max
Raw feed
Flow - A

Min
Time
Response to Load Change Proportional Plus Reset Control
283

142
 Derivative D (Rate)

• Provides an output that is proportional the rate of change of error or

the rate of change of process valuable with respect to the time.

284

Proportional Plus rate Control Derivative

Proportional
Contribution
Proportional Contribution equal
to original rate contribution
Valve
Position Rate action
contribution

TD

E=ct

Set Point

Time
Rate action due to ramped set point (control loop open)
285

143
 3. Simple Control Loop
This is the basic closed loop control T2 change
without control Maximum
Feed Feed deviation
inlet outlet desired

Time
Typical reponse to disturbances
Feed
heater T2

Set
point

Air Fuel
286

Cascade Control
• There are two sources for disturbances that will prevent the simple
control loop from satisfactorily performing
– Feed flow
– Fuel flow

• Cascade control corrects the disturbance in the secondary loop

before they affect the total control system.

• To maintain stability
– The secondary loop must be much faster than the primary loop.
– The secondary loop must receive maximum disturbance instead
of the primary.

287

144
 Cascade Control
In cascade control the primary controller manipulates the set point of
the secondary controller which controls the secondary variable.
Simple Desired
Feed Feed Uncontrolled loop limits
inlet outlet

Cascade
Feed Response to pressure change
heater

Temperature controller
Pressure output serves as set point
variations Air Fuel to fuel flow loop

288

Feed forward Control

• Feed forward control measure the disturbance, predict its effect on the
process and immediately applies corrective action.

• It is used in conjunction with feed back.

back

• Feed forward is an open loop

• Feed forward and feed back independently adjust the control valve.

• There is no control applied to the feed forward variable.

• Lead/lag blocks can be added to advance or delay signal going to the

summer this is called dynamic feed forward.
289

145
 Static Simple
Feed Feed Uncontrolled
feedforward loop
inlet outlet

Response of static
Feed feedforward to load change
heater
Set point

Air

Fuel
290

Ratio Control

• In ratio control the controlled variable follows in proportional to a

second variable known as the wild variable.

Wild flow

FT
Output
FY (Ratio) FC
F/B
FT

Controlled flow = Ratio = Wild flow

291

146
 Process Models
• All process are systems of energy and material balance.

• Let us develop a simple minded mathematical model of the for

furnace process based on making a heat balance

• Heat balance
Heat in =Heat out
Heat in inlet feed + heat from fuel =
H t iin outlet
Heat tl t feed
f d + other
th heat
h t losses
l

• Material balance
Feed flow in = Feed Flow out

292

• The verbal equation can be written mathematically as follows:

F*h = F1 C (T1 – T2)
(Btu in fuel) Btu supplied to feed

F = fuel flow in lbs/min

F1 = Feed flow in lbs/min
h = heat content of fuel Btu/lb
C = Specific heat of feed
T1 = Temperature
p of incomingg feed
T2 = Temperature of outgoing feed

293

147
 Simple Computer Control

• The derivation of the math model suggest another approach to

control

• The Previous equation can be:

F = F1 * C/h * ( T2 - T1 )
F1 = measured
T1 = measured
C = measured or inserted by hand
h = measured or inserted by hand
T2 = desired value measured and inserted by hand

294

Simple Computer Control

295

148
 Simple Computer Control

TC

Summer

296

4. Controller Tuning
Input / Output Display Type of Display
Input • Stable
• Over damped
Output • Long time constant

I
Input
t • Stable

Output • Under damped

Input • Conditionally stable

• Continuous cycling
Output

Input
• Unstable
• Increasing oscillations
Output

297

149
 Controller Tuning

Minimum
i i area

Minimum cycling
Controlled
(minimum disturbance)
variable

Minimum deviation
(minimum amplitude)

298

Controller Tuning
• Tuning means finding the ideal combination of P, I and D for
optimum performance of the loop under operating conditions.

• First, the ideal control must be determined for specific application.

• Loops can be tuned either for :

– Minimum area
– Minimum cycling
– Minimum deviation

299

150
 • Minimum area
– This is desirable for most applications,
– A longer time deviation from set point occurs
– It is for applications where overshoot is detrimental.

• Minimum cycling
– It produces minimum disturbance with minimum duration
– It is for applications with a number of loops in series.

• Minimum deviation
– Maintains close control with small deviations
– There is cycling around the set point but the amplitude should be
kept at minimum.

300

• Few simple rules should be considered to minimize tuning problem:

– Automatically
– Manually
– Based on experience with trial and error adjustment.

• Check with operator before starting

• Before retuning an existing controller, record the old settings.
• If you are in manual and the process is steady take note of the output
to the valve (in case you need to return to go back to manual in a
hurry)
• On cascade loops, tune secondary controller first with the set point
in local mode.
• Nonlinear process response and signal noise may make it difficult to
tune controllers.
301

151
 Manual Tuning (Open Loop)
• Put the controller on manual (open loop)

• Make a step change to the output X 5-10%

• Record the resulting action PV from the feed back element

• Find the reaction rate R =B/A

• Find the unit reaction rate Ru = R/X

• Find
Fi d the
h effective
ff i llag L L.
Gain = 1.2/(Ru*L)
Integral = 2 * L in minutes
Derivative = 0.5 * L in minutes
• Test and fine tune if required.
302

Manual Tuning

Steep change
Loop on manual (input )
S t point
Set i t Controller
C t ll Vl
Valve P
Process
F/B
Measuring
elements

A- Determining the reaction curve

Tangent Reaction curve
Input step
% input A B
or output
L
Time in minutes
B- The reaction curve
303

152
 Closed Loop Method
• Putting the process 0n auto control using P only mode (set 1 and D to
minimum)
• Moving the controller set point 10% and hold until PV begins to
move.
move
• Returning the set point to its original value.
• Adjusting gain until stable continuous cycle is obtained (i.e critical
gain Gc
• Measuring period of cycle Pc
• Setting the controller PID values
– Gain = 0.6
0 6 * Gc
– Integral = 0.5 * Pc in Minutes.
– Derivative = 0.125* Pc in minutes

304

Closed Loop Method

Set point Controller Valve Process

Measuring
elements

A- Determining the critical gain

Unstable
Stable

Pc
Continuous cycling

B – Different responses
305

153
 Based-on Experience Tuning

Loop
p type
yp Gain ((PB)) I ((repeats
p D(time)
( )
/minute)
Flow 0.7 20 0

Level 1.7 0.2 0

Temperature 2 0.5 2

Pressure 0.5 5 0

306

154
 Chapter 3

Boiler Control

307

1. Drum level control

2
2. Single element system
3. Two element system
4. Three element system

308

155
 1.Drum level control

309 Figure 1 Boiler Drum and Water System

Boiler Drum Level Control:

• The steam drum is an integral part of a boiler (Figure 1). This
vessel’s primary function is to provide a surface area and
volume near the top of the boiler where separation of steam
from water can occur.
occur It also provides a location for(1) chemical
water treatment. (2) addition of feed water, (3) recirculation
water, and(4) blowdown which removes residue and maintains a
specified impurity level to reduce scale formation.
• Because these functions involve the continual addition and loss
of material, the water-steam interface level is critical.

310

156
 • Low level affects the recirculation of water to the boiler tubes and
reduces the water treatment effectiveness. High level reduces the
surface area, and can lead to water and dissolved solids entering the
steam distribution system. The objective of the drum level control.
• System is to maintain the water-steam interface at the specified level
and provide a continuous mass balance by replacing every pound of
steam and water removed with a pound of Feedwater.

311

• The interface level is subject to many disturbances, steam

pressure being a major one. As steam pressure changes due to
demand, there is transient change in level due to the effect of
ppressure on entrained steam bubbles below the steam drum
interface level As pressure drops, a rise in level, called swell,
occurs because the trapped bubbles enlarge. As pressure rises. A
drop in level occurs. This is called shrink.
• There are three basic types of drum level control systems; single
element, two element, and three element. Their application
p
depends upon
p the specific
p boiler size and load changes.
g

312

157
 2.Single element system

Figure 2 Level Drum Control (Single Element)

Feedback Control
313

Single element Drum Level Control Systems:

The Single Element System shown in Figure 2 is the simplest
approach .
– It measures level and regulates feed water flow to maintain the
level. This system is only effective for smaller boilers supplying
steady processes which have slow and moderate load changes.

314

158
315
Single element System

• This is because shrink and swell cause an incorrect initial control

reaction. As steam demand increases, lowering the pressure, the
drum level increases sending a false control signal to reduce feed-
water flow when actually the feed water flow should increase to
maintain mass balance.
balance More complex systems are required to
handle significant shrink and swell effects.

316

159
 3.Two element system

Figure 3 Level Drum Control (Two Elements)

Feed forward Control
317

Two element system

318

160
 Two element drum level control
• The Two Element Drum level Control System uses two variables,
drum level and steam flow to manipulate the feed water control
valve. This is illustrated in figure 3 . steam flow load changes are
fed forward to the feed water control valve providing an initial
correction for the load changes. The steam flow range and feed
water flow range are matched so that a one pound change in
steam flow results in a one pound change in feed water flow. The
summer combines the steam flow signal with the feedback action
of the drum level controller which makes trim adjustments in feed
water flow,
flow as required,
required to compensate for unmeasured blowdown
losses and steam flow measurement errors.

