OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

TABLE OF CONTENT
SS1 first term
 Practical introduction to chemistry
 Chemical industry
 Definition of chemistry
 Particulate nature of matter
 Molecular concept
 Dalton’s Atomic theory
 Isotope and isotopy
 Symbols and formulae
 Mole concept
 Empirical and molecular formulae
 Laws of chemical combination

SS1 second term

 Electronic configuration
 Chemical combination
 States of matter
 Kinetic theory
 Gaseous state and gas laws
 Separation techniques
 Acids, Bases and salts
 Indicators and pH
 Hygroscopic, efflorescent and Deliquescent salts

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

SS1 third term

 Water and Solutions
 Hardness of water
 Solubility
 Periodic table

SS 2 first term
 Energy concept
 Exothermic and Endothermic reaction
 Energy profile diagram
 Rate of reaction
 Chemical equilibrium
 Hydrogen compounds
 Oxygen compounds
 Oxidation and Reduction
 Oxidizing and reducing agent

SS 2 second term
 Electrolysis
 Selective discharge of ions
 Electrolytic cell
 Qualitative and quantitative Analysis
 Water treatment
SS 2 third term
 Carbon and inorganic compound
 Organic chemistry
 Metals and its compounds
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

 Atmosphere and Environment factors

 Air
 Pollution

SS 1 FIRST TERM
A field trip to
1. Mummy’s kitchen
2. Mechanics workshop
3. Pharmaceutical store
4. Pure water company in your locality
5. Bakery factory
6. Any other factory, production company or industry you
could access
7. Garri processing plant
8. Food and confectionery outfits
9. Feed mills
10. Sales outlets and malls around the town
Discuss your observations with your friends or colleagues
and let us compare it with what is to be discussed in the
subsequent topics.
Be informed that a good detailed observer will be a good
chemist and invariably a good scientist.

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
 Substances you see all around including the ones you cannot
see are made of substance which are called chemicals. While
some exists alone others combine. Some others are capable
of breaking down to form other ones and some others could
rearrange their known arrangement to form other substance
 Chemical industries are industries that use chemical
substances at one stage or the other to produce other
chemicals. The substance chemical industries used are called
raw materials in chemical terms.
 Raw materials are the starting materials used to produce
desired products.
 Products are the finished material of an industry
The products of some industries are the raw materials of others
 Natural raw materials are raw materials produced or made
available by natural process (es)
Natural raw materials include; air, water, coal, limestone,
petroleum, iron ores, sulphur deposits etc.
 Synthetic raw materials are manmade materials produced as
starting materials for other product. E.g thread for textile
industries. fruits for juice producer, palm kernel oil for soaps,
confectionery, cosmetics, industries etc.
Chemical industries can be divided into heavy chemicals and fine
chemicals

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

 Heavy chemicals are chemicals needed in high demand in

terms of quantity. These includes tetreoxosulphate (VI),
sodium hydroxides, palm kernel oil. And the likes whose input
is high in quantity during production. Purity is not a priority
during its production.
 Fine chemicals are chemicals needed in small quantity during
production process. They are produced in the purest form
attainable. Examples are sodium chloride, dye stuff, analytical
chemicals, additives, colourant, preservatives, etc
Chemical industries can also be divided into the following
according to their products.
 Glass industries have their end product as glass of various
forms and shapes using sand, sodium hydroxides, clay in
intense temperature and catalysts and colourant when
needed
 Ceramics industries use clay as base raw materials, sodium
chloride as fine chemical in the presence of intense heat
 Pharmaceutical industries use both organic, inorganic and
synthetic raw materials and chemicals to produce drugs as
preventives and curative. As purgative or sedatives,
stimulants etc.
 Metallurgical industries work on ores of metals by extraction
processes adding other raw materials where necessary for
specific uses and purposes
 Fertilizer industries use inorganic chemicals such as Nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium in predetermined ratios and
quantities with other additives. The core mandate of these
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

industries is to improve and increase the yield of agricultural

products with the soil as the contact point
 Paints industries use purely inorganic chemical and pigments
to produce their product in different colours with the view to
add colour and glamour to other products.
Other divisions are food and beverages, wood and furniture,
confectionery, automobiles, tyre, road and construction
industries, soaps and detergents, paints
Importance of chemical industries
1. they serve as sources of raw materials for other industries
2. they serve as product acquisition point for end users
3. they serve as source of income
4. they serve as employer of labour
5. they serve as research centre
6. they serve as catalyst for quick environmental development
7. they serve as resource centre for educational purposes

Disadvantages of chemical industries

1. Their wastes are sources of sewage, pollution and
environmental degradation
2. They depopulate and retard the growth of rural areas
3. The quest for white collar job has shot up the
unemployment rate
4. Most are capital intensive

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
DEFINITION Chemistry deals with the study of the composition,
the properties of matter and how these elements combine with
each other to form more useful ones.
PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
 MATTER is anything that has mass and occupies a space
Changes occur within and without the matter as a result of the
conditions they undergo. These changes are classified as physical
and chemical changes
Physical changes are changes which are easily reversible and do
not produce new ones. Example melting of ice. Dissolving ordinary
salt or sugar in water and then boiling off the water completely in
the presence of heat, magnetization of magnetic materials, etc.
Chemical changes are changes in which the change is permanent
in nature. New substances are formed. Example burning of wood,
rusting of iron, boiling of egg, etc.
Differences between physical and chemical changes
S/No Physical change Chemical change
1. It is reversible It is not easily reversible
2. No new substance is New substance is formed
formed
3. Minimal heat is Great amount of heat is
sometimes involved involved
4. Mass remains There is change in mass
constant

CONCEPT OF ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Matter is made up of discrete particles called atoms, ions,

molecules, elements, compounds.
 Atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an element that can
take part in a chemical reaction
 Element: It is a substance which cannot be separated by any
physical means
 Molecule: Is the smallest part of any substance that is
capable of independent existence.
 Ion: are charged atom, molecule, and compound
 Compound: is the combination of two or more elements
chemically joined together
 Mixture is the combination of two or more elements
physically joined together
CONSTITUENT OF THE ATOM
Atoms consist of smaller particle called fundamental particles.
Three of them are of importance PROTON, NEUTRON, ELECTRON.
 Proton is the positive particle in an atom with a mass equal to
that of Hydrogen atom using carbon-12 isotope scale
 Neutron is the electrically neutral part of the atom with a
mass also equal to that of the Hydrogen atom
 Electron is the negative part of an atom with a mass of
1/1840 to that of proton
shell

Nucleus(neutron and electron)

Electron

Fig. 1 Diagram of an atom

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Rutherford 1906 posits that proton and neutron are found in the
nucleus of an atom making the nucleus to be positively charged.
Electron is found on the orbit or shell of the atom surrounding the
nucleus.
Atom is electrically neutral because they contain the same
number of electron and proton.

Table 2 Properties of atomic particles

Particle Mass Charge

Proton 1 unit Positively
charged
Electron 1/1840 unit Negatively
charge
Neutron 1 unit Neutral

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY

 All matter are made up of tiny indivisible particle called
atoms.
 Atom can neither be created nor destroyed.
 Atoms of the same element have thesame properties and the
same mass
 Atoms of different element have different mass and different
properties.
 When atoms combine with each other they do so in simple
whole number ratio.

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electron on the

shell around the nucleus. Niel Bohr 1913 posits that the electrons
in an atom revolve around the nucleus.
Niels Bohr 1913 suggested that electrons revolve round the
nucleus on shells or orbits that contains the proton and the
neutron
 The shells are designated with alphabets from the innermost
as K,L,M,N,O, etc
 The shells are associated with defined energy content with K
shell having the lowest energy content
 The shells can also be represented with energy level (n)
where K,L,M,N,O are designated as n= 1,2,3,4,5
 Using the formula 2n2, where n is the shell number; the
maximum number of electron a shell will contain can be
calculated.
 K- Shell with n is 1 will contain a maximum of two electrons.
i.e. 2x12 =2, when n is 2, M-shell become 2x22 = 8 etc.
ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER AND ISOTOPE
 ATOMIC NUMBER is the number of proton or electron an
atom contain.
 MASS NUMBER is the total number of protons and/plus the
number of neutrons in an atom.
Proton and neutron has 1 unit each and are concentrated at the
centre in the nucleus of the atom, with electron around the shell.
Atomic number is used to arrange the electron on the shell while
the number of proton and neutron determines the weight of the
atom.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

From Dalton’s theory it is possible for atoms to have different

number of neutron, hence different mass number. For neutral
atom the number of proton and the electron is the same.
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same
atomic number but different mass number. This is due to the
number of neutron they contain
 Isotopy is a phenomenon or the ability of an atom of the
same element to have different mass number.
Isotopes have the same chemical properties since they have same
number of electrons but their physical properties are different
because of different number of neutron
Chemical X can be represented as AX where A is the mass number
and z is the atomic number
Z

Example
35Cl 37Cl 12C 13C 16O 17O
and , and ,
18O
17 17 6 6 8 8 8

* Relative atomic mass of element (Ar) : with the existence of

isotopy in elements there arose the need to measure the mass of
element in relative term with the view to obtain the average mass
of respective elements. Relative atomic mass could be obtained
using carbon -12 scales.
* Relative molecular mass (Mr): is the sum of the relative atomic
masses of elements that makes up the molecules of the substance
or compound

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Example ( Ar Cl=35.5, H=1, Na=23, S=32, O=16,C=12, Ca=40,

Mg=24)

Mr for NaCl = Ar Na + Ar Cl
= 23+35.5 = 58.8 g/mol.

Mr for MgSO4 = Mg + S +4O

=24 +32+ (4x16) =120 g/mol.

