0

CONTENTS
1. BASICS OF DRAWING………………………………………………….2
Basic drawing instruments and aids………………………………………………………2
Securing a paper on the drawing board…………………………………………………...3
The Title Block……………………………………………………………………………4
Printing/ lettering………………………………………………………………………….5
Lines………………………………………………………………………………………6
Dimensioning…………………………………………………………………………......8
Symbols and Conventions……………………………………………………………….13
2. PROJECTIONS…………………………………………………………..19
Isometric projection……………………………………………………………………...19
Oblique projection……………………………………………………………………….22
Orthographic projection………………………………………………………………….24
Axonometric projection………………………………………………………………….31
3. FREE HAND SKETCHING…………………………………………….32
4. GEOMETRIC DRAWING……………………………………………...40
Scales…………………………………………………………………………………….40
Angles and lines………………………………………………………………………….45
The triangle………………………………………………………………………………48
The Quadrilateral………………………………………………………………………...50
Polygons…………………………………………………………………………………53
The circle………………………………………………………………………………...57
Tangency………………………………………………………………………………...59
Blending of lines and curves…………………………………………………………….61
The Ellipse………………………………………………………………………………63
5. THE LOCI………………………………………………………………..66
The Cycloid……………………………………………………………………………...69
The Trochoid…………………………………………………………………………….71
The Involute……………………………………………………………………………..72
6. Computer Aided Drawings (CAD)……………………………………...75
7. MODEL QUESTIONS AND ANSWER……………………………………………….85
8. References……………………………………………...…..….105

1
 COMMUNICATION GRAPHICS FOR
TECHNICIANS
Communication graphics as the name suggests is communication or communicating using graphic
elements. These elements include symbols such as icons, images such as drawings and
photographs.
It is a graphic language from which a trained person can visualise objects.
Communication graphics also called technical drawing is designed to impart the following skills
to all technical people:
1. Ability to read and prepare engineering and technical drawings.
2. Ability to make free - hand sketching of objects.
3. Power to imagine, analyse and communicate.
4. Capacity to understand other subjects.
Basic Tools/drawings instruments and aids used in communication graphics
● pencils: You will need a selection of pencils. A hard-leaded pencil (6H) can be used for light
lines, a softer pencil (2H) for the outlines and an even softer pencil (HB) for printing. (More than
one pencil of each grade will save you from frequent re-sharpening.)
● Ruler: It is advisable to have a transparent ruler for easy reading of measurements.
● Set squares: You will need at least two set squares: a 60 ° and a 45 ° set square, if you have
an adjustable set square you can manage without the other two.
● Rubber: Choose a good quality rubber, one that does not smudge. Soft natural rubber or
nylon rubber is used as eraser to remove unnecessary lines on the drawing sheet.
● Compasses: You will need at least two compasses: a small spring bow compass for small
circles and one for larger circles.
● Dividers:
● Drawing board: drawing boards used are made of well-seasoned softwood of about 25 mm
thick with a working edge for T-square but now there are even plastic drawing boards which are
much better but expensive.
● T-square: a T-square is also needed which slides up and down on the side of the drawing
board and has to be held in place when used to produce vertical and horizontal straight lines.
● Clips or tape: The best tape to use to hold paper on the drawing board is masking tape but
metal drawing board clips are easier to use.

2
● Emery board or fine sandpaper: This is used to ensure that the lead in the pencils is kept
sharp.
• Templates (circle and ellipse): These are aids used for drawing small features such as
circles, arcs, triangular, square and other shapes and symbols.
• Protractor: used to measure and produce angles.
• French curve: These are used to draw a smooth curve through any set of points.
Setting A Drawing sheet/Paper Ready for Drawing
The standard drawing sheet sizes vary from A0 which is the largest going forward.
The successive sizes are obtained by either halving along the length or. Doubling the width, the
area being in the ratio 1: 2.

Securing a paper on the drawing board:

This is achieved through the use of following ways:
• Clipping: This involves securing the paper using board clips.
• Sticking: This involves pushing a sharp or pointed object into or through the paper to the
board.
• pasting: this involves the use of an adhesive to secure the paper onto the board.
• pinning: involves attaching or fastening the paper onto the board using a pin or pins.
• masking: this involves the use of an adhesive tape that secures the paper on the drawing
board and it ensures no residue is left behind when removed
• pining: involves the use of a short pin with a broad, flat top to fasten papers to a board,
wall, or other surface.

3
The Title Block
• A title block is an arranged area of the drawing paper that contains information such as
the drawing name, designer name, date, checker, scale, etc.
• The title block should lie within the drawing space at the bottom right-hand comer of the
sheet.
• Or another one which covers the whole bottom of the paper.
Contents of the title block
• Title of the drawing.
• Drawing number.
• Scale.
• Symbol denoting the method of projection.
• Initials of staff who have designed, checked and approved.
• Date
• Name of institution.
• Occupation and level.
• Issues/ revision information,
• Materials,
• Specifications,
• Tolerance,
• Views,
• Dimensions.
• Tolerance
• Finish

4
PRINTING/ LETTERING
Lettering/printing is defined as writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, etc., on a drawing.
Types of lettering include
Upright/Vertical: You use VERTICAL – UPPERCASE letters for all your paper & pencil
drawings.
• Never mix vertical and lowercase letters.
• SPELL words correctly.
• Make letters and figures proper SIZE. Don’t make letters too prominent, yet make
them readable.
• Draw parallel light “GUIDELINES” to help with lettering.

5
Sloping/Inclined:

Lines
One of the fundamentals of a good draftsman ship is line work. For general engineering drawings
various lines are recommended.
Types of lines
• Outlines for Visible Edges: (Continuous thick lines) The lines are drawn to represent the
visible outlines/ visible edges / surface boundary.
Lines of objects should be outstanding in appearance and these outlines are used.
• Dimension Lines: (Continuous narrow/thin Lines) Dimension Lines are drawn to mark a
dimension.
• Construction Lines: (Continuous narrow Lines) Construction Lines are drawn for
constructing drawings and should not be erased after completion of the drawing.

6
• Hatching / Section Lines: (Continuous thin Lines) Hatching Lines are drawn for the
sectioned portion of an object. These are drawn inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis or to
the main outline of the section.
• Guide Lines: (Continuous thin Lines) Guide Lines are drawn for lettering and should not
be erased after lettering.
• Centre Lines: (Long-Dashed/Dotted thin Lines) Centre Lines are drawn at the center of
the drawings symmetrical about an axis or both the axes. These are extended by a short
distance beyond the outline of the drawing.
• Border Lines: Border Lines are continuous wide lines of minimum thickness 0.7 mm.
• Cutting Plane Lines: Cutting Plane Line is drawn to show the location of a cutting plane.
It is long-dashed dotted narrow line, made wide at the ends. The direction of viewing is
shown by means of arrows resting on the cutting plane line.
• Dashed thin Lines: (Dashed Narrow Lines) Hidden edges / Hidden outlines of objects are
shown by dashed lines of short dashes of equal lengths of about 3 mm, spaced at equal
distances of about 1 mm. The points of intersection of these lines with the outlines / another
hidden line should be clearly shown.

Rules of lines.
• When a Visible Line coincide with a Hidden Line or Center Line, draw the Visible Line.
Also, extend the Center Line beyond the outlines of the view.
• When a Hidden Line coincides with a Center Line, draw the Hidden Line.

7
 • When a Visible Line coincides with a Cutting Plane, draw the Visible Line.
• When a Center line coincides with a Cutting Plane, draw the Center Line and show the
Cutting Plane line outside the outlines of the view at the ends of the Center Line by thick
dashes.

Dimensioning
Drawing of a component, in addition to providing complete shape description, must also provide
information regarding the size description.
The size description is provided through the distances between the surfaces, location of holes,
nature of surface finish, type of material, etc. The expression of these features on a drawing, using
lines, symbols, figures and notes is called dimensioning.
Principles of Dimensioning
• All dimensional information necessary to describe a component clearly and completely
shall be written directly on a drawing.
• Each feature shall be dimensioned once only on a drawing, i.e., dimension marked in one
view need not be repeated in another view.
• Dimension should be placed on the view where the shape is best seen.
• As far as possible, dimensions should be expressed in one unit only preferably in
millimetres, without showing the unit symbol (mm).
• As far as possible dimensions should be placed outside the view.
• Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines rather than from hidden lines.
• No gap should be left between the feature and the start of the extension line.
• Crossing of centre lines should be done by a long dash and not a short dash.