319

• An auto-manual station is provided to permit manual control of

the feed water valve, this system is adequate for load changes of
moderate speed and magnitude, and it can be applied to any size
boiler.
• It has two drawbacks which must be considered.
considered It cannot adjust
for pressure or load disturbances in the feed water system and it
cannot eliminate phasing interaction between the various
portions of process because only the relatively slow responding
drum level is controlled.

320

161
 4.Three element system

Figure 4 Level Drum Control (Three Elements)

321 Feedforward & Cascade Control

• The three Element drum Level Control System adds a third variable,
feed water flow rate, to manipulate the feed water control valve. This
system basically cascades the system to the feed water flow
Controller as a remote set point signal as shown in figure 4. This
system provide independent tuning to minimize phasing interaction
present in the two element approach. The addition of the faster feed
water secondary loop assures an immediate correction for feed water
disturbances.

322

162
 • The drum level controller accurately compensates for effects of
smaller unmeasured flows such as blowdown and mismatch
between the two flow measurements. As in the two element
system, nearly all the compensation for load changes is handled
byy the feed forward pportion while the drum level feed forward
portion while the drum level feedback loop provides only
trimming action. This system can handle large and rapid load
changes and feed water disturbances regardless of boiler
capacity.
• This approach is required on multiple boilers having a common
feed water supply.
pp y It is ideal for pplants with both batch and
continuous processes where sudden and unpredictable steam
demand changes are common.

323

324 three element system

163
 Chapter 4

Combustion Control

325

Ratio & Feed Forward Control

1. Series metered system
2. Parallel set point metered system
3. Cross limited metered system
4. Oxygen Trim Controller
5. Split Rang Control

326

164
 1.Series Metered System

327
Fig. 1 Series Metered Fuel-Air Ratio Control

Series metered System:

• The simple metered system shown in figure 2 is fairly common
where load changes are not large or frequent. As its name
infers, both fuel and air are metered. The temperature controller
regulates the fuel flow which is measured,
measured linearized and sent to a
ratio device before becoming the remote set point for the
combustion air and fuel flow and positions the air damper to
maintain the specified ratio between the two. Note that the control
system can be reversed so the temperature controller regulates air
directly instead of fuel.

328

165
 • Although figure 2 illustrates a furnace application, this system
also applies to smaller boilers. In this case the firing rate demand
signal is provided by a steam pressure controller instead of a
steam pressure controller instead of a temperature controller.
This is because steam header ppressure is an index of steam
demand.
• This series system is adequate for near steady state conditions;
can result in response to load changes can result in temporary
smoking, incomplete combustion and unsafe fuel-rich conditions,
dictating more complete control.

329

2. Parallel Set Point Metered System

Fig. 2 Fuel to Air Ratio Control

Parrallel Limited Control
330

166
331 Fig. 3 Parallel Metered Fuel-Air Ratio Control

Parallel Set Point Metered System:

• The approach operates the fuel and air control loops in parallel
from a set point signal generated by the temperature or steam
demand controllers. The combustion air set point signal is
modified by a ratio device which establishes the air/fuel
proportions as shown in figure 3. This system relies on near
identical response by both flow control loops to prevent
improper fuel-air mixtures. This is difficult to achieve and
therefore this is best applied to processes which experience
relatively slow load changes. Note that three control loops are
required to implement this system.

332

167
 3.Cross Limited Metered System

Fig. 4 Fuel to Air Ratio Control

Cross Limited Control
333 Lead Lag Firing control

Fig. 5 Cross Limiting or Lead-Lag Fuel-Air Ratio Control

334

168
 Cross Limiting Metered System
• This approach, shown in control when large or frequent load
changes are expected. The same approach is used for reheat
furnaces and other large fuel fired heating processes which
experience significant load changes.
changes This is a dynamic system
which helps compensate for the different speed of response of
the fuel valve and air damper. It prevents a “fuel-rich” condition
and minimizes smoking and a pollution from the stack.

335

• The system, also known as a lead-lag parallel-series metering

system, operates as follows. In steady state, the steam demand
signal, the fuel flow, and the air flow signals to the high and low
selectors are equal. Upon a demand increase, the low selector
blocks the increase forcing the air flow PV to become the set
point for the fuel flow controller. The high selector passes the
demand signal to the air controller’s set point. This means fuel
flow cannot increase until ail- low has begun to increase, I, e., air
increase leads furl increase.

336

169
 • When demand drops, the low selector passes the signal to the
fuel flow controller set point; while the high selector passes the
fuel flow process variable signal to the air flow controller set
point. This means air flow controller set point. This means air
flow cannot decrease until fuel begins to drop hence; fuel
d
decrease l d air
leads i decrease.
d
• This means a fuel-rich condition is avoided, regardless of the
direction of load change, by automatically switching from a
parallel metering system in steady state to the appropriate series
metering system during transient conditions.

337

4.Oxygen Trim Controller

Fig. 6 Fuel to Air Ratio Control With Oxygen Trim

338
Cross Limited Control Lead Lag Firing control

170
339
Fig. 7 Oxygen Trim Controller

Fig. 8 Series Metered Oxygen Trim System

340

171
341 Fig. 9 Lead-Lag Oxygen Trim System

Oxygen trim:
• Automatic oxygen trim of the fuel-air ratio is used to reduce
excess air, and therefore excess O2, to nearly stoichiometric
combustion efficiency. In addition to improved efficiency, lower
excess air helps reduce corrosion & air pollution by minimizing
formation of NOx and SO3 gases.

• Here’s how the system works. An oxygen (O2) sensor measures

the percent O2 in the flue gasses and transmits the data to an
oxygen controller which adjusts the fuel / air ratio until the O2 set
point is reached via feedback control,
control the O2 corrected fuel / air
ratio is usually applied to the linearized combustion air flow
signal.

342

172
 • However, it may also be used to directly position the air damper
of a non- metered system, since the O2 analyzer completes the
feedback loop.

• The O2 controller output signal should have high and low limits
& alarms to protect against possible malfunction or misreading
by the oxygen analyzer/ transmitter which could cause an
incorrect and potentially unsafe fuel – air mixture.

343

• This is be cause much more efficient operation and combustion

stability at high loads leads to lower excess air requirements and
potential fuel savings. Steam flow is an ideal indication of boiler
loading.

• The characterized signal is obtained by using a ratio- bias device to

generate a straight line approximation of the steam flow load versus
excess oxygen requirements for each specific fuel. High and low
limits are applied to prevent unrealistic extreme set points for the O2
controller. This is illustrated in Figure 3. This refinement may not be
justified for smaller installations.
installations Figures 4 and 5 show automatic
O2 trim applied to the series-metered system and the more complex
cross- limited (lead-lag) system respectively.

344

173
 5.Split Rang Control

345

174
 Chapter 5

Compressor Control

346

1. Basic surge concepts

2. Anti Windup reset controller

347

175
 1. Basic surge concepts
• First . A fresh look at basic. concepts is in order. The surge
problem is inherent in dynamic compressors centrifugal and axial.
as distinguished from positive displacement types. The usual
explanation is based on a compressor
compressor’ss performance curve of
differential pressure head vs. inlet flow at a fixed speed for the
given gas composition and inlet temperature.

• Here. Imagine a gas turbine, powered pipe line compressor

running at a speed which is controlled to maintain constant
downstream pressure.
pressure There is a different curve for each speed,
speed
altogether forming the compressor’s “while map”. However, speed
changes of such a heavy rotating mass require a substantial lag time
which may be as long as several term minutes. Therefore on a
shorter term. Speed maybe considered constant.
348

• The head imposed on the compressor varies independently as a

result of rapidly changing downstream demand. So that flow is a
function of head. Suppose there is a steady state at point A and there
comes a sudden decrease in gas demand, experienced by the
compressor as a head increase (Fig.1). At constant speed, the
compressor cannot keep up as much flew against a higher pressure.
So flow goes down toward point B as reflected in the curve.

• To visualize the physical mechanism at this point, imagine the

compressor as a single centrifugal stage.

349

176
 • The coupling of the impeller to the load meaning the gas being
compressed against the pressure head depends on maintaining flow
through the impeller. As long as there is appreciable forward flow,
the impeller keeps its grip on the gas so to speak. That is energy is
transferred from the impeller to the gas in the from of increased
velocity – which is converted to pressure head as the gas slows
down again in the diffuser passage. This coupling depends on
maintaining some minimal amount of forward flow.

350

Users
Surge line Head

Surge point Flow DP

C B Check
D for this speed FT
valve
A
E
Centrifugal
or axial P
Compressor’s characteristic compressor
curve as determined by speed,
inlet temperature, pressure and
Gas
Backward composition
turbine
PC
Forward

Fig.11 Centrifugal
Fi C if l – compressor performance
f curve showing
h i
key point in surge event and a simplified piping and
instrument diagram of a compressor installation.