Mr for Ca(HCO3)2=Ca + 2H + 2C+ 6O

= 40 +(2x1) + (2x12) +( 6x16)
= 40 + 2+ 24 + 96
= 162 g/mol.
Note Mr & Ar have no unit

SYMBOLS, FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

Brezelius in 1814 proposed the modern symbols being used on
the periodic table. This involved the use of the letter or letters of
the name of the respective elements; which could be English
name, Latin, Greek, or as obtained. This also involved using capital
letter for the first letter of the alphabets for the name of the
element or the first letter and any other letter within the letters
of the name of the element

Table 3. Names of the first 30 elements on the periodic table and

their symbols

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Neon Ne
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl
Argon Ar
Potassium K
Calcium Ca
Scandium Sc
Titanium Ti
Vanadium V
Chromium Cr
Manganese Mn
Iron Fe
Cobalt Co
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Nickel Ni
Copper Cu
Zinc Zn

Valences for an element are the combining power of an

element: This is the combining power of an element during a
chemical reaction. In a simple term it is the number of electron an
element is willing to accept or donate during a chemical reaction.
Some elements are capable of exhibiting more than one valency
e.g Iron (Fe), Cu, Sn, Pb etc.

Table 4 Examples of element and their valencies

Element Valency Element Valency Element Valency
H 1 Mg 2 zn 2
Na 1 Ca 2 Pb 2,4
Cl -1 Al 3 Mn 2,4,5,7
O -2 Sn 2,4 Cu 1,2

Table 5 compound names and formulae

Name of compound chemical Name of Chemical

formula compound formula
Sodium chloride NaCl Water H2O
Carbon Iv oxide CO2 Magnesium Mg(OH)2
hydroxide

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Calciumtrioxocarbonate Aluminum Al2(SO4)3

(Iv) CaCO3 sulphate
Zinc (II) 0xide ZnO Tin (Iv) oxide SnO2

Table 6 differences between a mixture and a compound

Mixture Compound
It is either homogenous or It is always homogenous
heterogeneous
Constituents are physically Constituents are chemically
combined together joined together
Constituents can be Constituents have fixed
combined in any ratio ratio for combination
Their properties are the Their properties differ from
sum of the individual that of the constituents
constituents

CALCULATIONS
Calculation of relative atomic mass of isotopic elements from %
abundance
1. Given that C-12 has % abundance of 98.9% and C-13 has 1.1%
calculates its relative atomic mass
2. Chlorine 35 =75%, and chlorine 37=25% calculate its relative
atomic mass
Solutions :
1. relative atomic mass of carbon =
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

(Atomic mass X % abundance of C-12) + (atomic mass X %

abundance of C-13)
12X98.9 + 13X1.1
100 100
= 11.868 + 0.143
= 12.011
2. relative atomic mass of chlorine =
(Atomic mass X % abundance of Cl-35) + (atomic mass X %
abundance of C-37)
35X75 + 37X25
100 100
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5
Calculation involving percentage composition of elements in a
compound
Example : Calculate the molecular mass of each of the following
compounds the percentage composition by mass of each of the
elements in their respective compounds
i. NaOH
ii. H2SO4
iii. Ca(OH)2
iv. Al2(SO4)3
Na =23, O=16, H=1, S=32, Ca=40, Al=23,
Solution
I. Mr of NaOH = Na + O +H
= 23 + 16 + 1
= 40gmol-1
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

ii. Mr of H2SO4 = 2H + S + 4O
= (2x1) + 32 + (4X16)
= 2 + 32 + 64
= 98gmol-1
iii.
Mr of Ca(OH)2 = Ca + 2O + 2H
= 40 + (2x16) + (2x1)
= 40 +32 +2
= 74gmol-1
Calculation of % compositions of elements in a compound
% of Na in NaOH= Na X 100
NaOH 1
= 23 X 100
40 1
* Empirical Formula: shows the simplest whole number ratio of
the atoms present, e.g.
C2H6; C:H ratio is 1:3. and could be written simply as CH3

Calculation the Empirical Formula of a Compound

Find the empirical formula of an oxide of magnesium consisting of
0.32g of oxygen and 0.96g of magnesium. (Mg=24, O=16)
Step 1: find the number of moles of the 2 elements. n(Mg) =
Mole =mass /atomic mass
Mg =0.96g/24
=0.04mol.
O = 0.32g/16
=0.02mol.
Step 2: Divide the moles by the smallest number.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Mg = 0.04/0.02 =2
=0.02/0.02 =1
Therefore, the empirical formula is Mg2O
Calculating the Empirical Formula from Percentage Composition
An oxide of sulphur consists of 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen.
(S=32, O=16)
Note the total composition is usually taking as 100%.
Step 1: find the number of moles of the 2 elements.
S =% composition/atomic mass
= 40/32
= 1.25mol.
O = 60/16
= 3.75mol.
Step 2: Divide the moles by the smallest number
S =1.25/1.25
=1
O =3.75/1.25
=3
Therefore, the empirical formula is SO3
Molecular formula is the formula indicating the actual number of
atoms of element present in a compound.
Being given the molecular mass of a molecule or a compound, the
molecular formula could be calculated using its empirical formula
Example A compound has an empirical formula of CH2 and a
molecular mass of 42gmol.-1 find its molecular formula
Solution
Empirical formula X n = Molecular formula
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Where n = is the multiplying factor

(CH2) n = 42gmol.-1
[12 + (1x2)] x n=42gmol.-1
(12+2) x n =42gmol.-1
14n =42
n =42/14
n=3
Therefore molecular formula is empirical formula multiplied by 3
CH2 x3 = C3H6

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS states that matter can
neither be created nor destroyed in the course of a chemical
reaction.
 LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSTION states that all pure
samples of the same chemical compounds no matter their
method of preparation will contain the same elements and
will combine in the same proportion by mass.
 LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION states that when two
elements A and B combined together to form more than one
compound then the several masses of A which combined with
a fixed mass of B are in simple ratio.

SS 1 SECOND TERM
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND CHEMICAL COMBINATION

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

The chemical behaviors of elements, atoms, compounds etc. are

determined by the electronic configuration which is the
arrangement of the particles on the shell of an atom.

Table of the Electronic configuration of the first 30 elements

ELEMENTS SYMBOLS ATOMIC Electron
NUMBER distribution
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2,1
Beryllium Be 4 2,2
Boron B 5 2,3
Carbon C 6 2,4
Nitrogen N 7 2,5
Oxygen O 8 2,6
Fluorine F 9 2,7
Neon Ne 10 2,8
Sodium Na 11 2,8,1
Magnesium Mg 12 2,8,2
Aluminum Al 13 2,8,3
Silicon Si 14 2,8,4
Phosphorus P 15 2,8,5
Sulphur S 16 2,8,6
Chlorine Cl 17 2,8,7
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8
Potassium K 19 2,8,8,1
Calcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2
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CHEMICAL COMBINATION during a chemical reaction valence

electrons are exchanged.
 Electrovalent bond (Ionic Bond) is the transfer of electron
during a chemical reaction.
An element donates while another one accepts for the bonding to
take place
Metallic ion donates electron while acidic radical accepts the
electron. This is done with the view to obey the octet or duplet
configuration of their outermost shell and is thus held together by
a strong electrostatic force of attraction. i.e
Sodium atom loses electron to become positively charged sodium
ion
Na0 Na+ + e-
On the other hand chlorine atom gains the lost electron to
become negatively charged ion.
Clo + e- Cl-
The complete reaction is written as
Na+ + Cl- Na+ Cl-
In electronic and atomic term
Before After
combination combination
Name of atom Sodium Sodium
chlorine chlorine
atom Ion (+)
atom ion (-)

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Proton 11 11
Electron 17 17
11 10
17 18
Electronic 2,8,1 2,8
configuration 2,8,7 2,8,8
 COVALENT BOND involves sharing of the bonding electrons
donated by the atoms involved in the chemical bonding
process. This occurs when elements of relative electro
negativity pair together
Molecules are formed.
There is no electrostatic force between the combining atoms,

table 8 Differences between electrovalent and covalent

compound
PROPERTY Electrovalent Covalent
compound compound
Melting point High ;more than Low; less than
2500C 2500C
Boiling point High ; more than Low less than
5000C 5000C
Electrical Good conductor Usually non
conductivity in molten or conductor
aqueous form
Solubility in water Usually soluble Usually insoluble
Solubility in Usually insoluble Usually soluble
organic solvent
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

 COORDINATE COVALENT BOND (DATIVE BOND) this type of

bond involved the sharing of a pair of electron called “LONE
PAIR ELECTRON” donated by only one of the reacting atoms
 METALLIC BOND this is a strong force of attraction created by
formation of electron cloud as a result of the valence electron
in the positive nuclei of metals
 Van der waal force of attraction is a weak intermolecular
force of attraction that exists between gaseous molecules
Vander waal force could be polar when the atoms forming the
molecule do not have the same electro negativity and the bonding
electrons are not equally shared. The bond becomes polar
(dipole). Example HCl
Van der waal force could also be non polar when the atoms of the
molecule have the same electronegativity value. The electrons are
equally shared between the bonding atoms. The molecules
formed are called non polar molecules. E.g Cl2, H2,O2
 HYDROGEN BOND these are strong intermolecular force of
attraction that occur between hydrogen and the high
electronegative element in the molecules. This force is in
addition to the Vander waal force in the molecules
Hydrogen Bond impart the following characteristics to their
molecules
High melting and boiling point
High surface tension
Excellent solvent
High latent heat of vapourization
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

STATES OF MATTER
Matter exists in three form as solids, liquids and gases.
SOLIDS
*Have fixed volume
* fixed shape
*they are incompressible
*they do not flow
LIQUIDS
*Have fixed volume
*no fixed shape
* takes the shape of container
* Incompressible
* flow easily
GASES
*have no fixed volume
*no fixed shape,
* Compressible
* flow in all direction

The Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter

 All particles move randomly and continuously in a straight
line
 The particles are of negligible in size and volume
 The intermolecular force of attraction between the gaseous
molecules are negligible

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

 Collisions between particles are elastic. i.e energy is

conserved
 The average kinetic energy of all particles is directly
proportional to absolute temperature