8
One of the two figures show a correct way of dimensioning which is outside the given view and
another incorrect one, the dimensions are inside the view.

9
 This diagram shows the proper methods of dimensioning
Arrangement of Dimensions
1. Chain dimensioning: In Chain dimensioning the dimensioning lines are in succession,
one after the other with arrows.

Chain dimensioning

10
2. Parallel dimensioning: In parallel dimensioning, a number of dimension lines parallel to
one another and spaced out, are used. This method is used where a number of dimensions
have a common datum feature.

Parallel dimensioning

3. Combined dimensioning: it combines both parallel and chain dimensioning.

Combined dimensioning
Boarder lines
A border is a line drawn around the inside edge of the paper. Usually this is 10mm from
the edge of the paper. It is basically a rectangle drawn precisely and inside this rectangle is
the design area.

11
Abbreviations
Term abbreviation

12
Conventions

13
Symbols used on drawings for different trades

14
15
16
17
18
Projections
A projection is a design technique that is used to display a three-dimensional(3D) object on a two-
dimensional(2D) surface.
There are five basic types of projections that are used in technical drawing/communication
graphics but three are commonly used, namely: isometric projection, oblique projection and
orthographic projection. The other two are axonometric projection and perspective projection.
Isometric projection
Isometric projection is a method of representing three-dimensional objects on a flat surface by
means of a drawing that shows three planes of the object.
In order for a design to appear three dimensional, a 30-degree angle is applied to its sides.
Isometric projections present the more pictorial view of an object and True isometric projection is
an application of orthographic projection.

19
The two lines used to produce the three-dimensional object in isometric are inclined at an angle of
120° to each other.
The two axes are at 30 °to the horizontal and another is at the centre and is vertical.

Example 1: To draw an isometric cube/crate

Step 01: Draw two basics 30°-degree guidelines, one to the left and one to the right, plus a vertical
guideline at the centre of the drawing. This should be applied to all drawings in isometric.
Step 02: Mark the lines produced to the required length.
Step 03: Produce vertical lines parallel to the vertical axis, starting from the marked points on the
two 30° axis.
Step 04: Mark the vertical lines produced with a length equal to that of the first vertical axis and
join the points.
Step 05: Complete the shape of the cube/crate by producing lines that intersect at a point from the
two-side axis.

20
Further examples

21
Note: In isometric drawings, circles appear as ellipses and arcs as elliptical arcs.

Oblique projection
Oblique projection is another method of representing three-dimensional objects on a flat 2D
surface. A way of drawing which a three-dimensional object is represented by a drawing in which
the face, usually parallel to the picture plane, is represented in accurate or exact proportion, and
all other faces are shown at any convenient angle other than 90° typically 45°, 30° or 60°

22
In oblique projection, the front face of the object appears in its true size and shape, as it is placed
parallel to the picture plane.
The receding lines representing the other two faces are usually drawn at 30°,45° or 60° to the
horizontal, 45° being the most common practice.

Example 02: producing an oblique cube/box

Step 1: Draw the front face of the box parallel with the picture plane.
Step 2: Draw the side of the box back at a 45-degree angle. (You can draw it at 30 or 60 degrees
as well).
Step 3and 4: Complete the remaining sides of the box and clean-up your lines.
In general
1. After studying the views carefully, select the face that is either the most irregular one or the one
with circular features if any. Make that face parallel to the picture plane to minimize distortion.
2. Draw the face to its true size and shape.
3. Draw the receding lines through all the visible comers of the front face.
4. Mark the length of the object along the receding lines and join these in the order.
5. Add other features if any on the top and side faces.
Classification of oblique projections
Oblique projections are classified as cavalier and cabinet depending on the scale of measurement
followed along the receding lines.

23
If the receding lines are measured to the true size or full scale, the projection is known as cavalier
projection.
If the receding lines are reduced to one half of their true lengths, the projection is called cabinet
projection.

From the above figures cavalier oblique is drawn to full size and cabinet oblique is drawn half
the size of the receding lines but the faces are the same.
Note: In an oblique projection, a circle on the surface parallel to the plane of projection will appear
as a circle, a circle on the surface parallel to the plane of projection will appear as a circle.
A circle on any other surface will appear as an ellipse.

Orthographic projection
This is a common method of representing three-dimensional objects, usually by three two-
dimensional drawings in each of which the object is viewed along parallel lines that are
perpendicular to the plane of the drawing.

24
Orthographic projection is simple and flexibility in allowing any number of views of the same
object, which is contrary to the two discussed methods of presenting three-dimension objects.
A less simple object could be drawn in either isometric or oblique projections, although both these
systems have their disadvantages. Circles and curves are difficult to draw in either system and
neither shows more than three sides of an object in any one view.
Orthographic projection has two forms: First angle and Third angle.

Figure: Third angle orthographic projection

In third angle
I. The plan view or the top view is drawn above the XY line or above the base line.
II. The front view is drawn below/under the plan view.
III. The side views/end elevations are always produced from the front view.
In orthographic the horizontal plane (HP) is known as the plan view or top view, the vertical plane
(VP) is known as the front elevation (FE) or front view and another view, the end vertical plane is
known as the end elevation (EE).

25
Figure: First angle orthographic projection.
In first angle projections
(i) The object lies in between the observer and the plane of projection.
(ii) The front view is drawn above the XY line or at the top of the base line and the top
view is drawn below XY or below the front view. (above XY line is VP and below XY
line is HP).
(iii) In the front view, H.P coincides with XY line and in top view VP coincides with XY
line.
(iv) Front view shows the length(L) and height(H) of the object and Top view shows the
length(L) and breadth(B) or width(W) or thickness(T) of it.
(v) The end elevations/side views are produced from the front view.

26
From the diagrams
1. View in the direction a = front view (FV)
2. View in the direction b = top view (TV)
3. View in the direction c = left side view (LSV)
4. View in the direction d = right side view (RSV)
5. View in the direction e = bottom view (BV)
6. View in the direction f= rear view (RV)

From the above first angle projection diagram, FV (front view) is above the TV (top view), the
side views (left and right-side views) are also placed accordingly.
The symbol for first angle projection is given as:

27
From the above third angle projection diagram, FV (front view) is below the TV (top view), the
side views (left and right-side views) are also placed accordingly.
The symbol for third angle projection is given as:

Examples:

Figure: Third angle orthographic projection

28
Figure: first angle orthographic projection.

Further examples with steps

Draw the orthographic projection (front, plan and side views) of a square sheet (40mm side) in
first angle.
1.draw the XY line or the base line.
2. Draw the square with its centre 40 mm
above the XY line and one edge parallel to
XY line.
3. Mark the corners of the figure a', b', c' &
d'. This will be the elevation of the square.
4. Draw the vertical projectors from a'b'
downward beyond the XY line.
5. Draw a horizontal line dc at a distance of
20 mm below the XY line. Line dc will be
the plan.
6. Draw a X'Y' line at a convenient distance
from b'c', intersecting the XY line at `0'.
7. Project the plan to the XY line meeting at
e.
8. By arc method transfer oe to XY and
mark the point `f' at a" and d" respectively.
Now the line a"d" is the side view.

29
Draw the top, front and side view of a cylinder of diameter 20 mm and length 30 mm. (Fig 4A)

1. First draw the XY line.

2. Stretch your campus up to a radius of 10 mm, stand at any point from X on the XY line
strike an arc of radius 10mm.
3. Standing at the arc stroked, with the same radius measurement strike another arc above the
XY line.
4. With the new arc produce a 20mm circle diameter touching the XY line as a tangent.

30
 5. Project lines from the circle down the XY line and mark the required length of 30mm plus
an extra 10mm or 20mm for spacing which makes 40mm or 50mm.
6. Project lines again from the circle going to the right side to come up with the side elevation
and mark the required lengths including the spacing.
7. Join all the end points of the top view and the side view and centre lines for circle must
also be shown.
Draw the multi-views of a cone (1st angle)

Axonometric projection
Axonometric projection is a type of orthographic projection used for creating a
pictorial drawing of an object, where the lines of sight are perpendicular to the plane of projection,
and the object is rotated around one or more of its axes to reveal multiple sides.
Axonometric projections are generally three types: (a) trimetric projection, (b) dimetric projection,
and (c) isometric projection.