351

177
 • Now suppose downstream demand is progressively reduced. The
head increases to the maximum achievable by the compressor at the
speed . Shown as point B. this is called the surge point. The locus of
the surge point for all compressor speeds. Above and below the
characteristic curve in question.
question Is called the surge line.
line The flow
here has fallen to the least that the impeller can handle without
losing its grip on the gas. A further decrease in downstream demand
no longer results in increased head. Instead, the impeller suddenly
loses its effectiveness as a motive element and becomes decoupled
from the load. Perhaps in as quickly as a fraction of a second. Gas
within the impeller
p qquits beingg impelled
p forward and begins
g simplypy
spinning around with the impeller. The effect is like an automobile
tire skidding. Or an airplane wing stalling. The impeller is no longer
functioning as an impeller . As the pipe line gas rapidly coasts to a
stop, the operating point falls to zero flow at point at point C.
352

• But it doesn't pause there. Gas previously compressed in the volume

behind the downstream check valve begins leaking backward
through the interstices around the impeller even through the impeller
itself. Because the head it can create by centrifugal force alone is
considerably lower than it had built up by velocity. On the graph.
The beginning of this brief flow reversal is shown as a continuation
of the jump past point C to point D. lying on a theoretical extension
is shown as a broken line.

• Then with a short time-which may be a second or so-the head bleeds

down to the minimum that decoupled impeller can maintain purely
by centrifugal force,
force at point E.
E there,
there the impeller suddenly picks up
the load again. Throwing gas forward until the operating point hits
point F on the normal characteristic curve. If line flow is still
restricted below the surge point for the given speed. The cycle
repeats at regular intervals. Typically on the order of one second.
353

178
 Preventing surge.
• Unrelieved repeated surging of a large compressor for is a fearsome
thing which ends in catastrophic damage. Because of surge controls
and emergency shutdown systems, few operators today have
witnessed it . Even one cycle can have undesirable consequences in
terms of upsetting operations,
operations altering internal clearances and over
stressing seals. Seals. The cost of replacing seals in a 3.000-hp
compressor can easily exceed $20.000 . It is far better to take action
before. The compressor reaches the surge point . Because –by then-
nothing can prevent one cycle the preventive action is provided by a
dedicated surge-control system, separate from the compressor‘s
other control because of response-speed requirement (Fig.2).

• Of course, those other controls attempt to stay reasonably clear of

the surge line, but only one a relatively long time horizon .

354

Surge
Controller

DPT

FCV
Check
TT FT PT
Recycle valve
valve

Centrifugal or axial
ST
compressor
Gas
turbine

Fig.2 Simplified piping and instrument (P&I) diagram of

355 compressor installation with surge – control system

179
 • Surge events tend to be transient disturbances. It would be both
impractical and inefficient to slow and then accelerate a large –
turbine – driven compressor as every potential surge comes and
goes. If the compressor has variable inlet vanes, the control system
typically manipulates them to optimize fuel efficiency.
efficiency Not to dodge
every threat of a surge.

• Instead, the action provided by the surge control system is to open

the recycle valve to an appropriate degree. In the past. When the
most sophisticated systems were based on analog P1 (proportional
and integral action ) ratio controller,
controller the dominant strategy was to
begin cracking the recycle valve well before the operating point
reached the surge line. This led to prolonged periods of operation
with appreciable recycling and attendant waste of compressor fuel
as well as capacity.
356

• Today’s philosophy is to avoid opening the recycle valve until

absolutely necessary, move away from surge as quickly as
possible, and then shut the valve again.

• The dedicated digital controller which is the heart of an advanced

surge – control system, receives inputs:
1. Inlet pressure
2. Temperature
3. Flow
4. Head across the compressor
5. Compressor speed

357

180
 • If gas composition is subject to appreciable change, an indication of
that variable, such as density, may be included. Characteristic curves
for various temperatures – and, if applicable various inlet pressures
and compositions – are available to the control algorithm as
equations or look – up tables.

• The advanced controller’s reaction time may be well under 50

milliseconds. The algorithm attempts to duplicate the action of an
experienced human operator having an eye on the instruments, a
hand on the manual valve control and a wish to minimize energy
waste resultingg from pprolonged g recycling.
y g This requires
q a
combination of closed – loop (feedback) and open – loop
(prearranged) control. The system keeps the recycle valve closed as
long as the operating point is well away from the known surge line.

358

• As the operating point approaches the surge line, the control

algorithm becomes more sensitive to its motion. Getting too close or
moving too suddenly toward the line causes the valve to open by an
appropriate amount to halt progress toward surge smoothly without
triggering control oscillations. Should extraneous circumstances
continue
i to force
f the
h operating
i point
i towardd the
h surge line,
li the
h
recycle valve opens all the way. If a load reduction persists, then
after a relatively long time (perhaps a few minutes), speed typically
is reduced by the compressor control system.

• Consequently unless the reduced flow is beneath the capability of

the compressor, the operating point and the surge point move away
from each other, and the surge controller gradually shuts the recycle
valve. The compressor has kept a firm grip on the gas.

359

181
 Ch t 6
Chapter

Distillation Control

360

Basic control loops for Distillation Column:

• level control of Reboiler
• Steam flow control
• Reflux drum level ( accumulator) control
• Overhead ( reflux) temperature control
• Column temperature control
• Column pressure control

361 361

182
 Reflux Condenser
Condenser
Column Liquid Heat Exchanger
Shell Reflux
LT Cooling Water

Liquid Flow TIC

Distillate (Liquid)
TE
Feed (Liquid)
Vapour Flow

Boil up (vapour) FIC

Steam
LT Reboiler
Heat
TE Exchanger

Bottom Liquid

362 Continuous Distillation Control 362

Advanced control loop cascade and feed forward

temperature control loop:
• The temperature controller is used to adjust reflux flow in
cascade loop configuration.
• This minimize the impact of reflux flow change and feed
disturbance by adjusting the flow rate of Reflux if the
temperature of column change is detected.
• The change of the feed flow is taken as feed forward signal to the
summer with O\P of temperature controller as remote S.P to the
flow control loop of the reflux .
• The press signal of feed flow is multiplied with feed flow as feed
forward to the summer.

363 363

183
 Condenser
Cooling Water

MV / 1 Converter
LIC
Reflux

Distillation Controller
T
Tower
Distillation

Controller

Ingredient TIC

FIC
Lar
Controller + Lead

LIC FIC ×
Reboiler
Steam

Bottoms

364 Enhancement of Continuous Distillation Control

Cascade and feed forward control of column

temperature:
• Temperature controller TIC is used to adjust steam flow in a
cascade loop configuration. This minimize the impact of steam
condition changes by adjusting the nominal steam flow rate.
• If change in column temperature is detected , The material feed
flow transmitter send a feed forward signal to summarized with
the O\P signal from the temperature control.
• The O\P of summer is R.S.P for flow controller of steam From
Reboiler.

365 365

184
 Distillation Tower Feed Forward Control
PLC

Controller

LAQ Distillation Tower

Laud
Differential
Pressure Controller
+ TIC MV / 1 Transmitter
SP LIC
FIC

Differential Pressure
366 Transmitter

Feed Flow control at multistage distillation towers in

petrochemical industry
• LIC is reverse acting
• FIC is direct acting when Feed flow increase , O\P Increases and
value
l closed
l d
• Distillate liquid enter the tank and in the O\P of tank the is a
control value to regulate the feed flow and level of tank.
• When the Level increase Output increases and feed flow increase
and give signal to decrease the valve opening, that’s why direct
of action must be reversed for FIC
• The high selector select the higher signal in order to regulate the
valve opening.

367 367

185
 Product

Differential Pressure
Transmitter
Bottom Controller
Product

Material
FIC LIC

Product
Distillation Override
HI-Selector
Tower No.1

Distillation
Feed Flow Control Valve Tower No.2

To Next Stage Distillation Tower

368

Column pressure control:

• A pressure control loop is added to improve distillate quality.
This is recommended because as column pressure increases, the
boiling temperature of the ethanol-water mixture also increases
causingg a change
g in vapor
p rate and composition.
p Uncontrolled,
this may cause an excessive error in composition quality,
especially in vacuum or pressure distillation columns.

• Atmospheric columns are effected only by barometric variations

and often pressure control is not justified. Pressure control is
implemented
p e e ed by se sensing
s g co
column
u ppressure
essu e andd manipulating
pu g thee
rate of vapor condensation. There are three basic methods for
varying the rate of condensation in atmospheric or pressure
distillation depending on the mechanical construction of the
condenser.
369 369

186
 • One approach is to adjust the flow of coolant through the
condenser tubes. This is shown in fig1 ( loop6). It is important
the coolant flow rate be at least 4 feet per second to provide fast
enough heat transfer response for good pressure control. Also un
treated cooling water should be limited 120 F maximum to
prevent deposits from fouling the tube

• A second approach is used when the condenser design prohibits

fast water throughput. In this situation the configuration in
Figure 2 is used. The cooling water rate is left constant. Instead,
when pressure transmitter PT-6 senses a drop in column
pressure, controller PLC-6 modulates the condensate flow to
partially flood the condenser tubes, reducing the surface exposed
to the column vapors. This in turn reduces the condensing rate
causing the pressure to rise again.