APPLICATION OF KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

DIFFUSION is the spreading and mixing of particles in gases and
liquids.
Diffusion of gases Bromine drops are placed into a jar. Another jar
full of air is placed on top of jar with bromine, separated with
cover. Cover is removed and bromine evaporates, filling both jars
with dense reddish-brown bromine vapour.
Explanation: Bromine particles move from lower jar into spaces
between air particles in upper jar. At the same time, air particles
move down from upper jar to mix with bromineparticles in lower
jar. Eventually, bromine and air particles are mixed completely.
Diffusion of liquids
CuSO4 crystals placed in beaker of water, blue particles of the
crystals are spread throughout the water to form uniformly blue
solution.
Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion
 Temperature The higher the temperature, the more particles
of matter absorb energy making them move faster, the
higher the rate of diffusion; the lower the temperature, the
slower the rate of diffusion
 Mass of particles Greater mass, the slower it diffuses;
Smaller mass, the faster it diffuses A cotton soaked in
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

aqueous ammonia and another soaked in hydrochloric acid

are placed on opposite sides of the tube. NH3 vapor and HCl
vapour diffuse in the tube and a compound is produced inside
the tube closer to HCl soaked cotton as the particles are
heavier. The greater the mass, the slower particles diffuse.
The smaller the mass, the faster particles diffuse.
 SOLID particles are packed close together in orderly arranged
manner such that space between them are negligible. They
can vibrate but cannot move freely about their fixed position
Particles in liquid are packed closely but not orderly arranged.
They have little empty spaces between them than in solid
particles. They are not held fixed but free to move throughout
liquid particles
Particles in gas are far apart and in random arrangement. They
are free to move anywhere in the container
1. Melting is change from solid to liquid by absorbing heat to
break force of attraction holding particles together. The
temperature at which solid melts to liquid is melting point
2. Freezing is the change of liquid to solid by cooling down of
liquid. Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid
freezes.
3. Boiling is the change of liquid to gas by absorbing heat to
break the forces holding them together. It is the
temperature at which liquid boils.
4. Evaporation is change of liquid to gas without boiling, this
occurs below boiling point on water surface. It gives cooling
effect. Heat energy is absorbed from surroundings.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

5. Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is

given out as gas particles slow down and move closer to
one another to form liquid.
6. Sublimation is the change of solid to gas without melting.
Heat is absorbed.

GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS

Gas laws deals with the relationship between the Temperature
(T), Pressure (P) and Volume (V) of gases.
Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure at constant temperature.
That is when temperature is not changing, the volume of a given
gas increases as the pressure decrease and vice versa
1
V∝ i.e P x V = K
𝑃
Where V = volume, P = pressure and K = mathematical
constant

Graphical representation of the Boyle’s law

Fig. 9 Pressure

Volume

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

fig.10 Pressure

1/volume

Charles’ Law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is

directly proportional to its absolute temperature at constant
pressure
V∝T i.e V / T = constant

Fig.11 volume

-273 0 Temperature 0C

Fig. 12
Volume

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Temperature (Kelvin)

General Gas Law has no definition statement rather it deals with

change in pressure and volume of a gas at a constant temperature
from initial to final. And the change in volume and temperature at
constant pressure from initial to final. It is the combination of
Boyles and Charles law
P1 to P2 initial pressure to final pressure
V1 to V2 initial volume to final volume
T1 to T2 initial temperature to final temperature
Thus at constant temperature
P1V1 = P2Vx
Vx = P1V1 / P2 …………..eqn 1 from Boyle’s law
At constant pressure
V x / T1 = V 2 / T 2
Vx = V2T1 / T2 …………………..eqn. 2 from Charle’s law
If Px in eqn 1 = Px in eqn 2 then
P1V1/P2 = V2T1 / T2
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure
exerted by a mixture of gases at constant temperature is equal to
the sum of the pressures each gas in the mixture will exert if
alone.
PT = p1 + P2 + P3 + ………………+ Pn
31
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

PT = total pressure, P1 to Pn = partial pressures

Grahams Law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion of gases
at constant temperature and pressure is inversely proportional to
the square root of their densities.
R1 / R2 = √𝓆 2 √𝓆 1
Where R1 and R2 are initial and final rate,
and 𝓆1 and 𝓆2 are initial and final density respectively
R1/R2 = √M2/√M1
M1 and M2 are initial and final mass or relative molecular mass
Remember, density is mass per volume (v)
𝓆 = m/v
R1/R2 = √V1 / √V2
Gay lussac’s Law of combining volume
Gay lussac’s Law states that when gases react they do so in
volumes which bear simple whole number ratio to one another
and to the volumes of the products if gaseous, temperature and
pressure being constant.
Avogadro’s Law states that equal volume of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules
irrespective of their physical and chemical properties.
Avogadro’s constant (No) = 6.02 x 1023 that represent the number
of particles of any gas in 22.4dm3 at a standard temperature of
273K and pressure of 760mmHg.
Avogadro’s constant allows for calculations of pure substances in
moles involving stoichiometric principles. With this the molecular

32
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

masses of gases can be calculated by comparing the masses of

equal volume of gases
Calculations based on gas laws
Molar Volume of Gas is the volume occupied by one mole of gas.
All gases at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p) has a volume
of 22.4dm3 or 22400cm3 were 1dm3= 1000cm3
Formula: Volume of a gas = Number of moles (n) x Molar volume
(Mv)
e.g. What is the number of moles of 240cm3 of Cl2 at r.t.p?
n = volume /Mv
= 240 / 22400
= 0.0107 mol.
Molar Volume and Molar Mass
e.g. Find the volume of 7g of N2 gas at r.t.p. (N = 14)
Step 1: Find the number of moles from the mass of nitrogen
n= mass/molar mass
= 7/28
= 0.25 mol
Step 2: Find the volume of nitrogen, now with formula of gas 0.25
mol =
Volume of gas = 0.25 mol x 22.4 = 5.6 dm3
(or 5600cm3)
Concentration of solutions tells the number of solute in a given
volume of solution. Concentration (C)
Calculating the Amount of Solute
Moles of solute (n) = Concentration (C) x Volume of solution in
(dm3)
33
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

E.g. what is the mass of solute in 600cm3 of 1.5 Molar

NaOH solution?
Volume of solution in dm3 = 0.60 dm3
n = 1.5 x 0.60= 0.9 mol
Mass = 0.9 x 40= 36g
STANDARD SEPERATION TECHNIQUES FOR MIXTURES
Methods of Purification and Analysis
* Pure substance contain single substance and is not mixed with
anything else
e.g white sugar, copper sulfate crystals, distilled water
* Mixture contains two or more constituents which can easily be
separated by physical method.
E.g: seawater (salt, water & dissolved solids), milk (fats &
dissolved solids)
How to Obtain Pure Substance
Purification is separation process of mixtures into pure
substances by using physical methods without chemical reactions.
Filtration is the process of separating insoluble solid from a
liquid.-
Mixture is poured through a filter with tiny holes made of paper.-
Large solid particles cannot pass through the pores and trapped in
it as residue while tiny liquid particles pass through as filtrate.
Crystallization is the separation of dissolved solid from a solution
in form of crystals
Evaporation to Dryness is the separation of dissolved solid from a
solution as crystals of salt by evaporating all the liquid off.

34
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Sublimation is the separation of a mixture of solids in which one

of it sublimes (by heating the solid mixture to turn one of the
substances into vapour without going through liquid state). When
mixture of iodine and sand is heated, iodine sublimes (turns into
vapour directly) then cools and crystallize when it reaches cold
surface
Examples of sublimable solids:
Solid CO2
Dry solid FeCl3
Dry solid AlCl3
Simple Distillation is the separation of pure liquids of wide range
of boiling point from a solution by condensing vapourised liquid.
Condensed pure liquid is called distillate.
Process of Distillation: Solution is heated, and steam (pure
vapour) is produced. The steam is cooled in condenser to form
pure liquid. Solute remains in the flask
Fractional Distillation separates mixture of miscible (soluble)
liquids with closed range of boiling points. Use of Fractionating
column Process of Fractional Distillation: E.g. ethanol and water
Mixture of ethanol and water is placed in flask and heated.
Ethanol with lower boiling point boils and vaporizes first and
reach fractionating column then cools and condenses into ethanol
as it passes through condenser. Temperature will stay constant
until all ethanol is distilled. Water will distil the same way after all
ethanol is distilled.
* Separating Funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids. Two
liquids insoluble in each other will create two layers of overlying
35
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

liquids of each type. To separate, take the stopper off and turn
the tap on to run the denser liquid at the bottom off the funnel
and leave the less dense liquid in the funnel by turning the tap off
and reset the stopper at its original position.
* Chromatography a method of separating and identifying
mixtures. Chromatography is
used to Separate and identify mixtures of coloured substances in
dyes into its components.
e.g Separating substances in urine, drugs & blood for medicinal
uses.
To find out whether athletes have been using banned drugs
Separating Mixtures of Coloured Substances
Obtain a dye sample then put a drop of the sample on a pencil
line drawn on the filter paper then dip the paper into a solvent
with the level below the spot. The dye will dissolve in solvent and
travel up the paper at different speed. Hence they are separated.
Identifying Mixtures of Coloured Substances
Characteristics of Pure and impure Substances
2. Pure substances have FIXED MELTING AND BOILING POINTS.
Pure water boils at 100oC and melts at 0oC.
3. Impure substances have NO FIXED MELTING AND BOILING
POINTS.
Impure substance melts and boils at a RANGE OF
TEMPERATURES. e.g. starts boil at 70oC, completes boil at 78oC