31
1. In trimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that all of the three axes of space appear
unequally foreshortened. The scale along each of the three axes and the angles among them are
determined separately as dictated by the angle of viewing. Trimetric perspective is seldom/less
used.
2. In dimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that two of the three axes of space appear
equally shortened, of which the attendant scale and angles of presentation are determined
according to the angle of viewing; the scale of the third direction (vertical) is determined
separately. When two of the three angles are equal, the drawing is classified as a dimetric
projection. Dimetric drawings are less pleasing to the eye, but are easier to produce than trimetric
drawings
3. In isometric projection, the most commonly used form of axonometric projection in engineering
drawing. Here all three angles are equal. The isometric is the least pleasing to the eye, but is the
easiest to draw and dimension.

Freehand Sketching
The basic principles of drawing used in freehand sketching are similar to those used in drawings
made with instruments.
While studying communication graphics a student has to prepare freehand sketches of almost all
drawings to be done in class. The preparation of scaled drawings should be the transfer of its
sketches from the sketch book to the drawing sheet/paper with the help of instruments.
Free hand sketches are grouped into the following categories
1. Drawing of two-dimensional figures and objects like conics, curves and ellipses.
2. Multi-view(orthographic) projections of three-dimensional solids and objects.
3. Pictorial views of three-dimensional objects like machine parts, buildings, steel structures.
These views may be

32
 i. Isometric projections
ii. Oblique projections
iii. Perspective projections
4. Schematic drawings of various welded joints, circuit diagrams, mechanical parts.
5. Symbolic drawings like piping layouts, welded joints, circuit diagrams, computer network
elements.
Freehand drawing is done on many occasions:
• To explain a piece of design quickly to a colleague;
• To develop a design.
• To draw a map showing someone how to get from one place to another.
Technical sketching is a disciplined form of art. Objects must be drawn exactly as they are seen,
not as one would like to see them.
Free hand basically follows the ability to produce straight lines, circular arcs and circles.
Procedures on free hand sketching
• When drawing straight lines, as on the diagram, rest the weight of your hand on the backs
of your fingers.

• When drawing curved lines, as on the diagram, rest the weight on that part of your hand
between the knuckle of your little finger and your wrist. This provides a pivot about which
to swing your pencil. Always keep your hand on the inside of the curve, even if it means
moving the paper around.

33
When sketching, you may find it an advantage to draw a faint ‘box’ first and draw in the ellipses
afterwards.
The drawing process can be divided into three basic stages.
Stage 1: Construction
This should be done with a hard pencil (6H), used lightly, and the strokes with the pencil should
be rapid. Slow movements produce wavy, uncertain lines. Since these constructed lines are very
faint, errors can easily be erased.

Stage 2: Lining in
Carefully line in with a soft pencil (HB), following the construction lines drawn in stage 1. The
completion of stage 2 should give a drawing that shows all the details and you may decide,
particularly in an examination, not to proceed to stage 3.

34
Stage 3: Shading
Shading brings a drawing to life. It is not necessary on most sketches, and in some cases, it may
tend to hide details that need to be seen. If the drawings are to be displayed, however, some shading
should certainly be done. Shading is done with a soft pencil (HB). It is very easy to over shade, so
be careful. For the smooth merging of shading, the dry tip of a finger can be gently rubbed over
the area.

Orthographic sketching

35
Sketching a prism

36
Sketching a cylinder

37
Sketching a chair

Sketching computer components

38
Sketching motor cycles

Sketching buildings

39
Geometric drawing
Geometric drawing involves drawing by producing basic simple shapes, objects and lines i.e.,
triangles, quadrilaterals, circles etc.
Most of the geometric drawings are two dimensional.

Scales

40
Before you start any drawing you first decide how large the drawings have to be. The different
views of the object to be drawn must not be bunched together or be too far apart.
The object may be much too large for the paper or much too small to be drawn clearly. In either
case it will be necessary to draw the object ‘to scale’. The scale must depend on the size of the
object; a miniature electronic component may have to be drawn 100 times larger than it really is,
whilst some maps have natural dimensions divided by millions.
There are drawing aids called ‘scales ’which are designed to help the draughts person cope with
these scaled dimensions. They look like an ordinary ruler but closer inspection shows that the
divisions on these scales are not the usual centimetres or millimetres, but can represent them.
The preceding paragraphs shows you how to construct any scale that you wish.
The Representative Fraction (RF)
The RF shows instantly the ratio of the size of the line on your drawing and the natural size. The
ratio of numerator to denominator of the fraction is the ratio of drawn size to natural size. Thus,
an RF of 1 5 means that the actual size of the object is five times the size of the drawing of that
object. If a scale is given as 1 mm = 1 m, then the RF is

Thus, RF such as 1:3; 1:100 etc are the reduction scales and the drawings made is smaller than the
object. Similarly, RF such as 10:1; 150:1 etc are the enlarged scales and the drawings made are
larger than the object.
RF may be written in one of the two ways shown below:
1:120 (Reduction scale)
15:1 (enlargement scale)
Scales are of main types but two are commonly used, these are; plain scale and a diagonal scale.
Other types are linear scale, vernier scale, comparative scale, scale of chords;
Plain scales
The plain scale is used for simple scales, scales that do not have many subdivisions.
When constructing any scale, the first thing to decide is the length of the scale.
Plain Scales are drawn in the form of rectangle, of length 15 cm (can be up to 30 cm) and width
15 mm. It is divided into suitable number of parts. The first part of the line is sub-divided into
smaller units as required.
Every plain scale should have the following salient features:

41
– The zero of the scale is placed at the end of the first division from left side.
– From zero, mark further divisions are numbered towards right.
– Sub-divisions are marked in the first division from zero to left side
– Names of units of main divisions and sub divisions should be stated/printed below or at the end
of the divisions.
– Indicate the `RF' of the scale.
Example
construct a plain scale, 30 mm=10 mm, 50 mm long to read to 1 mm
Length of scale =30 x 5 =150 mm
First division 5 x 10 mm lengths
Second division 10 x 1 mm lengths

3
Plain scale 30mm=10mm (RF=1)

Example
construction of a plain scale to measure metres and decimetres. RF = 50 1 and to measure up to 8
metres.
Minimum standard length of scale = 15 cm.
The length of the scale = RF x maximum length to be measured
1
The length of scale will be 50 x 8 x 100 cm = 16 cm.

Length of 16 cm is divided into 8 equal parts or major divisions each representing one metre.
If each major division is divided into 10 sub-divisions each sub-division will represents one
decimetre.

42
A distance of 6.7 m will be shown as in the figure.

Diagonal scales
Plain scales cannot be used for taking smaller measurement. The distance between the consecutive
divisions on a plain scale, at best can only be 0.5 mm. In other words, the smallest measurement
that can be taken.
Plain scales are used to read lengths in two units such as metres and decimetres, centimetres and
millimetres etc., or to read to the accuracy correct to first decimal.
Diagonal scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as metres,
decimetres, centimetres or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals.
Using a plane scale of RF 1:1 is 0.5 mm. If the RF of a plain scale is 1:5, the smallest measurement
such a scale can take is 2.5 mm (0.5 mm x 5).
To overcome this limitation two different types of scales are employed. They are
– Diagonal scale
– Vernier scale
Principle of diagonal scale: Diagonal scale relies on a "diagonal" to divide a small distance into
further equal parts. Principle of diagonal scale is based on the principle of similar triangles.
Suppose that AB is 10 mm long and BC is divided into 10 equal parts. Lines from these equal parts
have been drawn parallel to AB and numbered from 1 to 10.

43
It should be obvious that the line 5 – 5 is half the length of AB. Similarly, the line 1 – 1 is 1 10 the
length of AB and line 7 – 7 is 7 10 the length of AB.
Example

2
Figure: Diagonal scale 20mm = 10 mm to read to 0.1mm (RF= 1).

Problem 5: on a plan, a line of 22 cm long represents a distance of 440 metres. Draw a diagonal
scale for the plan to read up to a single metre. Measure and mark a distance of 187 m on the scale.

44
Solution

Construction of plane geometric figures

Plane geometry is the geometry of figures that are two-dimensional, i.e., figures that have only
length and breadth. Solid geometry is the geometry of three-dimensional figures.
The basic geometric shapes and objects are lines, triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons and circles.

Angles and lines

An angle is a space between two intersecting lines or surfaces at or close to the point where they
meet.
Acute angles are angles less than 90°
A Right angle is an angle that is exactly 90°

45
Obtuse angles are angles greater than 90° and less than 180°
Straight angle is an angle that is exactly 180°
Reflex angles are angles that are greater than 180° and less than 360°
A Full angle is an angle that is exactly 360°

Constructions

Figure: to construct a parallel line.