370 370

371 Pressure control via coolant Flow 371

187
 Pressure Control Via Partial Flooding of condenser
372 372

Column Pressure Control:

• The other method can be used when the condenser is physically
located below the accumulator. Here a vapor bypass control valve
CV-6 is placed between the column and the accumulator. As
column pressure decreases, the valve opens equalizing pressure
which causes the condenser surface to back-flood with condensate.
This decreases the condensing rate and causes the pressure to rise
again.

• Vacuum distillation is treated differently in this situation, shown in

figure
g 4,, the absolute ppressure ((vacuum)) in the accumulator is
controlled by bleeding some air or an inert gas blanket to maintain
the desired vacuum.

373 373

188
 • If pressure control is justified, it is recommended an absolute
pressure transmitter be used to measure pressure independent of
barometric variations. This is especially important for vacuum
Distillation since barometric variations of ±0.25 psig are
common causing a significant error in low range gage pressure
transmitters which will respond to this change.

374

375 Pressure control via vapor by pass 375

189
376 Vacuum column pressure control 376

190
 Ch
Chapter 7

Control Valve Data Sheet

377

Valves classifications

378

191
 Valve Classifications

379

General Control Valve

Assembly

380

192
Valve Body
Assembly

381

Bonnet Assembly

• An assembly including the part

through
h h which
hi h a valve
l plug
l stem
moves and a means for sealing
against leakage along the stem. It
usually provides a means for
mounting the actuator.
• A bonnet with greater dimension
b t
between the
th packing
ki box
b andd bonnet
b t
flange for hot or cold service

382

193
 Direct
Acting
Actuator

383

Reverse
Acting
Actuator

384

194
 23 Instructions for control valve data sheet – ISA Form S20.50 Rev.1

Line Explanation of terms and definitions Examples

Project Specify project name for which control valve XYZ Nuclear PS
is intended.
Unit Specify unit within project. #1

Item Specify item number of purchase order. 3

contract Specify contract number of project for 56 – v – 32510
purchaser’s reference
MFR This line may show the valve manufacture
manufacture’ss C12650 – 3
serial serial number and is normally filled in at the
time of shipment of the valve serial number
often contain the manufacturer’s shop order
number
385

Data sheet Specify data sheet number. Normally 3 of 12

assigned by purchaser
Spec Specify number of technical specification FL – 13265 – A
on which valve selection is based.
Tag Specify tag number, if any, used to FV – 103
designate location of valve.

Dwg Specify piping and instrumentation 17 – 453

diagram number, loop diagram number,
engineering flow diagram number, etc.
Service Describe service of control valve and / or Feed water
pipe line number control reheat
spray
2” MA 1051 wa7
Note : the above lines are suggested only and may be modified to fit the
individual company’s needs. If the provided space is insufficient, add
386 an additional sheet and refer to it.

195
Line no. Explanation of terms and definitions Examples

1 Describe fluid flowing into valve and its Superheated steam,

state. Indicate corrosive or erosive services Saturated water,
and the corrosive or erosive agents. crude oil and natural
gas
2 Specify thermodynamic critical pressure of 3000 gpm
the fluid
Specify volumetric or mass flow rate at 10000 bdp
inlet or standard conditions. Maximum 600 std.m3/s
flow condition,
condition if greater than normal flow
condition, is the condition for which the 7500 scfm
valve is sized. 300 kg/ h

387

3 Specify inlet pressure (gauge or absolute) 5000 psig

2000 kpa abs.
4 Specify outlet pressure (gauge or absolute) 1000 psig
400 kpa gauge

5 Specify inlet temperature in °F,°R, °C or k. 750 °F

Must agree with state of fluid and its inlet 200 °C
pressure 815 k
6 Specify specific weight( in ib/ft3 or kg/m3),
) 61 9 Ib / ft3
61.9
specific gravity, or molecular weight of 1.03
fluid. Identify the appropriate term. 44.01

388

196
 7 Specify viscosity in appropriate units for 20 centipoises
liquids or specific heats ratio for gases. 17.8 centistokes
1.27
8 Specify vapor (saturation) pressure at inlet 680 psia
temperature in absolute units. Only required 46.9 bar abs
for liquid flow.

9 Specify required cv as calculated for each 260

condition pper ANSI / ISA S75.01 – 1985. no
additional safety (oversize) factor should be
included at this point.

389

10 Specify travel of the valve in percent of 78%

rated travel calculated from required cv
rated cv of the valve trim selected and
characteristic (see lines 33,34,and 36)
0% is full closed 100% is full open
11 Specify laboratory – measured allowable 90 / 87 dBA
and predicted sound pressure levels, both
normally in dBA as measured per ISA –
S75.07 – 1987
12 Extra line for information not covered in Compressibility factor
lines 1 through 11 Z
Ambient temperature
Base pressure and
temperature

390

197
 13& 14 Specify size and schedule (or wall 8” SCH 40, 15”
thickness if nonstandard) of pipe line into OD x 0.500”
which valve is installed wall, DN 200,
PN 100
15 p y ppipe
Specify p line insulation. This 2” thermal
information is required for predicted None
sound pressure level calculations.
16 Specify type of valve body Globe (through,
angle) split
body, double
port butterfly,
port, butterfly
ball, pinch

391

17 Specify nominal size of valve body. Specify 4”

ANSI class in accordance with ANSI B16.34 600
- 81. 2500 special
18 p
Specifyy maximum ppressure and temperature
p 2500 ppsig,
g, 650
of the valve °F
19 Specify manufacturer and model number XYZ controls
model 719 – 2
20 Specify body and bonnet material Steel, ASTM
A216, WCB
21 Specify body liner material, if any, and its Polyurethane,
inside diameter 3.9”

392

198
 22& 23 Specify end connection. May be 6” RTJ class 1500
integral or welded onto body flange butt weld end 2”
FNPT
24 Specify flange face finish per ANSI ANSI B16.5 – 81
B16.5 – 81 or special
p finish as required.
q special
p finish: 32 RMS
25 Specify and extensions, if any. 6” long SCH 80, A106,
Normally refers to sections of pipe or GR.B
reducers welded to the body by the
valve manufacture
26 Specify direction of the flow through FTO
the body.
body FTO = flow – to – open,
open FTC FTC
= flow – to – close valve.
Note: The descriptors “FTO” and “FTC” refer to the direction of fluid forces on the closure
member. If immaterial, leave blank. When FTO and FTC are not applicable, specify direction
as appropriate

393

27 Specify type of bonnet Standard, cooling fin, extended

28 Specify whether a lubricator and Yes

isolation valve are required.
Specify lubricant Silicone
29 Specify packing material Graphite impreg asbestos,
TFE, Non – asbestos
30 Specify type of packing Braided, Molded V – ring,
Laminated filament pressure /
vacuum
31 Extra line for special body or Body drain
bonnet not covered in lines 16 Separable flanges. Flangeless
through 30

394

199
 32 Specify type of trim Single seat cage – guided.
Multi – stage, Multi– hole
Top – and bottom –
guided, Double seat
33 Specify nominal size and rated 22”,, 50 mm
travel of installed trim.
34 Specify inherent flow characteristic Linear, Equal %
of installed trim. Modified parabolic quick
opening
35 Specify whether trim is balanced or Balanced
unbalanced. Semi – balanced trim Unbalanced
should be considered as balanced

395

36 Specify rated Cv FL and XT of installed 260

trim. Refer to ANSI/ISA – S75.01 – 1985 0.9
0.68
37 Specify closure member, i.e., plug, ball, or 17 – 4 PH
disk material as applicable.
applicable H – 1150,
1150 316
38 Specify seat material 420 hardened
316 hardened
39 Specify cage, bearing, or guide material 410 hardened
40 Specify steam material 17-4 PH H-1150,316
41&42 Extra line for additional trim requirements Chrome – plate
not covered in lines 32 through 40 Pilot – operated
43 Specify hazardous location classification NEC® class l, Div.1
per the national electrical code® ANSI Group C
/NFPA 70 – 1987
396

200
 44 – Specify special requirements and / or Solenoid valves, E/P
52 accessories not covered elsewhere. transducer, NACE MR
– 01 – 75 seismic, Net
weight = 275 lb
53 Specify type of actuator Diaphragm, pneumatic
hydr, piston, double –
acting pneumatic
rotary vane
54 Specify manufacturer and model XYZ controls, p – 100
number – 160
55 Specify nominal size and effective 8 , 160 square inch,
8”,
diaphragm / piston area 0.2 m2
56 Specify whether actuator is for on / off Modulating
or modulating services On / off

397

57 Specify whether spring, if any, acts to open or Open

to close valve. Close
None
58 Specify maximum pressure for which the 100 psig
actuator
t t is i designed
d i d 60 kpa
59 Specify minimum pressure required to fully 65 psig
stroke the installed valve under specified
conditions

60 & 61 Specify limits of available air or hydraulic 90 psig / 70

supply pressure. If upper limits is greater than psig
line 58, a reducing valve (air set) should be
furnished. Lower limit or reducing valve setting
must be higher than pressure shown on line 59