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

36
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Acids : Arrhenius defined an acid as a substance which when in

water produces Hydrogen ion (H+)as the only positive ion
Ethanoic acid found in vinegar and tomato juice
Citric acid found in citrus foods like lemons, oranges and
grapefruit
Lactic acid found in sour milk and yoghurt, and in muscle
respiration
Tartaric acid found in grapes
Tannic acid found in tea and ant’s body
Formic acid found in bee stings
Hydrochloric acid found in stomach juices
3 common laboratory acids called Mineral acids includes
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid H2SO4
Trioxonitrate (V) acid HNO3
Dilute acids are solution containing small amount of acid
dissolved in water
Concentrated acids are solution containing large amount of acid
dissolved in water
Physical Properties of Dilute Acids
Acids have a sour taste
Acids are hazardous
acids are irritants (they cause skin to redden and blister)
turn blue litmus paper to red
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AN ACID
Acids react with metals

37
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas. The gas is

tested with a
Burning/glowing splint which shows hydrogen burns with a ‘pop’
sound.
2Na(s) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H2(g)-
Acids react with trioxocarbonate (IV) and
hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV)
Carbon(IV)oxide is to be formed. To test this, the gas produced is
bubbled into limewater which forms a white precipitate.
trioxocarbonate (IV):
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl 2(aq) + CO2(g) +
H2O (l)
hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV):
NaHCO3(s or aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O
(l)
Acids react with bases to form salt and water only
Metal oxides and hydroxides react slowly with warm dilute acid to
form salt+water
Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Uses of Acids
Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Acid - Used in car batteries production
Manufacture of ammonium sulphate for fertilizers-
Manufacture of detergents, paints, dyes, artificial fibres & plastics
Hydrochloric acid can remove rust (iron (III) oxide) which dissolves
in acids
Acids are used in preservation of foods (e.g. ethanoic acid)
38
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Hydrogen Ions
Hydrogen gas is formed by acids as H+(aq) ions present in the acid
solutions.
This means when acids dissolved in water, they produce H+ ions in
it .
Chemical equation: HCl(s) + water HCl(aq)
Ionic Equation: HCl(s) + water H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
*Note that for ionic equation only aqueous solutions are ionized
*However when dissolved in organic solutions, they don’t show
acidic properties
When metals react with acids, only the hydrogen ions react with
metals, .
Chemical equation:
2Na(s) +2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equation:
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)
Basicity of an acid is the maximum number of H+
Ions produced by a molecule of acid in a chemical reaction
Hydrochloric acid
HCl (aq) H+(aq)+Cl-(aq). it is monobasic
Trioxonitrate (V) acid
HNO3 (aq) H+(aq)+NO3-(aq) it is monobasic
Ethanoic acid
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CHCOO-(aq) it is monobasic
Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)it is dibasic
Strong and Weak Acids
39
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Strong Acids are acids that completely ionize in water. This

reaction is irreversible. E.g.
The mineral acids (H2SO4, HNO3, HCl)
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) SO42-(aq)
In the above equation SO42- is completely been ionized in water,
forming in 3 kinds of particles:-
i. H+ ions ii. SO42- ions iii. H2O molecules
Strong acids react more vigorously with metals than weak acids,
hydrogen gas bubbles are produced rapidly.
Weak Acids are acids that partially ionize in water. The remaining
molecules remain unchanged as acids. Their reactions are
reversible. E.g.
CH3COOH, H3PO4
H3PO4 (aq) ⇌ 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
Note Weak acids react slowly with metals than strong acids
hydrogen gas bubbles are produced slowly.
Comparing Strong and Weak Acids with Concentrated and Dilute
Acids
CONCENTRATION STRENGTH OF ACIDS
Is the amount of solute (acids) dissolved in 1 dm3 of a solution. i.e
how much ions can be dissociated in to from acid or alkali. It can
be diluted by adding more water to solution or concentrated by
adding more solute to solution. The strength cannot be change.
Comparing 10 mol/dm3 and 0.1mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acids and
10 mol/dm3 and0.1 mol/dm3 of ethanoic acids.
10 mol/dm3of ethanoic acid solution is a concentrated solution of
weak acid
40
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

0.1 mol/dm3of ethanoic acid solution is a dilute solution of weak

acid- 10 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution is a concentrated
solution of strong acid-0.1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution is
a dilute solution of strong acid.
* Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals
* Alkalis are bases which are soluble in water
Laboratory Alkalis
Potassium Hydroxide, KOH
Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH
Aqueous Ammonia, NH4OH
Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2

All alkalis produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

Hydroxide ions give the properties of alkalis.
They do not behave as bases in the absence of water.
Alkalis are therefore substances that produce hydroxide ions, OH-
(aq) in water.
Physical Properties of Alkalis
Alkalis have a slippery and soap feel
Alkalis are hazardous as well
Dilute alkalis are irritants
Concentrated alkalis are corrosive and burn skin ( caustic (i.e.
burning)alkalis)-
Alkalis turn common indicator red litmus to blue
Chemical properties of Alkalis
Alkalis react with acids. The reaction is called neutralization
reaction
41
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Alkalis react with ammonium compounds

They react with heated solid ammonium compounds to produce
ammonia gas
(NH4)2SO4(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaSO4(aq) + 2NH3g) +
2H2O(l)
* Alkalis are precipitating agent. Alkalis react with salt solution
to precipitate metallic hydroxides
e.g
BaSO4 (aq), contains Ba2+(aq) ions
2NaOH(aq) + CaCl2(aq) Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq)
The solid formed is a precipitate
And the reaction is called precipitation reaction
Strong and Weak Alkalis
Strong Alkalis- are base that completely ionizes in water to form
OH-(aq) ions. Their reactions are irreversible. E.g. NaOH, KOH,
Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

* Weak Alkalis base that partially ionize in water. The remaining

molecules remain unchanged as base. Their reactions are
reversible.
E.g. NH3
NH3 (g) + H2(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Uses of Alkalis
Alkalis neutralize acids in teeth (toothpaste) and stomach
(indigestion)
Soap and detergents contain weak alkalis to dissolve grease
42
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Floor and oven cleaners contain NaOH (strong alkalis)

Ammonia (mild alkalis) is used in liquids to remove dirt and grease
from glass
Indicators and pH
4. Indicators are substances that has different colours in acidic
and alkaline solutions
Common indicators:
Litmus solution from where paper is made
Methyl orange
Phenolphthalein
The pH Scale
5. pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
pH 7 is neutral
Solutions of less than pH 7 are acidic. The solutions contain
hydrogen ions. The smaller the pH, the more acidic the solution is
and more hydrogen ions it contains.
Solutions of more than pH 7 are alkaline. The solution contains
hydroxide ions. The bigger the pH, the more alkaline the solution
and more hydroxide ions it contains.
Measuring pH of a Solution
6. Universal indicators : It can be in paper or solution form.
Universal paper can be dipped into a solution then pH found
is matched with the colour chart. It gives approximate pH
value.
pH meter A hand-held pH probe is dipped into solution and meter
will show the pH digitally or by a scale.

43
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

pH sensor and computer A probe is dipped into solution and will

be sent to computer through interface used to measure pH of
solution. The pH reading is displayed on computer screen.
7. Ionic equation is equation involving ions in aqueous solution,
showing formation and changes of ions during the reaction
Rule to develop ionic equations:
Only formulae of ions that changed in oxidation number is
included; Aqueous solutions are written as ions; liquids, solids and
gases written in full
Reaction between Metals and Acids. For example, reaction of
sodium with hydrochloric acid
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
Its ionic equation is written as:
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)
Since 2 Cl-(aq) ions did not have a change in its oxidation number,
they are not involved in chemical reaction .
As ionic equation is used to show changes in reactions, we omit Cl-
(aq) ions. So we are left with:
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq)→ 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)
Reaction between Soluble Ionic Compounds and Acids
e.g. Reaction of sodium hydrogentrioxocargbonate (IV) with
hydrochloric acid
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
The ionic equation is:
Na+(aq) + H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)+H+(aq)+Cl-(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-
(aq) +CO2(g)+H2O(l)
Since Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions do not change, we omit them, leaving:
44
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

H+(aq) + Co32-(aq) + H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Reaction between Insoluble Ionic Compounds and Acids
e.g. Reaction between iron(II) oxide and Tetraoxosulphate (VI)
acid
FeO(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2O(g)
Its ionic equation is : FeO(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Fe2+(aq)
SO42-(aq)+H2O(g)
Note: FeO is written in full as its solid (although it’s an ionic
compound)
Since SO42-(aq) ions do not change, we omit SO42-ions, leaving:
FeO(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2O(g)
E.g. Reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Its ionic equation is:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + CO2(g)
+H2O(l)
Since 2 Cl-(aq) ions do not change, we omit Cl-ions, leaving:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Reactions Producing Precipitate
E.g. Reaction between calcium hydroxide and barium sulphate
Ca(OH)2(aq) + BaSO4(aq) Ba(OH)2(s) + CaSO4(aq)
Its ionic equation is written as:
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Ba(OH)2(s) +
Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Since Ca2+(aq) and SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them,
leaving:
45
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ba(OH)2(s)

Displacement Reactions
E.g. Reactions between magnesium with zinc sulphate
Mg(s) + ZnSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Zn(s)
Its ionic equation is written as:
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) + SO42 (aq) Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Zn(s)
Since SO42-(aq) ions do not change, we omit them, leaving:
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + Zn(s)

Neutralization: is the reaction between acid and base to form salt

and water only. From ionic equation, we know that the reaction
only involves H+ ions from acids with OH-ions from alkali to form
water .
E.g. NaOH + H2SO4
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(g)
Ionic equation is:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)→H2O(g)
E.g Plants don’t grow well in acidic soil. Quicklime (calcium
hydroxide) is added to
Neutralize the acidity of soil according to equation
Acid (aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca(acid anion)(aq) + H2O(g)

Reaction between Base and Ammonium Salts

E.g. Reaction between NaOH and NH4OH
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) Na(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(g)
Ionic equation:
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(g)
46
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Acidic Oxide, Basic Oxide, Amphoteric Oxide, Neutral Oxide