Figure: to bisect a line Figure: to elect a perpendicular

Figure: to bisect an angle Figure: to bisect an angle formed by two converging

lines

46
Figure: to construct 60° angle Figure: to construct 30° angle

Figure: to construct 90° angle figure: to construct 45° angle

Figure: To construct an angle similar to another angle.

47
Figure: To divide a line into a number of equal parts (e.g., six) left and to divide a line
proportionally (e.g., 1:2:4) right

The triangle
A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three straight sides.
A scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal sides, hence unequal angles.
An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two equal sides, and hence two angles are also equal.
An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides equal, and hence all the angles are equal.
A right-angled triangle is a triangle containing one right angle. The side opposite the right angle
is called the ‘hypotenuse’.
Constructions
To construct an equilateral triangle, given one of the sides

1. Draw a line AB, equal to the length of the side.

2. With compass point on A and radius AB, draw an arc as
shown.
3. With compass point on B, and with the same radius, draw
another arc to cut the first arc at C.
Triangle ABC is equilateral.

48
To construct an isosceles triangle given the perimeter and the altitude
1. Draw line AB equal to half the
perimeter.
2. From B erect a perpendicular and make
BC equal to the altitude.
3. Join AC and bisect it to cut AB in D.
4. Produce DB so that BE =BD. CDE is
the required triangle.

To construct a triangle, given the base angles and the altitude.

1. Draw a line AB.
2. Construct CD parallel to AB so that the distance
between them is equal to the altitude.
3. From any point E, on CD, draw C Ê F and D Ê
G so that they cut AB in F and G, respectively.
Since <CEF=<EFG and <DEG=<EGF (alternate
angles), then EFG is the required triangle.

To construct a triangle given the base, the altitude and the vertical angle.
1. Draw the base AB.
2. Construct B Â C equal to the vertical angle.
3. Erect AD perpendicular to AC.
4. Bisect AB to meet AD in O.
5. With centre O and radius OA (= OB), draw a
circle.
6. Construct EF parallel to AB so that the distance
between them is equal to the altitude.

49
Let EF intersect the circle in G. ABG is the required triangle.
To construct a triangle given the perimeter and the ratio of the sides.

1. Draw the line AB equal in length to the perimeter.

2. Divide AB into the required ratio (e.g., 4:3:6). 3.
With centre C and radius CA, draw an arc. 4. With
centre D and radius DB, draw an arc to intersect the first
arc in E. ECD is the required triangle

To construct a triangle similar to another triangle but with a different perimeter.

1. Draw the given triangle ABC.

2. Produce BC in both directions.
3. With compass point on B and radius BA, draw an arc
to cut CB produced in F.
4. With compass point on C and radius CA, draw an arc
to cut BC produced in E.
5. Draw a line FG equal in length to the required
perimeter.
6. Join EG and draw CJ and BH parallel to it.
7. With centre H and radius HF, draw an arc.
8. With centre J and radius JG, draw another arc to
intersect the first arc in K. HKJ is the triangle.
The Quadrilateral
The quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides.
A square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and one of its angles (and hence the
other three) a right angle.
A rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and one of its angles (and
hence the other three) a right angle.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore parallel.

50
A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.
Constructions
To construct a square given the length of the side.

1. Draw the side AB.

2. From B erect a perpendicular.
3. Mark off the length of side BC.
4. With centres A and C draw arcs, radius equal to the
length of the side of the square, to intersect at D.
ABCD is the required square.

To construct a square given the diagonal.

1. Draw the diagonal AC.

2. Bisect AC.
3. With centre O and radius OA ( OC), draw a circle to
cut the bisecting line in B and D.
ABCD is the required square.

To construct a rectangle given the length of the diagonal and one of the sides.

51
 1. Draw the diagonal BD.
2. Bisect BD.
3. With centre O and radius OB (=OD), draw a circle.
4. With centre B and radius equal to the length of the
known side, draw an arc to cut the circle in C.
5. Repeat step 4 with centre D to cut at A.
ABCD is the required rectangle.

To construct a parallelogram given two sides and an angle.

1. Draw AD equal to the length of one of the
sides.
2. From A construct the known angle.
3. Mark off AB equal in length to the other
known side.
4. With compass point at B, draw an arc equal
in radius to AD.
5. With compass point at D, draw an arc equal
in radius to AB. ABCD is the parallelogram.

To construct a rhombus given the diagonal and the length of the sides.
1. Draw the diagonal AC.
2. From A and C draw intersecting arcs, equal
in length to the sides, to meet at B and D.
ABCD is the required rhombus.

To construct a trapezium given the lengths of the parallel sides, the perpendicular
distance between them and one angle.

52
 1. Draw one of the parallels AB.
2. Construct the parallel line.
3. Construct the known angle from B to
intersect the parallel line in C.
4. Mark off the known length CD.
ABCD is the required trapezium.

Polygons
polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides
A pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides.
A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides.
A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by seven sides.
An octagon is a plane figure bounded by eight sides.
A nonagon is a plane figure bounded by nine sides.
A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ten sides
A regular polygon is one that has all its sides equal and therefore all its exterior angles equal
and all its interior angles equal.
It is possible to construct a circle within a regular polygon so that all the sides of the polygon
are tangential to that circle. The diameter of that circle is called the ‘diameter of the polygon’. If
the polygon has an even number of sides, the diameter is the distance between two diametrically
opposed faces. This dimension is often called the ‘across-flats’ dimension.
The diagonal of a polygon is the distance from one corner to the corner furthest away from it. If
the polygon has an even number of sides, then this distance is the dimension between two
diametrically opposed corners

Constructions
To construct a regular hexagon given the length of the sides.

53
 1. Draw a circle, radius equal to the length of the side.
2. From any point on the circumference, step the radius around
the circle six times. If your construction is accurate, you will
finish at exactly the same place that you started.
3. Connect the six points to form a regular hexagon.

To construct a regular hexagon given the diameter.

1. This hexagon can be

constructed, given the diameter
or across-flats dimension, by
drawing tangents to the circle
with a 60° set square.

To construct a regular octagon given the diagonal, i.e., within a given circle.
1. Draw the circle and insert a diameter AE.
2. Construct another diagonal CG, perpendicular to the first
diagonal.
3. Bisect the four quadrants thus produced to cut the circle in B,
D, F and H. ABCDEFGH is the required octagon.

54
To construct a regular octagon given the diameter, i.e., within a given square.
1. Construct a square PQRS, length of side equal to the
diameter.
2. Draw the diagonals SQ and PR to intersect in T.
3. With centres P, Q, R and S draw four arcs, radius PT
(=QT=RT =ST) to cut the square in A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.
ABCDEFGH is the required octagon.

To construct any given polygon, given the length of a side.

There are three simple ways of constructing any regular polygon.
Two methods require a simple calculation and the third requires very careful construction if it is
to be exact.

Method 1

1. Draw a line AB equal in length to one of the sides

and produce AB to P.
2. Calculate the exterior angle of the polygon by
dividing 360 ° by the number of sides. In this case the
exterior angle is 360 ° /7=51.4 °.
3. Draw the exterior angle PBC so that BC=AB.
4. Bisect AB and BC to intersect in O.
5. Draw a circle, centre O and radius OA (=OB=OC).
6. Step off the sides of the figure from C to D, D to E,
etc.
ABCDEFG is the required heptagon.

55
Method 2
1. Draw a line AB equal in length to one of the sides.
2. From A erect a semi-circle, radius AB to meet BA
produced in P.
3. Divide the semi-circle into the same number of equal
parts as the proposed polygon has sides. This may be
done by trial and error or by calculation (180 ° /7=25 5
° /7 for each arc).
4. Draw a line from A to point 2 (for ALL polygons).
This forms a second side to the polygon.
5. Bisect AB and A 2 to intersect in O.
6. With centre O draw a circle, radius OB (=OA=O2).
7. Step off the sides of the figure from B to C, C to D,
etc. ABCDEFG is the required heptagon
Method 3
1.Draw a line GA equal in length to one of the sides.
2.Bisect GA.
3.From A construct an angle of 45 ° to intersect the
bisector at point 4.
4.From G construct an angle of 60 ° to intersect the
bisector at point 6.
5.Bisect between points 4 and 6 to give point 5.
6.Point 4 is the centre of a circle containing a square.
Point 5 is the centre of a circle containing a pentagon.
By marking off points at similar distances the centres
of circles containing any regular polygon can be
obtained
7.Mark off point 7 so that 6 to 7=5 to 6 (=4 to 5).
8.With centre at point 7 draw a circle, radius 7 to A
(=7 to G). Step off the sides of the figure from A to B,
B to C, etc. ABCDEFG is the required heptagon.