398

201
 62 Specify the pressures in the actuator when valve 8 / 32 psig
starts travel and at its rated travel position 10/22 psig
without fluid forces acting on the valve. 1.2/2.1 kpa
63 Specify orientation of actuator as “VERT. Up” VERT. UP
or “VERT . DOWN” (vertical)
( ti l) or “HORIZ” HORIZ
(horizontal). For rotary valves, also specify RH
whether mounting is “RH” (right – hand) or
“LH” (left – hand) as viewed from valve inlet, if LH
appropriate. Specify additional information as
appropriate or provide sketch.
64 S if type
Specify t andd orientation
i t ti off hand
h d wheel
h l Top – mounted
T t d
(manual override), if any. Side – mounted
/ LH

399

65 Specify if air failure valve (actuator air lock – Yes

up valve) is required and at what supply 40 psig
pressure it shuts.
66 Extra line for additional actuator requirements Hydraulic
not covered in lines 53 through
g 65. damper,
p strokingg
speed 1”/sec.
stainless steel
tubing
67 Specify input signal range for full travel. 3 – 15 psig, 200
– 100 kpa, 4 –
20 mA
68 Specify type of positioner None
Single acting
Double acting

400

202
 69 Specify manufacturer and model number XYZ control co. Model
AB
70 Specify whether an increasing signal Incr.
increases or decreases output pressure to Decr.
actuator
actuator.
71 Specify whether air pressure gauges and No
whether positioner bypass are required Yes
72 Specify cam characteristic, if positioner has Linear
a cam. Normally linear. Square root
73 Extra
E t line
li for
f positioner
iti requirements
i t nott Aluminum
Al i – free
f
covered in lines 67 through 72.
74 Specify type and quantity of limit switches. Mech .(lever arm)
proximity pneumatic 2

401

75 Specify manufacturer and model ABC electric co. Model

number. A20Z
76 Specify electric rating and number of 1OA, 600 VAC / DPDT
contacts and action.
77 Specify valve travel at which switches Full open / full closed
are to actuate.
78 Extra line for additional limit switch NEMA 4
requirements not covered in lines 74 IP 65
through 77.
79 Specify manufacturer and model RBJ Co.
number of air set (pressure regulator) Model R – 70
80 Specify output pressure setting 70 psig
20 psig

402

203
 81 Specify whether filter and / or output pressure Yes
gauge is required No
82 Extra line for additional air set requirements Mount separate
not covered in lines 79 through 81. from valve
83 Specify pressure of hydrostatic test. Normally 3350 psig
per ANSI B16.37 – 80 or API 6A – 83
84 Specify leakage class per ANSI / FCI 70-2-76. Class IV

85&86 Extra line for additional test requirements not

covered
cove ed in lines
es 83 andd 884..

403

404

204
405

406

205
 Chapter 8

“HIPPS” High Integrity

Pressure
essu e Protection
o ec o system
sys e

407

1.
1 IIntroduction
t d ti
2. Safety Requirement Specification
3. Diagnostics
4. Testing Frequency
5. Advantages and Disadvantage of HIPPS

408

206
 1. Introduction
• The risk involved with overpressure protection results in the need of
SIS integrity
• The need to balance safety requirements and environmental
requirements has resulted in increased focus in using an alternative
approach to pressure protection API recommends the use of HIPPS
only when the use of pressure relief device is impractical
• The over pressure protection can be provided by SIS in lieu of a
pressure relief device under the following conditions:

409

A. The vessel is not exclusively in air, water or steam service.

B. The decision to utilize overpressure protection of a vessel by system
design is the responsibility of the user.
C. The user must ensure the MAWP of the vessel is higher g than the
highest pressure that can reasonably be achieved by the system.
D. A quantative or qualitative risk analysis of the proposed system must
be made addressing credible overpressure scenarios. Is a reliable as
the pressure relief device it replaces: and is capable of completely
mitigating the overpressure event.
E The analysis conducted for (c) and (d) must be documented.
E. documented

410

207
 • The SIS standards are performance-based with the safety integrity
level (SIL) as the primary performance measurement. The SIL
must be assigned by the user based on the risk reduction necessary
to achieve the user's risk tolerance. It is the user's responsibility to
ensure consistent and appropriate SIL assignments by establishing
a risk management philosophy and risk tolerance. The risk
reduction provided by the HIPPS is equivalent to the probability
of failure on demand attributable to all of the HIPPS devices from
the sensor through the logic solver and final elements.
• The SIL establishes a minimum required performance for the
HIPPS. The SIL is affected by the following:

411

1. Device integrity determined by documented and supportable failure

rates
2. Redundancy and voting using multiple devices to ensure fault
tolerance.
3 Functional testing at specific intervals to determine that the device can
3.
achieve the fail safe condition
4. Diagnostic coverage using automatic or on-line methods to detect
device failure.
5. Other common causes including those related to the device , design
,systematic faults , installation , and human error.

412

208
 • The hazard analysis examines operating (e.g. start-up, shutdown ,
and normal operation) and upset conditions that result in
overpressure. For example the hazard analysis should examine the
following initiating causes for overpressure events:
- Loss of utilities such as electric power, steam, water , etc..
- Runaway
R reactions
i
- Fire exposure
- Operating errors
- Maintenance errors
- Block outlet
- Equipment failures,
failures and
- Instrumentation malfunctions
• The hazard analysis should document the propagation of each
potential overpressure event from the initiating cause to the final
consequence.
413

2.Safety Requirement Specification

• When specifying the process performance of HIPPS, The process
dynamics must be evaluated to ensure that the HIPPS response time
is fast enough to prevent overpressure of the vessel.
vessel The response
time must be evaluated by considering the time it takes to sense that
there is an unacceptable process condition: the scan rate and data
processing time of the logic solver; and initiation of the final
element. For general process industry applications, HIPPS valves
are typically specified to have closure times of less than five
seconds. However,, the actual required
q closure must be determined
for each installation. The valve specification must include
acceptable leakage rate. Since this affects downstream pressures and
relief loading. The valve specification must also ensure that the
actuator provides sufficient driving force to close the final element
under the worse case, upset pressure condition.
414

209
 Device Integrity and Architecture
• It is important to recognize that the HIPPS includes all devices
required to reach the desired fail-safe condition for the process.
The HIPPS includes the entire instrument loop from the field
sensor throughg the logic
g solver to the final elements, alongg with
other devices required for successful SIS functioning, such as SIS
user interfaces, communications, and power supplies. For example,
if the final elements are air-to-move valves and the safe action
requires valve closure. Instrument air availability must be
considered when determining the overall HIPPS availability, since
all devices used in HIPPS contribute to the potential probability of
failure on demand for the HIPPS, the structure of the instrumented
loop must be defined and evaluated as a system so the entire loop
meets SIL requirements.

415

• A brief discussion of SIS devices follows process sensors, the

process variables (PV) commonly measured in HIPPS are
pressure, temperature and flow. Traditionally, these variables were
monitored using a discrete switches as the input sensor to the
safety instrumented systems. Switches worked well for three
reasons:
1)Most trip conditions are discrete events i.e. a high pressure ,
high temperature , or low flow
2)Relay systems and early programmable logic controller (PLCs)
processed discrete signal much easier than analog signals; and
3)Switches
) were usuallyy less expensive
p than analogg transmitters

416

210
 • The evolution of PES technology has made it easy to use analog PV
inputs. The use of transmitters to measure these variables is now
preferred over the use of switches. Switches only give a change in
output when they are activated and can “stick” or experience some
other failure mode that is revealed only when the switch is tested or
a demand is places on it. it Transmitters can be continuously
monitored and the operability of the transmitters readily observed. A
single transmitter providing multiple levels of trip alarm functions
(i.e. low, high and high-high level) can replace multiple switches.
With transmitter redundancy employed, out-of-range or deviation
alarming can be implemented to ensure a high level of availability .
• Most HIPPS applications require 1oo2 or 2oo3 transmitters on all
field inputs. Figures A and B Provide illustrations of typical
installations.

417

• The use of redundant inputs enables the system designer to

incorporate diagnostics into the HIPPS, Which significantly reduces
the probability to fail on demand for the field inputs. Separate
process connections are also recommended to decrease common
cause faults,
faults such as plugged process taps.
taps Utilizing diversity in the
process variable measurement, where practical, is also
recommended in order to reduce common cause failures and
consequently the probability to fail on demand.
• Logic Solver. The logic solver hardware must be designed to meet
the assigned SIL. Since many HIPPS are designated as SIL 3, the
logic solver is specified to be compliant with SIL 3 performance
requirements, as provided in IEC 61508. The logic solver can be
relays, solid state, or programmable electronic systems (PES).

418

211
 • If a PES is used, the selected PES should provide a high level of
self diagnostics and fault tolerance. Redundancy of signal paths
and logic processing is desirable and the trip output function must
be configured as de-energize to trip.
• The standard requirement
q safetyy logic
g be independent
p from the
basic process control system logic, Adequate independence of the
safety logic reduces the probability that a loss of the basic process
control system hardware will result in the loss of the HIPPS
functioning. From a software standpoint. Independence also
reduces the possibility that inadvertent changes to the HIPPS safety
functionally could occur during modification of basic process
control functions.