Acidic Oxides are oxide of non-metals, usually gases which reacts
with water to produce acids,
CO2, NO3, P4O10, SO2
Basic Oxides are oxides of metals, usually solid which reacts with
water to produce alkalis, e.g. CaO, K2O, BaO
Amphoteric Oxides are oxides of transition metals, usually solid,
which reacts with acids/alkalis to form salt and water, e.g. Al2O3,
FeO, PbO
Neutral Oxides are oxides that do not react with either acids or
alkalis, hence do not form salts,
e.g. H2O, CO, NO
Preparation of Salts : Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Soluble Insoluble
All Trioxonitrate (V) are soluble
All Tetraoxosulphate (VI) are soluble except BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4
All Chlorides are soluble except PbCl2 and AgCl
Potassium, Sodium, Ammonium salts are generally soluble -
All Trioxocarbonate (IV) are insoluble except K2CO3, Na2CO3,
NH4CO3 which are soluble
All metallic oxides insoluble except K2O and Na2O
Preparation of Insoluble Salts
Insoluble salts,
e.g. BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4, PbCl2, AgCl
Most trioxocarbonate (IV), can be prepared by reacting compound
containing the wanted cation with another compound containing
47
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

the wanted anion. This is precipitation reaction. E.g. Preparation

of BaSO4.
First BaCl2, since it contains wanted barium ion, is reacted with
K2SO4, since it contains wanted Tetraoxosulphate (VI) ion, to
produce solid BaSO4 & aqueous KCl. BaSO4 then separated from
KCl
by filtration, leaving filtrate of KCl and BaSO4 left on filter paper.
Salt is washed with water to completely remove KCl & filter paper
is squeezed with another filter paper to dry BaSO4.
Preparation of Soluble Salts
By Neutralization.
E.g. Reacting Zn with H2SO4. To prepare ZnSO4
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
Zn is added to H2SO4until in excess to ensure no more H2SO4 is
present. Then the mixture is filtered off to separate Zn from
ZnSO4. The filtrate (ZnSO4) is then placed in evaporating dish to
evaporate most of water then it’s cooled after ZnSO4 crystals are
formed. The crystals then filtered and squeezed between filter
papers to dry.
* By Reacting Insoluble Base with Acid
E.g. Reacting MgO with Acids
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
* By Reacting trioxocarbonate (IV) with Acid
E.g. Reacting K2CO3 with Acids
K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
The same process is used as reaction of acid with metal, just that
carbon (IV) oxide is produced. The gas produced can be tested by
48
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

bubbling it into lime water which will turn colourless limewater

into milky colour.

HYGROSCOPIC, DELIQUESCENT AND EFFLORESCENT SUBSTANCES

1. Hygroscopic substances are capable of absorbing water
from the air and not dissolving in it. Silica gel, conc. H2SO4,
MgCO3, K2CO3, Ca
2. Deliquescent substances are capable of absorbing
moisture from the atmosphere and dissolving in it to form
a solution. E.g anhydrous CaCl2, MgCl2, Cu(NO3)2, NaOH
pellet
3. Efflorescent substances these are capable of losing their
water of crystallization when exposed to the atmosphere.
E.g NaCO3.10.H2O, MgSO4.7H2O, CuSO4.5H2O.

SS 1 THIRD TERM
WATER AND SOLUTIONS
Earth surface is covered with 70% water. Of these about 96% is
sea water, 3% is in the form of ice while the remaining 1% is fresh
water.
The 1% is not really enough for lives on land. Other waters contain
among other things dissolved salts, bacteria, organic matters, as
well as other pollutants. Hence the need to treat the available
water for usage.
Physical Properties of water
Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

The only substance that exists in the three states of matter

Freezes at 0oC
Boils at 100oC at 760mmHg or 1 atmospheric pressure
Maximum density of 4gcm-3 at 4oC
Chemical properties of water
Water is a universal solvent. that is, it is capable of dissolving
more substance than any other solvent.
Pure water has a pH of 7
Water react with active metals (K, Na, Ca) to form metallic
hydroxides and Hydrogen gas
4. Na(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) +H2(g)
Note the state of matter for the water to use depends on the
position of the elements on the electrochemical series
SOFT AND HARD WATER
Water is a universal solvent and is capable of picking impurity
easily.
Water is said to be hard when it contains high concentration of
mineral salts especially of calcium and Magnesium.
Soft water therefore are water that contains little or no dissolved
mineral salts in them.
Hard water does not lather readily with soap
Hardness in water is divided into temporary and permanent
hardness
Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of Ca(HCO3)2 or
Mg(HCO3)2 as dissolved minerals .
Temporary hardness can be removed by mere boiling. Hence it is
called temporary hardness. As in the equation below
50
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

Permanent hardness are caused by the presence of dissolved
calcium and magnesium salts of tetaoxosulphate VI and Chlorides.
It cannot be removed by ordinary boiling
Methods of Removing hardness from Water
Using Ion Exchange Resin : the hard water is allowed to pass
through a chamber containing ionized Na+ compounds where the
ca2+ and Mg2+ in the hard water are replaced by Na+ until all are
exhausted.
Ca2+ + sodium form of 2Na+ + calcium form of
Ion exchange resin Ion exchange resin
The use of sodiumtrioxocarbonate IV (washing soda). This
precipitate the calcium and magnesium as an insoluble
trioxocarbonate IV salts.

CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

MgSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) MgCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Advantages of hard Disadvantages of

water hard water
Does not dissolve lead pipes It for scum with soap
Calcium and magnesium ion Wastes soap in washing
useful for the body
It give water a pleasant taste When heated it form scales in
pots and kettles

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Hydrogen bond exist between water molecule which is an

INTERMOLECULAR force of attraction given water its
(a) viscous nature
(b) surface tension
(c) latent heat of vapourization (the energy needed to turn water
to steam).
Test for water
1. Water will turn the white colour of anhydrous CuSO4 to blue
hydrated CuSO4.5H2O
2. Water will change the colour of blue dry CoCl2 into pink wet
CoCl2.6H20
Solubility
Solution is the homogenous mixture of two or more substances.
Solute is the dissolved substance which may be solid, liquid or
gas.
Solvent is the substance that dissolves the solute.
Saturated solution is the solution which contain as much solute a
solution as it can dissolve at that given temperature in the
presence of undissolved solute particle.
Unsaturated solution are solution which does not contain as
much solute as it ought to contain at a given temperature
Supersaturated solution is a solution which contain as much
solute than it can dissolve at that given temperature
Solubility of a solute in a solvent is defined as the amount of the
solute in grammes which will dissolve in 1000g of the solvent, at a
particular temperature.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Solubility is also defined as the maximum number in moles of the

solute which will dissolve in 1000cm3/ 1dm3 of the solvent at a
given temperature.
Solubility curve is a graph indicating the variation between the
solubility of a solute in a solventat a given temperature.

Solubility curves of some salts

140

120

100
KNO3 KClO3

80 Na2SO4
Na2SO4.H2O
KCl

40
NaCl

20 Ca(OH)2

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 temp.(oC)

Deduction from the solubility curve

1. The solubility of KClO3 and KNO3 increases very rapidly with
increase in temperature.
2. The solubility of Ca(OH)2 and NaCl are independent of
temperature
3. Na2SO4 shows a solubility curve with a sharp breaks at 360C
because the salt exists in solution and Na2SO4.10H2O at
temperature below 36oC but gives up its water of
crystallization to become anhydrous at a temperature above
360C. thus 360C is referred to as the TRANSITION POINT
4. At all temperature between O0C and 1000C Ca(OH)2 has the
lowest solubility value
5. The solubility of KCl increases at a constant rate with the rise
in temperature.
Uses of solubility curve
1. It is used in purification processes
2. It is used in extraction processes
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

3. It is applicable in fractional crystallization process

4. It is used in pharmaceutical for the determination of dosage
for drug

THE PERIODIC TABLE

1. First periodic table made by Dimitri Mendeleev in 1869
containing 69 elements.
2. The Modern Periodic Table contains 115 elements.
3. Mendeleev arranged the elements according to relative
atomic mass while modern periodic table is arranged
according to the number of protons an element contained.
4. Period is the horizontal row of elements on the periodic table
5. Group is the vertical column of elements on the periodic
table numbered from I to VIII or 0
6. Elements between Group II and Group III on the table are the
transition metals
Patterns in the Periodic Table
1. Electronic Structure of Elements in same group has the same
number of valence shell electrons in which the value is the
same as the group number. e.g. Group II has elements with
valence of 2 electrons.
2. Charges on Ions : The charges relate to the group number and
equivalent to number of valence electrons
3. Elements on the left side of the periodic table (groups I, II and
III) lose electron to form cation
4. Elements on the right side of the periodic table (group V, VI,
and VII) gain electron to form anion
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

5. Elements in Group IV can lose or gain electrons depending on

reacting element.
6. Transition metals may form variable cation of 2+, 3+ etc
oxidation number
Bonding
* Elements in the same group form the same bond type and
number of bonds due to the same number of valence electrons.
e.g. Sodium in Group I forms NaCl, so other elements in Group I
do the same.(RbCl, KCl, LiCl, CsCl)
Metals and Non-metals
1. On the left side and on the right side of the group IV elements
on the periodic table lies the metallic and non metallic
elements respectively.
2. Group IV elements are called metalloids and having
properties of metals and non-metals.
Changes within the Group
3. Proton number or the atomic number increase going down
the group- On each sides of periodic table, the change of the
proton number is small & increase gradually while in
transition metals, the gradual change is larger
Using the Periodic Table to Predict Properties of elements
1. Formula and Structures
2. Given chlorine, iodine and bromine of Group VII for example
forms molecules of Cl2, I2 and Br2 respectively, predict the
molecular formula of Fluorine. F2 From example, we know
elements in same group form the same formula.
Properties of Elements
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Properties of element changes down the group. i.e. given list of