56
To construct a regular polygon given a diameter.

1. Draw a line MN.

2. From some point A on the line draw a
semi-circle of any convenient radius.
3. Divide the semi-circle into the same
number of equal sectors as the polygon has
sides (in this case nine, i.e., 20° intervals).
4. From A draw radial lines through
points 1 to 8.
5. If the polygon has an even number of
sides, there is only one diameter passing
through A. In this case, bisect the known diameter to give centre O. If, as in this case,
there are two diameters passing through A (there can never be more than two), then bisect
both diameters to intersect in O.
6. With centre O and radius OA, draw a circle to intersect the radial lines in C, D, E, F, G
and H.
7. From A mark off AB and AJ equal to CD, DE, etc.
ABCDEFGHJ is the required polygon.

The circle
A circle is a plane figure whose boundaries (the circumference) consists of points equidistant from
a fixed point (the centre).

Parts of a circle
Diameter: A line segment that passes through the center and touches the boundary of the circle at
both sides.
Radius: This is the distance between the center and circumference of the circle. It is half the length
of the diameter.
Circumference: Ahis is the distance around the circle. The perimeter of the circle.
Origin or center: A point in the middle of the circle that has equidistant from all points on the
circle.
Tangent: A line segment that touches the circle at a common point.
Tangency point: The point where the tangent touches the circle.

57
Chord: A line segment whose endpoints lies on the circle. It divides the circle into two parts.
Arc: A part of the circumference of the circles. There is a minor arc and a major arc.
Segment: The region enclosed between arc and chord. There is minor segment and major segment.
Sector: The region enclosed between two radii of equal length.
Secant; A line segment that intersects the circle at two points

Types of circles

Tangent circle: it is a circle that intersects more than two circles at a common point.

Concentric circles are two or more circles that have the same center but different radii.

58
Congruent circles are circles which have the same radii but different centers.

1. Construct the triangle and Bisect any two

of the interior angles to intersect in O. (If the third
angle is bisected it should also pass-through O.)
2. O is the centre of the inscribed circle.
This centre is called the ‘incentre.

Inscribed circles are circles that are contained in any regular polygon i.e., triangles, quadrilaterals,
polygon etc. they touch all the sides of the regular polygon.

1.construct the triangle.

2.Perpendicularly bisect any two sides to intersect in O. (If the third
side is bisected it should also pass-through O.)
3. O is the centre of the circumscribed circle. This centre is called
the ‘circumcentre’.

Circumscribed circles are circles that passes through all the vertices of any regular polygon. They
are outside the polygons and they touch their vertices.

Tangency
A tangent to a circle is a straight line that touches the circle at one point.
Constructions

59
To draw a tangent to a circle from any point on the circumference

1.Draw the radius of the circle.

2.At any point on the circumference of a circle, the tangent and
the radius are perpendicular to each other. Thus, the tangent is
found by constructing an angle of 90° from the point where the
radius crosses the circumference.

To construct a tangent from a point P to a circle, centre O.

1. Join OP.
2. Erect a semi-circle on OP to cut the
circle in A.
PA produced is the required tangent (OA is the
radius and is perpendicular to PA since it is the
angle in a semi-circle).

To construct a common tangent to two equal circles.

1. construct two circles and Join the
centres of the two circles.
2. From each centre, construct lines at
90° to the centre line. The intersection of
these perpendiculars with the circles
gives the points of tangency.
This tangent is often described as the
common exterior tangent.

60
To construct the common interior (or transverse or cross) tangent to two equal circles,
centres O and O1.
1. Join the centres OO1.
2. Bisect OO1 in A.
3. Bisect OA in B and draw a semi-
circle, radius BA to cut the circle in C.
4. With centre A and radius AC, draw an
arc to cut the second circle in D.
CO is the required tangent.

To construct the common tangent between two unequal circles, centres O and O1 and radii
R and r, respectively.
1. Join the centres OO1
2. Bisect OO1 in A and draw a semi-circle,
radius AO.
3. Draw a circle, centre O, radius R-r, to cut
the semi-circle in B.
4. Join OB and produce to cut the larger
circle in C.
5. Draw O1D parallel to OC.
CD is the required tangent.

Blending of lines and curves

Blending is the inclusion of curves within the outline of a component. Blending is done for several
reasons some of them include:
• to eliminate sharp edges, thereby making it safer to handle;
• to eliminate a stress centre, thereby making it stronger.
• to avoid extra machining, thereby making it cheaper
• to improve its appearance.
Designers and draughts men uses circles and curves to smooth out and soften an outline.

61
To find the centre of an arc, radius r, which blends with two straight lines meeting at right
angles.

With centre A, radius r, draw arcs to cut the lines of the

angle in B and C.
With centres B and C, radius r, draw two arcs to intersect in
O.
O is the required centre.
This construction applies only if the angle is a right angle.

If the lines meet at any angle other than 90°, use the following construction,

Construct lines, parallel with the

lines of the angle and distance r
away, to intersect in O.
O is the required centre.

To find the centre of an arc, radius R, which blends with a line and a circle, centre B,
radius r.
Construct a line, parallel with the
given line, distance R away. The
centre must lie somewhere along
this line.
With centre B, radius R+r, draw an
arc to intersect the parallel line in O.
O is the required centre.

62
To find the centre of an arc, radius R, which blends with two circles, centres A and B, radii
r1 and r2, respectively.
There are two possible centres, shown in the left figure and the right figure.

If an arc, radius R, is to blend with a circle, radius r, the centre of the arc must be distance R from
the circumference and hence R+r (left fig) or R-r (right fig) from the centre of the circle.
With centre A, radius R+r1, draw an arc.
With centre B, radius R+r2, draw an arc to intersect the first arc in O.
O is the required centre.
The other construction is
With centre A, radius R – r1, draw an arc.
With centre B, radius R – r2, draw an arc to intersect the first arc in O.
O is the required centre.

The Ellipse
An ellipse is the locus of a point that moves so that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) bears a constant ratio, always less than 1, to its perpendicular distance from a straight line
(called the directrix). An ellipse is a geometric shape that results from viewing a circular shape in
perspective or from a different vantage point.
An ellipse has two foci and two directrices

63
Parts of an ellipse

Major axis: it is a line which passes through the foci and terminated by the ellipse.
Minor axis: it is a line that passes through the geometric centre of the ellipse and perpendicular to
the major axis.
Methods of construction of ellipse
Focal point method (eccentricity method), concentric circles method, rectangular method and
trammel method
Construction
To construct an ellipse by concentric circles.
Stage 1. Draw two concentric circles, radii
1 1
equal to 2 major and 2 minor axes.

Stage 2. Divide the circle into a number of

sectors. If the ellipse is not too large, 12 will
be necessary as shown in Fig.
Stage 3. Where the sector lines cross the
smaller circle, draw horizontal lines towards
the larger circle. Where the sector lines cross
the larger circle, draw vertical lines to meet
the horizontal lines.
Stage 4. Draw a neat curve through the
intersections.

64
To construct an ellipse in a rectangle.
Stage 1. Draw a rectangle, length
and breadth equal to the major
and minor axes.
Stage 2. Divide the two shorter
sides of the rectangle into the
same even number of equal parts.
Divide the major axis into the
same number of equal parts.
Stage 3. From the points where
the minor axis crosses the edge of
the rectangle, draw intersecting
lines as shown in the Fig.
Stage 4. Draw a neat curve through the intersections.

To construct an ellipse with a trammel.

A trammel is a piece of stiff paper or

card with a straight edge.
mark the trammel with a pencil so that
half the major and minor axes are marked
from the same point P.
Keep B on the minor axis, A on the major
axis and slide the trammel, marking at
frequent intervals the position of P.
The Figure shows the trammel in
position for plotting the top half of the
ellipse; to plot the bottom half, A stays on the major axis and B goes above the major axis, still on
the minor axis.