419

• Final elements, the majority of HIPPS utilize in a 1oo2

configuration. The final elements are typically either relays in the
motor control circuit for shutdown of motor operated valves,
compressors or pumps Fail safe valves opened or closed using
solenoids in the instrument air supply
• Figure
Fi C D E provide
C,D,E, id off typical
i l installations
i ll i when
h fail-safe
f il f valves
l
are used as the final elements. At least one of the valves must be a
dedicated shutdown valve. The second valve can be a control valve,
but it must be configured fail-safe; have no minimum stops; and its
actuation must be controlled by the HIPPS logic solver. The system
designer should also examine the initiating cause for the
overpressure scenario is the failure of the control valve , the system
designer strongly consider providing the redundant isolation using
two block valves rather than using the control valve and a block
valve.

420

212
 • Solenoid operated valves (solenoids) configured as de-energize to
trip are used to actuate the fail-safe valves. Solenoids can be
configured 1oo1 or 1002, but spurious closure of the valves due to
solenoid coil burnout can cause process disruptions, loss of
pproduction,, and downtime. The solenoids can also be configured
g as
2oo2 to reduce spurious trips, as long as adequate testing is
performed to uncover stuck valves or plugged vent ports. The
solenoid should be mounted as close to the valve actuator as
possible to decrease the required transfer volume for valve
actuation. The exhaust ports should be as large as possible to
increase speed of valve response.

421

3.Diagnostics
• Diagnostic capability should be designed into HIPPS. The ability to
detect failures of devices on-line significantly improves the
availability of the HIPPS.
HIPPS For example,
example the use of signal comparison
on analog inputs allows annunciation of transmitter failures to the
control room. To support the claimed risk reduction associated with
diagnostics, operation procedures must require time to repair
specified in the safety requirements specification. Maintenance
procedures must also place high priority on repair of HIPPS devices.

422

213
 4.Testing Frequency
• If all failures were self-revealing there would be no need to test
safety system devices. Shutdown valves that do not close
completely. Solenoid valves that are stuck in position, and
pressure switches with stuck closed contacts are all examples of
covert , dangerous failures. If safety system devices are not tested,
dangerous failures reveal themselves when a process demand
occurs, often resulting in the unsafe event that the safety system
was designed to prevent. Testing is performed for one reason and
one reason only to uncover failures. The appropriate testing of
HIPPS is key to ensure that the availability requirements are
satisfied Architecture, redundancy, and device integrity have a
significant effect on the probability to fail on demand and
therefore testing frequency requirements.

423

• To determine the required testing frequency, quantitative risk

assessment is the accepted approach by most users. In general, all
HIPPS components require a testing frequency in the range of 3 to 12
months. On-line and off-line testing provisions should be provided to
permit each device to be completely function tested.
tested Any required
bypasses must be managed through a change management process
with appropriate access security.

• Whatever the Testing Frequency. It is essential that the testing is

performed throughout the safety system life. Any changes in the
testing
i frequency
f must be
b validated
lid d by
b quantitative
i i methodsh d to ensure
that the availability is not lowered to an un acceptable level.

424

214
 • To minimize common cause failures , the initiating causes of each
scenario identified during the hazard analysis should be examined.
Then, the HIPPS hardware and software should be designed to
function independently from these initiating causes. For example, if a
control transmitter is listed as an initiating cause to the scenario, the
control transmitter cannot be the sole means for detecting the
potential incident. At least one additional transmitter will be required
for the HIPPS.

• Once independence of the HIPPS devices is demonstrated, common

cause failures ((CCF)) related to the design
g must be examined,, the
following are often cited as examples of common cause faults:

425

- Miscalibration of sensors
- Fabrication flaws
- Pluggage of common process taps for redundant sensors
- Incorrect maintenance
- Improper bypassing
- Environmental stress on field device
- Process fluid or containment prevents valve closure.
• Industrial standards and corporate engineering guidelines and
standards can be utilized to reduce the potential for CCF. The
proposed or installed HIPPS design can be compared to these
standards. Deviation from the standards can be corrected through
design revision or documented to justify why this specific
application has different requirements.

426

215
 • Checklists can also be used to reduce potential CCFs. A checklist
analysis will identify specific hazards. Deviations from standards,
design deficiencies and potential incidents through comparison of
the design to known exceptions, which have been expressed as
checklist questions.

• In some cases, it may be necessary to consider the impact of

potential common cause failures when verifying whether the
HIPPS can achieve the target SIL.

427

• The design of the HIPPS must meets the required SIL or it must be
modified until it does SIL is not just a design parameter. It is also an
operational parameter. The choices made during design, including
voting, diagnostics, and testing, must be preserved throughout the
facility'ss life.
facility life Once the SIS is designed and installed,
installed and a testing
frequency is chosen. The SIL is fixed and can only be changed by
modification of one of the major design parameters. Consequently,
the HIPPS SIL serves as a ‘management of change’ Checkpoint

428

216
 5.Advantages and Disadvantage of HIPPS
• It is poor safety practice to install and rely on pressure relief devices
in services where the sizing of the device is poorly understood or
known to be inadequate due to chemical reactions, multiphase
fluids, or plugging. In these applications, alternatives, such as
HIPPS, should be examined to ensure mitigation of overpressure
events.
• Industry is increasingly moving towards utilizing HIPPS to reduce
flare loadingg and pprevent the environmental impact
p of ppressure
venting. They are becoming the option of choice to help alleviate
the need to replace major portions of the flare system in existing
facilities when adding new equipment or units. If the header and
flare system must be enlarged, significant down time is incurred for
all of the units that discharge to that header.
429

• The capital and installation cost associated with HIPPS is attractive

when compared to the downtime or equipment cost of flare
modification.

• The main disadvantage of HIPPS is the careful documentation ,

design , operation , maintenance, and testing to ensure standard's
compliance. Specific regulatory and enforcement jurisdiction
requirements must be determined. In some instances, approval of
local authorities is required, regulatory and standards requirements
must be understood by all parties, including facility management
and instrumentation and electrical , operations , and maintenance
personnel.

430

217
 • Any justification for HIPPS must be thoroughly documented that
the HIPPS can adequately address each scenario. The ability of the
HIPPS to adequately address overpressure is limited by the
knowledge and skill applied in the identification and definition of
overpressure scenarios.
scenarios

431

• HIPPS systems are more complex, requiring the successful

functioning of multiple devices to achieve the performance of a
single pressure relief device. The user must verify that HIPPS will
work form a process standpoint and that the HIPPS design results
in an installation as safe or safer than a conventional design. The
effectiveness
ff i off the
h system is
i highly
hi hl dependent
d d on theh field
fi ld design,
d i
device testing, and maintenance program. Consequently, the user
must understand the importance of application-specific design
aspects, as well as the associated costs of the intensive testing and
maintenance program whenever a HIPPS is utilized. When a
pressure relief device is not installed or is undersized based on
conventional design,
design the HIPPS becomes the ‘ last line of defense
defense’
whose failure potentially results in vessel rupture.

432

218
 • Finally, there is no ‘ approved’ rubber stamp in any regulation or
standard for the use of HIPPS or reduction in the size of relief
devices and associated flare system for pressure vessels or
pipeline. Substantial cautionary statements are made in the
standards
d d andd recommended d d practices,
i concerning
i the
h use off
HIPPS.

433

Figure A

434 Figure B

219
 Figure c
435

Figure D
436

220
 Figure E
437

221
 Chapter 9

Safety Integrity Level

438

1. Rating For safety

2. Determination of SIL

439

222
 1.Rating For safety
• Standards do not specify how to decide if a safety instrumented
system is needed, nor do it require any particular method of hazard
analysis The ISA standard does provide a common rating system
analysis.
is the safety integrity level (SIL) SIL defines three levels of safety
performance for a safety instrumented system 1,2,3. The higher
the SIL value, the greater the risk reduction. This increased risk
reduction results from availability of the safety functions. Factors
such as redundancy frequent testing and diagnostic fault detection
tend
e d too increase
c e se S
SIL levels,
eve s, improving
p ov g thee S
SIS
S risk
s reduction.
educ o .

• ISA S84 shows a correlation that exists between the SIL values
and three key performance metrics, safety availability, probability
of failure on demand (PFD) and hazard reduction factor (HRF).
440

• Safety availability represents the fraction of time that a safety

system can perform its designated safety service when the
process is operating PFD indicates the probability of a system
failing to respond on demand . The following expression defines
the relationship between safety Availability and PFD.
PFD

• Safety Availability = 1 - PFD

• It often may be desirable to express the SIL level in terms of the

hazard reduction factor, where HRF IS DEFINED AS

• HRF = 1 / PFD

441

223
 Circuit Diagram

Control System flowchart CSF Ladder diagram LAD Statement List

442

Triple Modular Redundant (TMR)

• A fault-tolerant control system identifies and compensates for
failed control system elements and allows repair while
continuing an assigned task without process interruption. A
high integrity control system is used in critical process
high-integrity
applications that require a significant degree of safety and
availability.

• The controller that provides fault tolerance by means of Triple

Modular Redundant (TMR) integrates three isolated, parallel
control systems and extensively diagnostics in one control
system. The controller uses two-out-of three voting to provide
high-integrity, error-free, uninterrupted process operation with
no single point of failure. Figure(1) illustrates general block
diagram of TMR architecture.
443

224
 • The architecture uses three identical channels. Each channel
independently executes the application in parallel with the other two
channels. Specialized hardware/software voting mechanisms quality
and verify all digital inputs and outputs from the field, while analog
p are subject
inputs j to a mid-value selection pprocess.