Group 7 elements, predict the properties of astatine.
Element Proton Number Melting Point (oC) Boiling
Point (oC)
Fluorine 9 -220 -118
Chlorine 17 -101 -35
Bromine 35 -7 59
Iodine 53 114 184
Astatine 85 > 114 > 184
Group Properties
Group I Elements (The Alkali Metals)
1. These are metals which react with water to form alkaline
solutions.
2. The solutions turn red litmus paper blue.
3. They are the most reactive metals on the periodic table
4. They have one outer shell electrons
5. They are Shiny, silvery solids
6. They are Soft, easily cut with knife - low densities and
melting points and these increases down the group.
7. They reacts easily in air. So they’re kept in oil
8. They Reacts vigorously (may catch fire or explode) with
cold water
9. They make ionic compounds of +1 charge.
10. They have similar formulae
11. They become more reactive down the group

The physical properties and formulae of Group I metals

57
 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Name Symbol Density (g/cm3) Melting

point (oC)
Lithium Li 0.53 180
Sodium Na 0.97 98
Potassium K 0.86 64
Rubidium Rb 1.5 39
Caesium Cs 1.9 29

Element Chloride Nitrate Sulphate

Oxide
Lithium LiCl LiNO3 Li2SO4
Li2O
Sodium NaCl NaNO3 Na2SO4
Na2O
Potassium KCl KNO3 K2SO4
K2 O

Group VII Elements (The Halogens)

1. These are elements which react with most metals to form
salts
2. They are very reactive elements
3. They have seven outer shell electrons
4. Each molecule in the element is diatomic (contains two
atoms, eg F2
5. Elements become darker and solidify down the group-

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

6. They have low melting and boiling points which increases

down the group
7. All halogens are poisonous

Element Molecular formula Melting point (oC) Boiling

point (oC) State at r.t.p. Colour
Fluorine F2 -220 -189
gas Pale yellow
Chlorine Cl2 -101 -35
gas Greenish yellow
Bromine Br2 -7 59
liquid Reddish brown Iodine I2
114 184 solid Shiny
black

Compounds of the Halogens

1. Halogens give a charge of -1, so they give similar formulae,
eg: NaBr, NaI
2. Halogens react vigorously with metals to form ionic salts
for the equation:2K + Br2 2KBr
3. Halogens become less reactive down the group

Displacement Reactions
More reactive halogen displaces less reactive halogen eg: aqueous
fluorine was added into sodium bromide solution. State the
chemical equation of the reaction.
F2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaF + Br2
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Group VIII or 0 Elements (The Noble Gases)

1. These are the least reactive elements on the periodic table.
2. They do not form bonds
3. They have stable electronic configuration with complete
electrons on their shells
4. Coloured gases consisting of single atoms (monatomic)
5. They have low melting and boiling points
Uses of the Noble Gases
1. Argon is used in light bulbs as it would not react with the
hot filament
2. Neon is used in neon advertising strip lights
3. Helium is used in small and weather balloons, and airships
for less density
Properties of Transition Elements
1. First transition series are all metals-
2. Transition elements have high melting points
3. They have high density
4. They have variable oxidation state, e.g. Iron (Fe) appear as
Fe2+or Fe3+
5. They form coloured compounds, e.g. CuSO4is blue, FeSO4 is
green-
6. They form complex ions, e.g. MnO4-, Manganese (VII) ions
7. They act as catalysts
Uses of Transition Elements
1. Most transition elements and their compounds act as
catalysts which affects chemical reactions
2. Iron is used in Haber process for manufacture of ammonia
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

3. Vanadium (V) oxide is used in contact process to

manufacture sulphuric acid
4. Nickel is used in hydrogenation of alkenes to form
saturated fats (e.g. margarine)
Advantages
1. Since transition elements speed up chemical processes in
industries, they save time in manufacture
2. Less energy is needed for manufacture in industries, hence
lower cost. Since less energy is needed, more energy
resources can be conserved, e.g. oil to generate electricity in
producing iron.

SS 2 FIRST TERM
ENERGY FROM CHEMICALS
Exothermic Reaction is one which heat energy is given out. This is
to form bonds between the reactants which need less energy in
them.
Reaction is written as:
Reactants → Products + heat ∆ H = –nkJ
Where ∆ H = heat change. n is amount of heat energy released
Changes of State
When gas condenses to water or water freezes to solid, heat is
given out. i.e Condensation of steam to water
H2O (g) →H2O (l) + heat
Combustion reactions All combustion (burning) reactions are
exothermic. Burning of hydrogen in air
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

2H2 (g) + O2(g)→2H2O(l) + heat

Dissolving anhydrous salts/acids in water
Dissolving solid salt to aqueous solution of the salt gives out heat
Dissolving Na2CO3 in water (or CuSO4 )
Na2CO3(s) → Na2CO3 (aq) + heat
Dissolving concentrated acid in water
HCl (aq) + H2O(l) → less concentrated HCl(aq) + heat
Neutralization when acid and alkali react it gives out heat due to
combining of H+ ions from acid and OH- ions from alkali to form
water
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)→H2O(l) + heat
Metal Displacement
Magnesium reacting with copper(II) Tetraoxosulphate (VI)
Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq)→Mg2+(s) + Cu(s) + heat
Endothermic Reaction is one which heat energy is absorbed. This
is to break bonds between the reactants which need more energy
in them. Reaction is written as:
Reactants + heat → Products [∆H = nkJ]
Where n is amount of heat energy absorbed
Examples of endothermic changes
Changes of states
When solid melts to water & boils to steam, heat is absorbed to
break the bond. Condensation of steam to n water
H2O(s) + heat→H2O(l)
Photolysis Reaction of light sensitive silver chloride in camera reel
in light
2AgBr(s) + heat→2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Dissolving of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds such as NH4Cl, KNO3, and CaCO3
absorb heat from surroundings.
NH4Cl(s) + heat→NH4Cl (aq)
CuSO4(s) + heat→CuSO4 (aq)
Heat of Reaction The amount of energy given out or absorbed
during a chemical reaction is enthalpy change
The symbol is ∆H measured in kilojoules (kJ)
Exothermic reaction
Mg(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + Cu(s) [ ∆ H = –378 kJ]
378 kJ of heat energy is given out when 1 mol of Mg react with 1
mol CuSO4 to produce 1 mol of MgSO4 and 1 mol of Cu.
Endothermic reaction:
CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO (s) [∆H = +222 kJ]
222 kJ of heat energy is absorbed when 1 mol of CaCO3
decompose to 1 mol of CO2 and 1 mol of CaO.
Heat Energy and Enthalpy Change in Reaction
When bonds are made, heat energy is given out, it’s exothermic
and ∆H is negative.
When bonds broken, heat energy is absorbed, it’s endothermic
and ∆H is positive
Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start a
reaction.
It is the energy needed to break the reactant bonds before new
bonds are formed as product.
Reactions occur because of collision of particles and sufficient
kinetic energy is needed to provide activation energy to break the
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

bonds and start the reaction by providing extra energy from a

heat source.
Rate of Chemical Reaction It is the speed for a reactant to be
used up or product to be formed.
Rate of reaction is inversely proportional to time taken; the
shorter the time needed for reaction to complete, the faster the
rate of reaction.
Collision Theory states that for reaction to take place between
two or more particle
(a) The reacting particles must collide
(b) The collision must be effective (effective collision is the
collision that result into formation of product)
(c) The collision must generate certain minimum energy that
will be enough to overcome activation complex. This energy
is called activation energy.
Energy profile diagram for Exothermic Reactions
-------------------------
Energy
Activation energy (Ea)

Reactants
--------------------------------------
Enthalpy change
Products ( H is negative)
---------

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Reaction coordinate

Energy profile diagram for endothermic Reaction

Activation complex

Energy

Activation energy (Ea)

Enthalpy change ( H is positive)

reactant
--------------------------------------

Reaction coordinate
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
3. Particle Size of Reactant When large marble is reacted with
acid and compared to reaction of fine marble solids being
reacted with acid and the graph of volume of gas against time
is plotted, it was found that the reaction involving finer

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

marble chips produces gas faster than the one with larger
marble chunk as the graph of finer chips is steeper.
Explanation: from collision theory
Reactions occur when particles collide. Small particles create
larger surface area for more collisions between reacting particles
which increases rate of reaction.
1. Concentration of Reactant The increase of concentration
means there are more solute particles per unit volume of the
solution which favours for more effective collision resulting in
an increase in rate of reaction.
2. Pressure of Reactant Only gaseous reactions are affected as
gas is compressible. At higher pressure, molecules are forced
to move closely together, hence increasing the particles per
unit volume of gas and effectively increases the collision
between reacting molecules so the rate of reaction increases.
High pressure is used in industrial processes (e.g. Haber
Process Plant) so that the reaction goes faster.
3. Temperature of Reaction Rate of reaction increases when
temperature increases. Particles do not just react upon
collision but just bounce until they have enough activation
energy to react. With increase in temperature, particles
absorb the energy and having enough activation energy, they
move faster and collide more effectively per second.
Therefore, rate of reaction is increased.
4. Effect of Catalyst what are catalysts? Catalysts are chemical
substances which alter speed of reaction without itself being

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

used at the end of a reaction. It can be reused and only small

amount of catalyst is needed to effect a reaction.
Transition metals (e.g. Titanium, Nickel, Iron, Copper) are good
catalysts
Most catalyst catalyze one kind of reaction (except titanium)
Reaction Catalyst
Production of sulphur by contact process using Vanadium (V)
oxide (V2O5)
Production of ammonia by Haber Process Iron (Fe)
Production of hydrogen by cracking of hydrocarbons using
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Production of margarine by reacting hydrogen with vegetable oil
using Nickel (Ni)
Production of plastics using Titanium (IV) chloride, TiCl4
Converting CO into CO2 in catalytic converters using Titanium (Ti)
Rhodium (Rh).
Catalysts lower the need of energy to break bonds so activation
energy is lower. Consequently, bond breaking occurs easily and
more often when particles collide
Catalyst provide “alternative path” which results in lowering
activation energy.
Spontaneity Reaction
Some physical or chemical change occur unaided e.g the melting
of ice, oxidation of sodium metal when exposed to air. The
parameter that determines the possibility of occurrence is called
Entropy (S). it is also called disorder

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

When disorderliness occur, the energy of the system increases

and the Entropy becomes positive
i.e S = positive or S = > 0
for a non spontaneous change, energy of the system decreases
and the Entropy becomes Negative
i.e S = negative or S = < 0
Gibb’s free energy (G) deals with chemical reaction. This refers to
free energy of a chemical system. i.e energy available to do work.
The relationship between Gibb’s free energy and entropy can be
expressed using the formula
G= H-T S
Where G = change in free energy of a system
H =heat change
S = change in entropy of a system
T = absolute temperature at which the reaction occur
Chemical Equilibrium
* Reversible reactions are reactions in which the product may
react to form the original reactant
e.g 3Fe(S) + 3H20(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) ---------------
reaction 1

Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) 3Fe(S) + 3H20(g) ---------------

reaction 2
Where the direction of reaction depends on the condition. The
overall equation can be written as
Fe(S) + 3H20(g) ⇌ Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

The ⇌ sign means that the reaction can go in either direction.