65
Loci (also called Roulettes)
A locus (plural loci) is the path traced out by a point that moves under given definite conditions.
One of the most common loci is that of a point that moves so that its distance from another fixed
point remains constant: this produces a circle.
Another locus that you know is that of a point that moves so that its distance from a line remains
constant: this produces parallel lines.
One important practical application is finding the path traced out by points on mechanisms.
A locus is formed by continuous movement and you have to ‘stop’ the movement several times
and find and plot the position of the point that you are interested in.
For instance, the case of the man who was too lazy to put wedges under his ladder. The inevitable
happened and the ladder slipped. The path that the feet of the man took is shown in Figure below.
The top of the ladder slips
from T to T9.
The motion of the top of the
ladder has been stopped at
T1, T2, T3, etc., and, since the
length of the ladder remains
constant, the corresponding
positions of the bottom of the
ladder, B1, B2, B3, etc., can
be found.
The positions of the ladder,
T1B1, T2B2, T3B3, etc., are
drawn and the position of the
man’ s feet, 1, 2, 3, etc., are
marked.
The points are joined
together with a smooth
curve. It is interesting to note that the man hits the ground at right angles (assuming that he remains
on the ladder).

66
 A traced path of a piston/crank mechanism
The piston travels in a straight line; the crank
rotates.
The connecting rod, which links these two,
follows a path that is somewhere in between
these two, the exact shape being dependent on
the point of the rod being considered. The
Figure shows the locus of a point half way up
(or down) the rod.
The movement of the crank is continuous,
the movement of the piston is also continuous
between the top and bottom of its travel.
This movement, must be ‘stopped’ several
times and the positions of the centre of the
connecting rod found.
Plot the position of the crank in 12 equally
spaced positions.
This is achieved with a 60° set square.
The piston must always lie on the centre line and, of course, the connecting rod cannot change its
length.
It is therefore a simple matter to plot the position of the connecting rod for the 12 positions of the
crank. This is best done with compasses or dividers.
The mid-point of the connecting rod can then be marked with dividers and the points joined
together with a smooth curve.
To plot the locus of a point P that moves so that its distance from a point S and a line XY is
always the same.

67
To plot the locus of a point P that moves so that its distance from two fixed points R and S,
50 mm apart, is always in the ratio 2:1, respectively.

68
The first point to plot is the one that lies between R and S.
Since it is twice as far away from R as it is from S, this is done by proportional division of the line
RS.
If we now let P be 40mm from R it must be 20 mm from S. Thus, the second position of P is at
the intersection of an arc, centre R, radius 40mm and another arc, centre S and radius 20mm.
The third position of P is the intersection of arcs, radii 50 and 25mm, centres R and S, respectively.
This is continued for as long as necessary. In this case, at a point 100mm from R and 50mm from
S, the locus meets itself to form a circle.
The Cycloid
The cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle as the circle rolls, without
slipping, along a straight line.
The approach to plotting a cycloid, as with all problems with loci, is to break down the total
movement into a convenient number of parts and consider the conditions at each particular part.

69
 The total distance that the
circle will travel in 1
revolution is πD, the
circumference, and this
distance is also divided into
12 equal parts.
When the circle rolls along
the line, the locus of the
centre will be a line parallel
to the base line and the
exact position of the centre
will, in turn, be directly
above each of the divisions marked off.
1
If a point P, on the circumference, is now considered, then after the circle has rotated of a
2
revolution point P is somewhere along the line P1P11.
The distance from P to the centre of the circle is still the radius and thus, if the intersection of the
line P1P11 and the radius of the circle, marked off from the new position of the centre O1, is plotted,
1
then this must be the position of the point P after 2 of a revolution.
1
After 6 of a revolution the position of P is the intersection of the line P2 P10 and the radius, marked
off from O2. This is repeated for the 12 divisions.
The epi-cycloid and the hypo-cycloid

70
The epi-cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle when it rolls, without
slipping, along the outside of a circular arc.
A hypo-cycloid is the locus of a point on the circumference of a circle when the circle rolls, without
slipping, along the inside of a circular arc.
The constructions for plotting these curves are very similar to those used for plotting the cycloid.
The circumference of the rolling circle must be plotted along the arc of the base circle.
The remaining construction is similar to that used for the cycloid.
The Trochoid
A trochoid is the locus of a point, not on the circumference of a circle but attached to it, when the
circle rolls, without slipping, along a straight line.
Again, the technique is similar to that used for plotting the cycloid, the main difference in this case
is that the positions of the line P1P11, P2P10, etc., are dependent upon the distance of P to the centre
O of the rolling circle – not on the radius of the rolling circle as before.
This distance PO is also the radius to set on your compasses when plotting the intersections of that
radius and the lines P1P11, P2P10, etc.
If P is outside the circumference of the rolling circle the curve produced is called a ‘superior
trochoid’.

71
If P is inside the circumference of the rolling circle the curve produced is called an ‘inferior
trochoid’.

The Involute
Involute is a locus of a point traced out by a point on a tout inextensible string which is being
wound around a circle or a polygon.

72
Alternatively, the involute is the locus of a point on a straight line when the straight-line rolls round
the circumference of a circle without slipping.
A quick, but slightly inaccurate, method of plotting an involute is to divide the base circle into 12
1
parts and draw tangents from the 12 circumferential divisions Measure 12 of the circumference
with dividers.
1
When the line has rolled 12 of the circumferences, this distance is stepped out from the tangential
1
point. When the line has unrolled 6 of the circumference, the dividers are stepped out twice.
1
When has unrolled the dividers are stepped out three times, etc. When all 12 points have been
4
plotted, they are joined together with a neat freehand curve or French curve.

Fig: involute of a circle.

73
 Draw the given square ABCD of side
a.
Taking A as the starting point, with
centre B and radius BA=a, draw an
arc to intersect the line CB produced
at P1.
With Centre C and radius CP1 =2a,
draw on arc to intersect the line DC
produced at P2.
Similarly, locate the points P3 and P4.
The curve through A, P1, P2, P3 and
P4 is the required involute. AP4 is
equal to the perimeter of the square.
Fig: involute of a square

Involute of a triangle
which is produced by
the same procedure of
the involute of a circle
and a square.

Fig: Involute of a triangle.

74
Fig: Involute of a pentagon

Computer Aided Drawings (CAD)

In computer aided drawing, drawings are prepared with the help of a computer. CAD is defined as
the process of producing drawings in which computer software and associated hardware are used.
Compared to traditional drawing, CAD is faster as well as efficient and modifications can be
brought out easily.
In modern industries the traditional drawing is being replaced by computer aided drawing.
In CAD there are programs that enable you to do 2D drawings, 3D drawings, renderings, shadings,
engineering calculations, space planning, structural design, piping layouts, plant design, project
management, etc.
Examples of Computer Aided Drawing (CAD) software
• AutoCAD, PRO/Engineer, IDEAS, UNIGRAPHICS, CATIA, Solid Works, etc.

75
Advantages of CAD
✓ Detail drawings may be created more quickly and making changes is more efficient than
correcting drawings drawn manually.
✓ It allows different views of the same object and 3D pictorial view, which gives better
visualization of drawings.
✓ Designs and symbols can be stored for easy recall and reuse.
✓ Drawings are produced with more accuracy.
✓ Drawings can be more conveniently filed, retrieved and transmitted on disks and tape.
The AutoCAD program window is divided into several parts:
• Application menu
• Quick Access toolbar
• Info Center
• Ribbon
• Drawing tabs
• Drawing area
• UCS icon (User Coordinate System icon)
• Viewport controls
• View Cube
• Navigation bar
• Command window
• Status bar

76
AutoCAD drawing commands.
• Polyline Command: Creates a multisided closed shape
• Line command: creates lines.
• Rectangle Command: creates rectangles.
• Arc Command: creates arcs.
• Circle Command: creates circles.
• Ellipse Command: creates ellipses.
• Hatch command: fills an enclosed area or selected objects with a hatch pattern or fill.
• Layer command: starts or edits a layer.

77
Function Keys
F1- AutoCAD Help Screens
F2 - Toggle Text/Graphics Screen
F3 - OSNAP On/Off
F4 - Toggle Tablet Modes On/Off
F5 - Toggle Isoplanes Modes On/Off
F6 - Toggle Coordinates Modes On/Off
• Coordinates has 2 modes when in a drawing command
• X. Y coordinates
• Polar coordinates (Distance<Angle)
F7 - Toggle Grid Modes On/Off
F8 - Toggle Ortho Modes On/Off
F9 - Toggle Snap Modes On/Off 4
F10 - Toggle Polar Modes On/Off
F 11 - Toggle Object Snap Tracking Modes On/Off

Drawing aids
These are CAD features that assists in to coming up with clear and accurate drawings.
• Snap, Grid, Ortho, Coordinates;

Grid: This feature displays grid lines on the drawing area.