Input Processor Output

A V A A
O
Sensors B I B B Voter Actuators
N
C G C C

Figure 1: TMR Architecture

444

• Because each channel is isolated from the others, no single-point

failure in any channel can pass to another. If a hardware failure does
occur on one channel, the other channel overrides it Meanwhile the
faulting module can easily be removed and replaced while the
controller is online without interrupting the process.
• Setting up applications is simplified with the triplicate controller
system, because it operates as a single control system from the user's
point of view. The user terminates sensors and actuators at a single
wiring terminal and programs the controller with ne set of
application logic.
• Extensive diagnostics
g on each channel,, module,, and functional
circuit immediately detect and report operational faults by means of
indicators and alarms. All diagnostic fault information is accessible
by the application and the operator. The program or the operator can
use diagnostic data to modify control actions or direct maintenance
procedure.
445

225
 • The safety PLC developed by triconex is designed with a fully
triplicate architecture throughout, from the input modules through the
main processor to the output module. This architecture is simplified
in figure(2) Each I/O module houses the circuitry for three
independent legs. Each leg on the input modules reads the processor
d
data andd passes that
h information
i f i to its
i respective
i main
i processor.
The three main processors communicate with each other using a
proprietary high-speed bus system called the TriBus.
• Once per scan the three main processors synchronize and
communicate with their two neighbors over the TriBus. The system
votes digital input data compares output data, and sends copies of
analog
l input
i t data
d t to
t eachh main
i processor.

446

• The main processors execute the application and send outputs

generated by the application to the output modules, the output data
is voted on the output modules as close to the field as possible,
which enables the controller to detect and compensate for any
errors that might occur between the voting and the final output
di
driven to the
h field.
fi ld
• For each module I/O module, the system can support an optional
hot-spare module, which takes control if a fault is detected on the
primary module during operation. The hot-spare position can also
be used for online system repairs.

447

226
 Auto Spare Auto Spare
I/O Bus Main
Input Output
Leg Process Leg
TriBus
A
A A

TriBus
Input Main Output Voter
Leg Process I/O Bus Leg
B B B Output
Input Termination
Termination
Main
Input TriBus
Process
Output
Leg I/O Bus
C Leg
C C

Figure 2
448

Safety integrity level:

• The safety integrity level (SIL) is defined as “ the likelihood of a

safety related system or function satisfactory performing the
required safety functions under all the stated conditions, within a
stated period of time” . The SIL allocated to a system or function,
but is not a measure of the risk . Four safety integrity levels are
defined in IEC 61508. The four SIL and the probabilities of failure
to which they relate are defined in Table 1.

449

227
 Safety integrity Demand mode of operation (pr. of Con0 tinuous /
level failure to perform its safety high – demand
functions on demand) mode of
operation (pr. of
failure per hour)
4 > = 10-5 to 10-4 > = 10-9 to 10-8

3 > =10-4 to 10-3 > = 10-8 to 10-7

2 > = 10-3 to 10-2 > = 10-7 to 10-6

1 > = 10-2 to 10-1 > = 10-6 to 10-5

Table (1) : Safety Integrity Levels

450 450

2.Determination of SIL

A Risk-based assessment:
• If a SIL is based on the risks involved,, how we assess the risks?
And does Risk assessment lead to a determination of SIL?
Principles for answering these questions can be shown in a 9-step
process.

S1 Hazard Identification
• Identify the hazards ( potential for breaches of safety ) which
might exist for the system under consideration. Then assess their
cause and consequences. Proven techniques, such as hazard and
operability studies (HAZOP), should be used.

451

228
 S2 Assess consequences
• Define consequence categories in general terms ( as, for example,
in table 2). Then allocate each identified hazard to it's appropriate
category.

Category Effect
Catastrophic Multiple loss of life
Critical Loss of a single life
Marginal Major injuries to one or more person
Negligible Minor injuries at worst

Table (2): Defining severity categories (typical effects)

452 452

S3 Define Probability Categories

• Define probability (or frequency) categories, which may be used to

represent the likelihood of hazards developing into incidents. A
typical example of 6 probability categories, with both descriptive
and numeric meanings, is given in Table 3. More of fewer categories
may be defined, according to the refinement required. Then,
determine the probability category of each identified hazard.

453

229
 Category Meaning Range
(failures per year)

Frequent Many times in systems lifetime > 10-3

Probable Several times in system lifetime 10-3 to 10-4

Occasional Once in system lifetime 10-4 to 10-5

Remote Unlikely in system lifetime 10-5 to 10-6

Improbable Very unlikely to occur 10-6 to 10-7

Incredible Cannot believe that could occur 10-7

Table (3):Defining categories of probability of occurrence
(typical values only)

454 454

S4 Define risk classes

Risk is defined as “ the likelihood of a given event occurring in a

specified time” . Its two components are the likelihood ( see table 3),
which includes the time element, and the particular event, defined by it's
consequence ( see table
t bl 2 ).
) In
I order
d to t categorize
t i risk,
i k levels
l l off risk,
i k or
risk classes need to be defined. This should be done by policy across an
organization. In IEC 61508 four levels of risk, or risk classes, are defined:
• Class I : unacceptable in any circumstance
• Class II : undesirable, tolerable only if risk reduction is
impracticable or if the costs are grossly disproportionate to the
i
improvement gained.
i d
• Class III: Tolerable if the cost of risk reduction would exceed the
improvement gained
• Class IV: Negligible, and therefore acceptable as it stands, though
it may need to be monitored.
455

230
 S5 Risk class matrix

• Construct a matrix of consequence categories ( From table 2 ) against

probability categories ( From table 3 ). Then objectively consider
which risk class is appropriate to each cell (as, for example,
in table 4 ). Once this has been done, it becomes clear how risks may
be reduced-for example, a class I risk in the critical probably cell
may be reduced to class IIII by taking action to reduce it's probability
to remote: to reduce it's consequence to “negligible “ or to reduce it's
probability to “occasional” and it's consequence to “marginal”

456

Probability Catastrophic Critical Marginal Negligible

Frequent I I I II

P b bl
Probable I I II III

Occasional I II III III

Remote II III III IV

Improbable III III IV IV

Incredible IV IV IV IV

Table (4): A risk class matrix

457 457

231
 S6 Deduce risks associated with hazards
• Each identified hazard ( form step 1 ) is placed into the appropriate
cell of a consequence - probability matrix ( as formed in step 5, but
without the risk classes ). When the results are compared with the
risk class matrix, the risk class of each hazard is revealed. It is then
also apparent what steps need to be taken to reduce the risks
associated with each hazard to tolerable levels.
• The assessment of risk is not trivial, and many factors affect it. Two
are mentioned as examples. The First is the difference between
individual and societal risk injury to anyone individual using a
device may be improbable, but if a million people use the device
each day,
day there may be frequent injuries.
injuries
• The second IS one-shot versus lifetime use. Injury on a single use
may be incredible, but daily use over a number of years increases the
probability. This is implied in the “meaning” column in Table 3. The
expected distribution and use of a system or device must therefore be
458 considered in assessing it's risks.

S7 Safety requirements specification

• The safety requirements or reducing the risks associated with
each of the identified hazards must be specified. Risk may be
reduced by adjusting either likelihood or consequence ( see the
risk class matrix of Table 4 ) However,
However in some cases the
reduction of one or other of these may not be possible. For
example, if a given number of passengers are to be carried, the
possible consequence of a plane crash cannot be reduced, and
risk reduction would have to be achieved by reducing the
probability of a crash.

459

232
 S8 Design for safety
• The safety requirements must be implemented into the system
design by allocating them to functions and (sub-) systems. Many
design trade-offs may be necessary, both to achieve the desired
level of safety and to do so costcost-effectively
effectively. Moreover,
Moreover the
subsystems may be software-based, of other technology , or
organizational.

460

S9 Deduce safety integrity levels

• Although SIL is based on an assessment of risk, it is the
probability of failure of a system or function. The higher the
safetyy risks if the system
y or function fails the higher
g the SIL. And
if the safety requirements are the countermeasures against
several Hazards, The SIL should be appropriate to the most
severe of them. Thus, different functions and subsystems within
a given system may have different SILs allocated to them. In
determining the SIL of a function or system, once a tolerable risk
has been derived from Table 4 , the required frequency can be
interpreted from Table 3 and the relevant SIL from Table 1.

461

233
 • The SIL relating to the overall system is influenced not by the risk
attached to a single identified hazard but by that associated with all
the hazards. However, the SIL is not necessarily that appropriate to
the most severe hazard. A system with 100 Hazards, each with a
“tolerable” risk, may be deemed more “dangerous” than one with a
single un desirable risk, and ALARP ( As low As Reasonably
Practical ) principle, the chosen SIL may be dependent on a number
of factors, including the cost of risk reduction.
• The SIL allocated to system influences it's development processes,
for example, the rigor with which it is designed, tested and assessed,
the importance attached to the completeness of it's documentation
and it's development time-scale and cost. IEC 61508 relates these
parameters to the various SILs and offers guidance on them.