The forward reaction where the reactant go through to become
product. And the backward reaction where the product is
converted back to the original reactant.
Dynamic equilibrium here the forward and the backward reaction
proceed at equal rate such that there is no appreciable change
At equilibrium at a given temperature,
(a) The concentration of the reactant and the product
remain constant though not necessarily equal
(b) Chemical reactions are still occurring
(c) The reactions occur in a closed system (no chemical is
added or removed).

Le Chatelier’s Principle when a change occurs on a system in

dynamic equilibrium, the system adjust itself in a way to annul the
effect of the change

Factors affecting the change in equilibrium position

(a) Effect of change in Concentration: increase in the
concentration of a reactant will cause the equilibrium to shift
to the right, more of the product will be formed and forward
reaction will be favoured. All these are with a few to annul
the effect of the increase in concentration. While a decrease
in concentration of the reactant will cause the equilibrium to
shift to the left more of the reactant will be formed and
backward reaction will be favoured then the effect of the
decrease in concentration will be annulled
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

(b) Effect of change in temperature for reactions affected by

temperature
Increase in temperature will favour only endothermic
reaction while decrease in temperature will favour
exothermic reaction. So for the reaction
water
KNO3(s) ⇌ KNO3(aq) H = positive ---------------reaction 1

C2H4 g) + H2O(g) ⇌ C2H5OH(g) H = negative ------------

reaction 2

Reaction 1 is an endothermic reaction. It required heat for the

reaction to become the product, so increase in its heat content
will favour the forward reaction, more of the product will be
formed and hence equilibrium will shift to the right. while
decrease in temperature will not favour the forward reaction less
of the product will be formed or more of the reactant will be
formed and equilibrium will shift backward. And vice versa for
reaction 2
(c) Effect of change in pressure : for gaseous reactant and
products
Using Avogadro’s law : Volume ∝ number of molecule
And Boyle’s law : Pressure ∝ 1 / volume
For the reaction
CO (g) + 2H2(g) ⇌ CH3OH(g) ------------------------reaction 3
1mol. 1mol. 1mol.
2mol. Of reactant = 1mol.of product
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

There is a reduction in the volume of the reactant which only

increase in pressure will favour. Hence increase in pressure will
favour the forward reaction, more of the product will be formed
and equilibrium will shift to the right or forward. While decrease
in pressure will cause the volume to increase, more of the
reactant will be formed; equilibrium will shift to the left or
backward.
(d) Effect of catalyst: catalyst is only useful in attaining
equilibrium position. Once equilibrium is attained catalyst
does not affect or alter the position of equilibrium

Hydrogen
The first element on the periodic table. Having atomic number of
one with one electron, it is place in group one floating among the
metals on the periodic table.
Hydrogen has three isotopes as indicated below

Element Symbol Number Number Number

of of of
proton neutron electron
hydrogen H 1 0 1
deuterium D 1 1 1
Tritium T 1 1 1

Method of preparation

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

1. When mineral acid react with any of the moderate metal e.g
zinc

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

2. Methane reacting with steam to liberate carbon dioxides in
two reactions

CH4(g) + H2O(g) Ni / 750oC 3H2(g) + CO(g)

CO(g) + H2O(g Fe/ 350oC CO2(g) + H2(g

3. Methanol and steam in the presence of Cu as catalyst and a
temperature of 250oC

CH3OH (g) + H2O(g) Cu / 250oC CO2(g) + 3H2(g)

4. It is produce industrially by electrolysis of brine solution
Physical properties of hydrogen
1. Colourless, odourless gas.
2. Has no action on damp blue or red litmus
3. It is insoluble in water
4. It is non poisonous
5. It burns with pale blue flame and does not support
combustion
Chemical properties
1. Undergo combustion in the presence of oxygen and a good
reducing agent..
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
2. Reaction with Nitrogen to produce ammonia.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

3. Hydrogen react with unreactive metal oxides (CuO, PbO,
Fe2O3 liberating the metals
CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(g)
Test for hydrogen Hydrogen extinguishes a lighted splint with a
pop sound
Uses
1. Employed in the extraction of metals
2. Production of fertilizer and other valuable chemical
3. Hydrogenation process oil to fat, unsaturation to saturation
in organic compounds

oxygen
Oxygen is a group VI element on the periodic table. Due to its
having six electron in its outermost shell, oxygen undergo ionic as
well as covalent bond. It is a non metal
Preparation of Oxygen
1. Catalytic decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide in the presence
of Manganese IV Oxide
H2O2 (aq) O2(g) + H2O(l)
2. Catalytic decomposition of potassium chlorate (V) in the
presence of heat and MnO2 as catalyst
2KClO3 (s) 2 KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
3. It can be obtained industrially by fractional distillation of
liquid air
Physical properties of Oxygen
1. It is slightly denser than air
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

2. It is a colourless, odourless gas and has no action on moist

litmus paper
3. It is slightly soluble in water
4. It does not burn but it support combustion
5. It is not poisonous.
Chemical properties of Oxygen
1. It react with metals to form metal oxide.
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
2. It react with non metal to form acidic oxides
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
3. It react with carbon in two ways
Limited supply of oxygen gives CO : 2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g)
In excess oxygen it gives CO2 : C(s) + O2(g)
CO2(g)
Binary Compounds of Oxides
Binary compound are compounds comprising of two elements.
Oxides contain oxygen and another element.
1. Acidic oxides are oxide of non metal which reacts with water
to form acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2SO3(aq)
2. Basic oxides are oxides of metal which react with water to
form alkalis. Especially the most reactive metal
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
3. Neutral oxides are some oxides of non metal that shows
neither acidic nor basic property. E.g Nitrogen (II) oxide,
Carbon II Oxide, H2O.

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

4. Amphoteric oxides are oxides of metal that are capable of

reacting with both acid and base to form salt and water only.
E.g ZnO, PbO, Al2O3
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Uses of Oxygen
1. Useful in combustion process
2. Used as oxidizing agent
3. Animals breath in oxygen
4. Used in steel making to burn off impurities
5. In oxy acetylene flame in welding process

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Oxidation and Reduction Reaction in terms of oxygen and Hydrogen
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen by a substance
Reduction is the loss of oxygen by a substance
Pb(s) + Ag2O (aq → PbO (aq) + 2Ag (aq)
Pb is oxidized as it gains oxygen from Ag2O to form PbO.
Ag2O is reduced as it loses oxygen to Pb to form Ag.

Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen by a substance

Reduction is the gain of hydrogen by a substance
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(g)
H2S is oxidized as it loses hydrogen to C l2 to form S.
Oxidation and Reduction in terms of Electropositive and
electronegative elements
1. Oxidation is defined as the addition of electronegative
elements to a substance
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

This is particularly the most reactive non metals of the group VII.
They have the tendency to attract electrons in a chemical reaction
2. Reduction is defined as the addition of electropositive
element to a substance
Cu(s) + Cl2(g) → CuCl2(s)
Chlorine is added to copper so copper is oxidized and therefore
chlorine is reduced
Oxidation and Reduction reaction in terms of Transfer of
Electrons
1. Oxidation is the loss of electrons by a substance
2. Reduction is the gain of electrons by a substance
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl (s)
Na (s) →Na+(aq) + e-
Cl2(g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (g)
Na is oxidized as it loses electron to C l2 to form Na+ ions.
C l2 is reduced as it gains electron from Na to form C l- ions.
Oxidation State is the charge an atom would have if it existed as
an ion
Rules for assigning oxidation state
1. Free elements have oxidation state zero, e.g. Cu, Fe, N2
2. Oxidation of an ion is the charge of the ion, e.g. Na+= +1,
Cu2+=+2, O2-= -2
3. The oxidation state of some elements in their compounds is
fixed, e.g.Group I Elements = +1, Group II Elements = +2,
Hydrogen in most compounds = +1
Iron or copper can have either +1, +2, +3, so it’s not fixed

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

4. Oxidation states of the elements in a compound adds up to

zero, e.g.
NaCl: (+1) + (-1) = 0
K2O: (+1) x 2 + (-2) = 0
Al2O3 : (+3) x 2 +(+2) x 3 = 0
5. Sum of oxidation states of elements in an ion is equal to charge
on the ion,
e.g. OH- : (-2) + (+1) = -1
Examples:
Work out the oxidation states of the underlined elements in these
compounds:
(a) CO2 = (oxidation state of C) + (-2) x 2 = 0
= (oxidation state of C) + (-4) = 0
Oxidation state of C = +4
(b) KMnO4 = (+1) + (oxidation state of Mn) + (-2) x 4 = 0
= (oxidation state of Mn) + (+1) + (-8) = 0
= (oxidation state of Mn) + (-7) =0
Oxidation state of Mn = +7
(c) Fe(NO3)2 = (oxidation state of Fe) + (-1) x 2 = 0
= (oxidation state of Fe) + (-2) = 0
Oxidation state of Fe = +2
Note: Transition metals and some common elements may have
different oxidation states in different compounds.
Examples of elements with variable oxidation states
Oxidation state -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7.
Manganese Mn MnCl2 MnO2 KMnO4
Chromium Cr CrCl2 CrCl3 K2Cr2O7
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Iron Fe FeCl2 FeCl3 Fe3O4