Ortho: This feature creates straight horizontal or vertical lines.
Coordinates: The coordinate system enables us to locate points by specifying distances from a
fixed reference point. i.e., using cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates.

object snaps: Uses geometry to locate specific positions. i.e., centre, perpendicular, midpoint,
endpoint, intersection, near etc.
Snap: Just as object snap.

78
Data entry tools
These are AutoCAD data input devices or tools.
• Some of these data entry tools are keyboard, mouse, scanners, graphics tablets etc.

Methods of Producing Drawings

• Absolute: uses the X; Y format.
• Relative: uses the @X, Y format.
• Rectangular: These uses coordinates and enables you to locate points with the help of
horizontal and vertical coordinates.
• Polar: Defines a point by specifying the distance and the direction from a given point.

Drawing Commands in AutoCAD

Polyline Command: Creates a multisided closed shape
Line command: creates lines.
Rectangle Command: creates rectangles.
Arc Command: creates arcs.
Circle Command: creates circles.
Ellipse Command: creates ellipses.
Layer command: starts or edits a layer.

Modifying commands in AutoCAD

• Arraying: distributes objects copies into various designs of shapes i.e., rectangular array
• Mirroring: creates a mirrored copy of the selected objects.
• Editing:
• Erasing: removes objects from a drawing
• Hatching: Adding Hatch Patterns to Drawings
• Extending:
• Chamfering: bevels the edges of objects.
• Trimming: trims objects to meet the edges of the other objects.
• Filleting: rounds and fillets the edges of objects
• Exploding: creates a compound object into its component objects.

79
 • Colouring:
• Lining:
• Sectioning:
• Scaling: reduces or enlarges selected objects, keeping the proportions of the drawing the
same after scaling
• Offsetting: creates concentric circles, parallel lines and parallel curves.
• Stretching:
• Moving: moves objects a specified distance in a specified direction.
• Copying: copies object a specified distance in a specified direction.
• Rotate: rotates objects around a base point.
• Join: joins similar objects to form a single unbroken object.
Methods of Initiating Commands
Methods of executing commands;
• Pick from pull-down menus.
• Select from Toolbar.
• Type a command-on-Command prompt line.

1) Pull-down Menus
Select pull-down through left mouse button.
Move mouse to command and click left button to select command
Example:
• To draw straight line, • [pd menu] >Design > Line

80
 2) Tool Bar Selection
Use mouse to track over Toolbar image for button detection
Left mouse button click will select command.

3) Command Prompt Line

Located at bottom left of screen
Left click in command prompt area and type in command, Press Enter key to input command
To draw a straight-line type in
• Command: line {enter}

81
 • You just have to type in the word line and press the key Enter (on the keyboard).
• The command is not case sensitive.
Annotation
This involves adding extra information associated with drawings i.e., dimensions
Adding text in CADD
CAD allows you to add fine lettering to your drawings. You can use text to write notes,
specifications and to describe the components of a drawing. Text created with CAD is neat, stylish
and can be easily edited. Typing skills are helpful if you intend to write a lot of text.
Writing text with CAD is as simple as typing it on the keyboard. You can locate it anywhere on
the drawing, write it as big or as small as you like and choose from "- number of available fonts.
The following are the basic factors that control the appearance of text; Text height, Height to width,
ratio and inclination of letters, Special effects, Alignment of text justification and Text fonts.
Dimensioning
CAD's dimensioning functions provide a fast and accurate means for drawing dimensions.
To draw a dimension, all you need to do is to indicate the points that need to be dimensioned. CAD
automatically calculates the dimension value and draws all the necessary annotations.
The annotations that form a dimension are: dimension line, dimension text, dimension terminators
and extension lines
The three types of dimensioning are:
• Linear: creates a linear dimension.
• Aligned: creates an aligned linear dimension.
• Tolerancing:

The Drawing Tools of CAD

The following are the basic drawing tools found in a CAD program:
• Line types • Multiple parallel lines • Flexible curves • Arcs and circles • Ellipses and
elliptical arcs • Text • Dimensions • Hatch patterns • Polygons • Arrows

82
Layers Feature
• Hiding: This feature hides or locks all objects except those of selected objects. The layers
that remain unhidden are called isolated.
• Freezing: This layer feature freezes the layer of selected objects. Objects on frozen layers
are invisible.
• layer attributes/properties: Status, Name, Lock, Color, Line type, Line weight etc.
• Layering conventions:
• Lock: locks a selected layer from being edited or modified.

Organizing objects
• Organizing objects in AutoCAD involves the use of blocks to group objects.
• A block library or a block can be a drawing that stores related block definitions or a folder
that stores related drawing files.

Methods of organizing objects with blocks include:

• Defining: creates an attribute definition for storing data in a block.
• Inserting: inserts a block or a drawing into the current drawing.
• Exploding: This breaks an object or a block into its component objects.

83
 • Using design library:

Equipment and accessories used in CAD

• Computer sets,
• Plotters,
• Printers,
• Flash discs,
• CDs, DVDs, memory cards;

Methods of Producing hard copies

• Plotting: prints a drawing to a plotter, printer or a file.
• Printing: produces hard copies of drawings through a printer.

84
 MODEL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
NOTE: all the measurements are in mm and rounded to 4 decimal places

2019 MALAWI TEVET FOUNDATION CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(Fundamental Paper-Technical Drawing)
Questions and Answers
All answers are in bold
1. A set of mathematical instruments is used for
a. Computer drawing
b. Computer calculations
c. Mathematical drawing
d. Mathematical drawing and measuring
2. The type of line to start with when drawing a diagram is a
a. Thin line
b. Thin dashed
c. Thick continuous
d. Thin continuous
3. Which of the following is the best way of securing a paper on board?
a. Dusting
b. Sticking
c. Masking
d. Cramping
4. The type of equipment that would be used to draw a straight line from top left and top
right of a drawing paper is a
a. T-square
b. Set square
c. French curve
d. Pair of dividers
5. A ____________________is neither a polygon nor a part of a circle.
a. Kite
b. Line
c. Triangle
d. Decagon
10. The value of an acute angle is
a. 73°
b. 90°

85
 c. 101°
d. 180°
11. Rhombus has the following properties
a. Angles and all sides are equal
b. Exterior and interior angles are the same
c. Angles and all sides are different is sides
d. The sides and a pair of opposite angles are the same.
14. What is locus of points from a particular point called
a. Ellipse
b. Square
c. Regular polygon
d. Circle.
15. A three-sided figure has two sides equal, what is this figure called?
a. A triangle
b. A tri-circle
c. A tri-square
d. An isosceles triangle.
24.
a) State any three items that should be included in the title block of a drawing
i) Drawing title ii) Date iii) Symbol of projection
b) With the aid of a diagram, draw free hand sketch of the symbol for First Angle
Orthographic Projections.

25. Name two instruments on each that you would use to measure
a). An angle
i) protractor ii) a pair of compasses
b). length
i) Rule ii) Tape measure
26. Name two types of triangles and give two properties on each triangle.
i) Scalene triangle: it has three unequal sides; it has three unequal angles.
ii) Isosceles triangle: it has two equal sides; it has two equal angles.

86
 28. Define an equilateral triangle
An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides equal, and hence all the angles are
equal.
29. Construct a 30° angle without using a protractor and a set square.