462

234
 Chapter 10

Pressure Relief Device

463

11. Introduction to Overpressure Protection

2. PRVs Design Consideration and Types

464

235
 1.INTRODUCTION TO OVERPRESSURE
PROTECTION

Wh N
Why Needed
d d

• PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL AND

PROPERTY

Q
• SATISFY REQUIREMENTS OF APPLICABLE
CODES AND REGULATIONS

465

Most Common Causes

Of Overpressure
p

• BLOCKED DISCHARGE

• EXPOSURE TO EXTERNAL FLAMES

• THERMAL EXPANSION

466

236
 Blocked Discharge
PRD

Pressure
Vessel OUTLET BLOCK
VALVE CLOSED
FULL INPUT FLOW
(FROM COMPRESSOR
OR PUMP)

467

External Fire

PRD

STORAGE OR
PROCESS VESSEL

468

237
 Thermal Expansion

PRD

LIQUID FULL PIPE OR PRESSURE VESSEL

469

Must Consider The One

Worst Case

BLOCKED DISCHARGE
EXTERNAL FIRE
THERMAL EXPANSION

470

238
 Overpressure Relief Devices

ƒ PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

ƒ RUPTURE DISC

ƒ RUPTURE DISC UNDER PRV

471

Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)

• OPENS AT SET PRESSURE

• CLOSES AT RESEAT PRESSURE

472

239
 Rupture Disc (RD)

• A PREDETERMINED WEAK POINT IN A PRESSURIZED

SYSTEM
• OPENS AT BURST PRESSURE
• DOES NOT RE-CLOSE

473

Pressure Relief Valve & Rupture Disc

• RD BURSTS OPEN
• PRV OPENS IMMEDIATELY
• PRV RE-
RE-CLOSES AT A PRESSURE BELOW RD
BURST PRESSURE

474

240
 Maximum Allowable
Working Pressure (MAWP)

• “DESIGN PRESSURE”

• NORMALLY USED WITH PROCESS

VESSELS AND ASSOCIATED PIPING

• NORMALLY PRV SET PRESSURE OR

RD BURST PRESSURE

475

Maximum Allowable
Operating Pressure (MAOP)
• “DESIGN PRESSURE”
PRESSURE

• NORMALLY USED IN NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION

AND DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS

• DEPENDENT ON PIPE MATERIAL , TEMPERATURE OF

AMBIENT & GAS,
LOCATION OF PIPE (SPARSELY OR DENSELY
POPULATED AREAS)

476

241
 PRESSURE %
WHERE PRDS NORMALLY 110
SIZED (EXCEPT FIRE CASE)
SET PRESSURE
TOLERANCE ALLOWABLE
OVERPRESSURE
MAWP
100
TYPICAL SET
BLOWDOWN, PRESSURE
% OF SET 95
TYPICAL
OPERATING
TYPICAL RESEAT PRESSURE
PRESSURE 90 (“THE MONEY
MAKER”)

477

% MAWP

USUALLY 110% MAWP

ALLOWABLE ALLOWABLE
OVERPRESSURE ACCUMULATION
(SYSTEM)
(PRD)

100 MAWP
SET PRESSURE
478

242
% MAWP
USUALLY 110% MAWP

ALLOWABLE ACCUMULATION
ALLOWABLE (SYSTEM)
OVERPRESSURE
(PRD)

100 MAWP
SET PRESSURE
ALMOST NEVER SHOULD IT BE < MAWP

479

Back Pressure

Pb
(back pressure)

I l t
Inlet

THE PRESSURE AT THE OUTLET OF

A PRESSURE RELIEF DEVICE.

480

243
 Built-up Back Pressure DISCHARGE

PRV IS OPEN
AND IS FLOWING

In
481

To FLARE
And /or
Burner
Possible Pressure Source Stack
To Atmos.
CLOSED
DISCHARGE
Possible Pressure Source
HEADER SYSTEM

PRV
(Closed)
Possible Pressure Source

Purge? Protected System

SUPERIMPOSED BACK
482 PRESSURE

244
 Lift

LIFT

483

Orifice Area

AN = AREA OF DN
(NOZZLE DIAMETER),
OR
AC = CIRCUM. OF DN X
LIFT, [“CURTAIN
AREA”]
DN WHICHEVER
LIFT IS SMALLER

484

245
 Safety Valve

• A PRV ACTUATED BY STATIC PRESSURE

• RAPID OPENING (POP ACTION)

FULL LIFT

LIFT

SET ALLOWABLE
PRESSURE OVERPRESSURE
• USED ON COMPRESSIBLE MEDIA (GAS, VAPOR,
STEAM)

485

Relief Valve

• A PRV ACTUATED BY STATIC PRESSURE

• OPENS GENERALLY IN PROPORTION TO
OVERPRESSURE

FULL
LIFT
LIFT

SET ALLOWABLE
PRESSURE OVERPRESSURE
• NORMALLY USED ON NON-COMPRESSIBLE MEDIA
(LIQUIDS)

486

246
 Safety Relief Valve (SRV)

• A PRV THAT MAY FUNCTION AS

EITHER A SAFETY OR RELIEF VALVE

WITH SATISFACTORY PERFORMANCE

487

Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)

A GENERIC TERM WHICH INCLUDES

SAFETY VALVES, RELIEF VALVES, AND

SAFETY RELIEF VALVES (A “SAFE & ALL-

ALL
ENCOMPASSING TERM”)

488

247
 The Ideal PRD
PRV

Protected System
y

LEAK-FREE TO SET PRESSURE

OPENS AT SET PRESSURE
RELIEVES ONLY THE INPUT INTO THE PROTECTED
SYSTEM
STABLE DURING RELIEF CYCLE
RE-CLOSES AT SET PRESSURE (0% BLOWDOWN)
489

2. PRVs DESIGN CONSIDERATON AND TYPES

Pressure Relief Devices

• Pressure Relief Device:

– A device actuated by inlet static pressure and designed to open
during an emergency or abnormal conditions to prevent a rise of
internal fluid pressure in excess of a specified value.
– The
Th device
d i may be b
• Pressure relief valve.
• Vacuum relief valve.
• Non-re closing pressure relief device.
490

248
 Pressure Relief Device

Knife Blade Rupture Disc

• Reverse-acting
Reverse acting rupture
discs

Pressure
Reverse – acting, knife blade design

491

Pressure Relief Devices (continue)

• Spring Loaded Pressure Relief

Valve:
– A pressure relief device designed to
automatically re-close and prevent the
further flow of fluid.

Spring - Loaded PRV

492

249
 Pressure Relief Devices (continue)

• Relief Valve:
– A pressure relief
li f valve
l actuated
t t d by
b the
th static
t ti pressure upstream
t
of the valve. The valve opens normally in proportion to the
pressure increase over the opening pressure. A relief valve is
used primarily with incompressible fluids.

493

Relief Valve
• A PRV ACTUATED BY STATIC PRESSURE
• OPENS GENERALLY IN PROPORTION TO OVERPRESSURE
• NORMALLY USED ON NON-COMPRESSIBLE MEDIA
((LIQUIDS)
Q )

FULL LIFT

LIFT

SET ALLOWABLE
PRESSURE OVERPRESSURE
494

250
 Pressure Relief Devices (continue)
• Safety Valve:
– A pressure relief valve actuated by the static pressure upstream
off the
h valve
l andd characterized
h i d by
b rapid
id opening
i or pop action.
i A
safety valve is normally used with compressible fluids.

• Safety Relief Valve:

– A pressure relief valve that may be used as either a safety or
relief valve,
valve depending on the application.
application

495

Safety Valve
• A PRV ACTUATED BY STATIC PRESSURE
• RAPID OPENING (POP ACTION)
• USED ON COMPRESSIBLE MEDIA (GAS,
(GAS STEAM)
FULL LIFT

LIFT

SET ALLOWABLE
PRESSURE
OVERPRESSURE

496

251
 Pressure Relief Devices (continue)
Set pressure
• Conventional Pressure Adjust Screw
Relief Valve:
Bonnet
– A spring
spring-loaded
loaded pressure
relief valve whose Spring
performance characteristics
are directly affected by
changes in the back pressure Body Blow
on the valve. Disk down
Adust
Adust.
Ring

Nozzle
Conventional spring – loaded PRV
497

Pressure Relief Devices (continue)

• Balanced Pressure
Relief Valve:
– A spring-loaded pressure Bonnet
relief valve that Vent
incorporates a means for
minimizing the effect of
back pressure on the
pperformance Bellows
characteristics.

Balanced Bellows Spring - Loaded PRV

498

252
 Pressure Relief Devices (continue)
Pilot
Unloader
• Pilot Operated Piston Dome
Disk
Pressure Relief Nozzle
V l
Valve:
– A pressure relief
valve in which the Pilot
main valve is vent
combined with and
controlled by an
auxiliary
ili pressure
relief valve. Dome Charging
Orifice Main Valve
Pressure Sensing
(Integral)

499

Pressure Relief Devices (continue)

• Rupture Disc:
Knife Blade Rupture Disc
– A non-re closing
differential pressure
relief device actuated by
inlet static pressure and
designed to function by
bursting the pressure-
containing rupture disc.
– A rupture disc device
includes a rupture disc
Pressure
and a rupture disc holder.
Reverse – acting, knife blade design

500

253