2020 MALAWI TEVET FOUNDATION CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(Fundamental Paper-Technical Drawing)
Questions and Answers
All answers are in bold
1. Which of the following is a drawing equipment?
a. Arc
b. Vertex
c. Projection
d. French curve
2. ____________________is a type of an orthographic projection
a. 1st angle
b. 2nd angle
c. 3rd angle
d. 4th angle

87
3. How can you describe a complete diagram?
a. Scaled
b. Framed
c. Outlined
d. Sketched
4. Identify a type of drawing that deals with circles and any type of angles
a. Angular
b. Circular
c. Spherical
d. Geometric
9. What material is used to create eraser used in drawing?
a. Plastic
b. Rubber
c. Saw dust
d. Flexible material
10. What name is given to a line used to divide an angle or line into equal halves?
a. Bisector
b. Sector line
c. Dotted line
d. Cutting line
14 .__________________is a semi-circular shape drawing equipment used to measure angles.
a. Ruler
b. Set square
c. Compass
d. Protractor
15. Which of the following is a plane figure which has 5 equal sides and an angle?
a. Square
b. Octagon
c. Hexagon
d. Pentagon
21. Outline six ways of inserting icons on a diagram when using drawing software.
i)copy ii) paste iii) drag iv) drop v) double click vi) click
22. Explain three factors that you need to consider when arranging icons using a drawing
software.
i) Device positioning: when arranging icons make sure they will still be clearly
visible despite a device’s position.
ii) Size of icons: make the icons big enough or medium enough.
iii) Clarity: make sure the icons are clear when arranged.
23. List six icons commonly used in ICT diagrams.
i) Connectors ii) computers iii) modem iv) printer v) lines vi) server
i. Identify three aspects to consider when interpreting a diagram.
i) Lines ii) Key iii) Icons

88
 ii. List any three examples of proprietary type of drawing software.
i) Microsoft Visio ii) Edraw iii) Cacoo

2019 MALAWI TEVET FOUNDATION CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ELECTRONICS
(FUNDAMENTAL PAPER-Technical Drawing)

Questions and Answers

All answers are in bold
1. The title block contains
a. Scale and date
b. Scale and views
c. Finish and views
d. Triangles and lines
2. A regular octagon has angles of
a. 90°
b. 135°
c. 145°
d. 180°
15.Name any CAD software package
a. Cartesian
b. Arc-CAD
c. Auto-CAD
d. Graphics tablet
16. Nonagon and decagon are examples of
a. Polygons
b. Trammels
c. Hexagons
d. Tangential
17. The locus of a point which moves so that the addition of its distance from two fixed point
is always the same is called
a. Ellipse
b. Cycloid
c. Parabola
d. Hyperbola.

89
1. What is a chord?
A chord is a line segment whose endpoints lies on the circle and t divides the circle
into two parts.
24. List two types of lettering
i) Upright/vertical ii) Sloping

25. Construct the following angles (USE A3 paper)

i. 60°

ii. 30°

iii. 135°

90
30.Draw
a) An equilateral triangle on a given straight line of 70mm.

b) A circle of any diameter and indicate the following on it

i. Diameter
ii. Circumference
iii. Chord
iv. Tangent
v. Sector

91
2017 MALAWI TEVET FOUNDATION CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS
FABRICATION AND WELDING
(fundamental paper-Drawing)

Questions and Answers

All answers are in bold
14.One of the drawing instruments for communication graphics is
a. Dividers
b. Scribers
c. Trammels
d. Centre punch
15.Figure 1 shows symbol, the symbol means

Fig.1
a. Isometric projection
b. Third angle projection
c. First angle projection

92
 d. Oblique projection
16. The path traced out by a point which moves under a given definite conditions is
a. Locus
b. Velocity
c. Trammel
d. Tangency
17. AUTOCAD is defined as a
a. Commercial computer-aided design and drafting software application
b. Microcomputer internal data
c. Graphics controller mobile
d. Used across wide range of industries
18. Which of the following is the CAD graphical user interface?
a. Memory cards
b. Coordinates
c. Snap
d. Toolbars
19. The data entry tools which are used when practising AUTOCAD programs are
a. Snap, grid, ortho
b. Memory cards, plotter, mouse
c. Keyboard and mouse
d. Keyboard and graphics
20. The scales that do not have many sub-divisions and used for simple scales are
a. Plain scales
b. Diagonal scales
c. Plain and diagonal scales
d. Rectangular scales

21. Construct a pentagon whose base is 50mm

93
22. Figure 2 shows lines used in communication graphic.
Name the drawing lines

i. continuous thin line with zigzag

ii. continuous thin freehand line

iii. chain thin line

iv. continuous thick line

94
 v. continuous thin line

23. With the aid of drawing, construct a triangle whose perimeter is 120mm with ratio sides
of 5:4:6

24. Figure 3 shows a metal block

Fig 3
a) Draw in first angle projection the
i. Front elevation as seen in the direction of arrow X
ii. Plan
iii. Side elevation
b) Show the height and base dimension

95
 2019 MALAWI TEVET FOUNDATION CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS
FABRICATION AND WELDING
(FUNDAMENTAL PAPER-Drawing)

Questions and Answers

All answers are in bold
1. The type of pencil used for drawing during engineering drawing is
a. 4HB
b. 2HB
c. 2HB
d. 3HB
2. An equipment that provides the surface on which graphic communication work is carried
out is
a. T-square

96
 b. Set square
c. French curve
d. Drawing board
3. CHAM in engineering drawing means
a. Chuck
b. Charms
c. Chamfer
d. Challenges
4. The figure 1 below shows the symbol of

a. Oblique projection
b. Pictorial drawing
c. First angle projection
d. Third angle projection
5. The following is a method for constructing an ellipse
a. Square method
b. Blending method
c. Triangular method
d. Concentric circle method
15. (this question had faults)
21. construct an equilateral triangle with sides.
a. 60mm long

97
b. Construct a circumscribed circle

28
a) Give four important information to be included in a title block
i) Title of the drawing. ii) Drawing number. iii) Scale. iv) Symbol
denoting the method of projection
b) Figure 5 shows a pictorial drawing. Draw the following elevations in first angle
projection following the arrows

i. Plan
ii. Front elevation
iii. End elevation

98
29 Name four tools and equipment’s which are used in communication graphics
i) Pencils ii) Rule iii) Pair of compasses iv) Rubber
30 Name and sketch two types of lines which are used in communication graphic

99
 2018 MALAWI TEVET FOUNDATION CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY
(FUNDAMENTAL PAPER-Drawing)

Questions and Answers

All answers are in bold
1. In the list below are examples of drawing instruments, which one is not (a drawing
instrument) among these;
a. Pencil
b. Eraser
c. Pincer
d. T-square
2. When securing a drawing paper on a board we use:
a. Glue
b. Cello tape
c. Masking tape
d. Insulation tape
3. ______________line type is used for finishing a drawing
a. Outline
b. Long break line
c. Construction line
d. Hidden detail line
4. Input devices in AutoCAD are mouse and
a. Printer
b. Monitor
c. Keyboard
d. Scroll button
5. A tool bar where you can toggle a line command is
a. Status bar
b. Standard bar
c. Draw toolbar
d. Modify toolbar
6. When you correctly toggle on line command the command line displays
a. Enter distance
b. Invalid command
c. Specify first point
d. Specify next point
21. figure 1 is an isometric view of a housing joint. Draw the orthographic projection in first
angle projection:
a. Front elevation looking from arrow A

100
 b. Plan from arrow C
c. End elevation, looking from arrow B
show hatching lines to show end grains

1
22. Using a compass and a rule construct an angle of 1014°

101
Note: show constructions lines

24 By the aid of a sketch demonstrate the use of a hidden detail line

25 Mention two functions of a T-square.

i) It is a guide for drawing horizontal straight lines on a paper.
ii) It guides set squares to draw vertical or diagonal lines.

102
2019 MALAWI TEVET FOUNDATION CERTFICATE EXAMINATIONS
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY
(FUNDALMENTAL PAPER-Drawing)

Questions and Answers

All answers are in bold
7. Data entry tool used when producing computer aided drawing is
a. Plotter
b. Keyboard
c. Memory card
d. Central processing unit
8. In drawing the abbreviation “CL” means
a. Centre line
b. Corner line
c. Centre lane
d. Corner lane
9. The method of producing a hard copy on a computer is
a. Fillet
b. Printing
c. Trimming
d. Formatting
19. The main method used to communicate technical information in building industry is by
use of
a. Scales
b. Location
c. Drawings
d. Dimensions

26. Draw a hexagon using a 60° set square whose side is 60mm

103
27. Construct a perpendicular height on a horizontal line AB whose length is 90cm

28. Construct an angle of 30°

104
 29. Define the following parts of a circle
a. Tangent
It is a line segment that touches the circle at a common point.
b. Arc
It is a part of the circumference of the circles. There is a minor arc and a
major arc.
c. Chord
A line segment whose endpoints lies on the circle. It divides the circle into two
parts.
d. Diameter
A line segment that passes through the centre and touches the boundary of
the circle at both sides.
e. Sector
The region enclosed between two radii of equal length.

References
Kenneth Morling Geometric and Engineering Drawing (3rd edition)
K. C. John Engineering graphics
K. Simms Graphic Communication for Technical Design
K. Venkata Reddy Textbook of Engineering Drawing (2nd edition)

105
COMMUNICATION GRAPHICS
For
TECHNICIANS
by
G. Likhutcha

Contacts:
WhatsApp : +265882288206
Calls : +265995625610
Email : likgladson@gmail.com
:gigtilembearts.mw@gmail.com

106