Sulphur S SO2 SO3 H2SO4
Carbon C CO CO2 CaCO3
Some compounds with possible variable oxidation states have
roman numeral as a guide about their oxidation state, e.g.-
Iron(II) chloride has formula FeCl2 and iron oxidation state +2
Potassium(VI) dichromate has formula K2Cr2O7 and potassium
oxidation state +6
Manganese(IV) oxide has formula MnO2 and manganese oxidation
state +4
Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of oxidation number
Oxidation is the increase of oxidation state by a substance
Reduction is the decrease of oxidation state by a substance.
Examples: Metals with acids
Cu(s) + HCl(aq) →CuCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Cu is oxidized as it gains oxidation state from 0 to +2.
H+ ions in HCl reduced as it loses oxidation state from +1 to 0.
Oxidizing and Reducing Agent
Oxidizing agent is a substance that causes oxidation in another
substance
Reducing agent is a substance that causes reduction in another
substance
Pb(s) + Ag2O (aq → PbO (aq) + 2Ag (aq)
Ag2O is an oxidizing agent since it was the one that donate oxygen
to lead and
Pb is reducing agent for accepting the oxygen
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(g)
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

C l2 is oxidizing agent, Cl2 is reduced as it gains hydrogen from H2S

to form HCl,
H2S is reducing agent.
2Na (s) → 2Na+(s) + 2e-
Na is reducing agent.
Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) →2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
I- ions in KI oxidized as it gains oxidation state from -1 to 0.
I- ions is reducing agent Cl2 is reduced as it loses oxidation state
from 0 to -1.
C l2 is oxidizing agent
Test for Oxidizing /Reducing Agents
Potassium dichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7, Test for reducing agent;
orange K2Cr2O7 reduces to green Cr3+ions
Potassium manganate (VII) KMnO4, Test for reducing agent;
purple KMnO4, reduces to colourless Mn2+ ions.
Note:- Losing electrons means gain in oxidation state. Gaining
electrons means loss in oxidation state
Reducing agents
Potassium Iodide, KI, Test for oxidizing agent; colourless I- Ions
oxidizes to brown
Carbon monoxide, CO Reduces metal oxide to metal in heated
Hydrogen H2
Reduces copper (II) oxide to copper Sulphur dioxide SO2 used as
bleach and preservative
Metals (highly reactive) Na, Mg, etc. Displaces less reactive metals

SS2 SECOND TERM

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

ELECTROLYSIS
1. Electrolysis is the chemical decomposition of compound in
molten or solution from using electricity
2. Electrolyte is an ionic compound which conducts electric
current in molten or aqueous solution, and being
decomposed in the process.
3. Strong electrolytes decompose completely to form ions in
molten form or aqueous solution. NaOH, NaCl, H2SO4, HCl,
CuSO4
4. Weak electrolytes decomposes partially to form ions in
molten or aqueous solution. NH3, CH3COOH, HCN, H2CO3, HF
5. Electrode is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves
electrolyte during electrolysis. Reactions occur at electrodes.
6. Discharge is the removal of electrons from negative ions to
form atoms or the gain of electrons by positive ions to
become atoms.
7. Anode is positive electrode connected to positive terminal of
direct current source. Oxidation occurs here.
Anode loses negative charge as electrons flow towards the
battery, leaving anode positively charged. This causes anion to
discharge its electrons here to replace lost electrons and also,
negative charge is attracted to positive charge.
8. Cathode is negative electrode connected to negative terminal
of direct current source. Reduction occurs here.
Cathode gains negative charge as electrons flow from the battery
towards the cathode, making cathode negatively charged. This

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

causes cation to be attracted and gains electrons to become an

atom.
9. Anion is a negative ion. It’s attracted to anode.
10. Cation is positive ion. It’s attracted to cathode.
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Molten or aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity because
ions are free to move.
In solid state ions are held in fixed position within the crystal
lattice. Hence solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.
When molten binary compound is electrolyzed, metals moves to
the cathode while non-metal moves to the anode
Electrolysis of Molten PbBr2
To produce molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, you strongly heat the
solid until it melts. To electrolyse it, pass current through the
molten PbBr2. Ions Present are Pb2+and Br-
Reaction at Anode
Br- loses electrons at anode to become Br atoms. Br atoms
created form bond together to make Br2 gas.
2Br- (aq) Br2 (g) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Pb2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Pb atoms becoming
liquid lead (II).
Pb2+(aq) + 2e- Pb(l)
The Overall Equation
PbBr2 (l) Pb (l) + Br2 (g)
For other compounds that can be electrolyzed the theory is the
same as PbBr2.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Molten electrolyte Cathode product

Anode product
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) Calcium, Ca
Chlorine, Cl2
Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sodium, Na
Chlorine, Cl2
Aluminum (III) oxide (Al2O3) Aluminum, Al
Oxygen, O2
Sodium Iodide (NaI) Sodium, Na
Iodine, I2
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution
Aqueous solutions contain additional H+ and OH- ions from water,
totaling 4 different ions in the solution.
2 from electrolyte and 2 from water. Where only 2 of these ions
are discharged during the process of electrolysis.
Theory of selective discharge
In the discharge of ions during the electrolysis of aqueous
solutions, the theory of selective discharge is operational
Factors a Affecting the Selective Discharge of Ions during
Electrolysis
1. Concentration of ions
2. Position of ion on the electrochemical series the lower an
element is on the electrochemical series, the less stable they
are and the more vulnerable they become to be discharged
during electrolysis. Hence the lower cations receives electron
readily to form its metal while the more reactive ionic metal
remain in the solution
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

3. Nature of the Electrode

At cathode
In CONCENTRATED solutions of nickel/lead compound,
nickel/lead will be discharged instead of hydrogen ions of water
which is less in concentration than nickel/lead.-
In VERY DILUTE solutions, where hydrogen, copper and silver ions
are present silver will be preferable to be discharged, according to
its ease to be discharged.-
For reactive ions (potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
aluminum) will NEVER BE DISCHARGED in either concentrated or
diluted condition. Instead, hydrogen ions from water will be
discharged at cathode due to their position on the
electrochemical series.
At anode In CONCENTRATED solutions, iodine/chlorine/bromine
ions are preferable to be
Discharged, although it’s harder to discharge compared to
hydroxide ions.
In VERY DILUTE solutions containing iodide/chloride/bromide
ions, hydroxide ions of water will be discharged instead of
iodide/chloride/bromide, according to ease of discharge.
Sulphate and nitrate are NEVER DISCHARGED in
concentrated/dilute solutions.
Electrolysis of Concentrated NaCl
Ions Present are Na+, H+, OH-and Cl-
Reaction at Anode

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Cl- loses electrons at anode to become Cl atoms, although OH- is

easier to discharge. Cl atoms created form covalent bond together
to make Cl2 gas. 2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g)+ 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming
hydrogen gas.
2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (l)
Overall Equation
2HCl (l) H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Note: any cation and anion left undischarged in solution forms
new bonds between them. E.g. in above, leftovers Na+ and OH-
combine to form NaOH and a very dilute solutions
Electrolysis of Dilute H2SO4
Ions Present H+, OH- and SO42-
Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O
4OH-(aq) O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) + 4e-
Reaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming
hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)
Since only water molecule is electrolyzed, the tetraoxosulphate
(VI) acid only becomes concentrated.
Electrolysis Using Different Types of Electrodes
Inert Electrodes are electrodes which do not react with
electrolyte or products during electrolysis. Examples are platinum
and graphite.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Active Electrodes are electrodes which react with products of

electrolysis, affecting the course of electrolysis. Example is
copper.
Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Inert Electrodes (e.g. carbon)
Ions Present Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42-
Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e-
Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming
liquid copper. Hydrogen ions are not discharged because copper is
easier to discharge being lower on the electrochemical series.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
Since copper ions in solution are used up, the blue colour fades.
Hydrogen and sulphate ions left forming tetreoxosulphate vi acid.
Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Active Electrodes (e.g. copper)
Ions Present Cu2+, H+, OH -and SO42-
Reaction at Anode
Both SO42-and OH- gets attracted here but not discharged. Instead,
the copper anode is discharged by losing electrons to form Cu2+.
So, the electrode size decreases.
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become
Cu atoms becoming copper. Hence, the copper is deposited here
and the electrode increases in size.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Overall Change
There is no change in solution contents as for every lost of Cu2+
ions at cathode is replaced by Cu2+ ions released by dissolving
anode. Only the cathode increases in size by gaining copper metal
and anode decreases in size by losing copper. We can use this
method to create pure copper on cathode by using pure copper
on cathode and impure copper on anode. Impurities in the anode
falls off under it.
Electroplating is coating an object with thin layer of metal by
electrolysis. This makes the object protected and more attractive.
Object to be plated is made to be cathode and the plating metal is
made as anode .The electrolyte MUST contain plating metal
cation. Example Plating Iron object with Nickel
Reaction at Anode
Ni2+ discharged from anode into solution. So, the electrode size
decreases.
Ni(s) Ni2+(aq) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Ni2+ produced from anode gains electron at cathode to become Ni
atoms becoming nickel. Hence, the nickel is deposited here and
the electrode grows.
Ni 2+(aq) + 2e- Ni(s)
Overall Change There is no change in solution contents while iron
object receives nickel deposit.
Uses of Electroplating
Chromium Water taps, motor car bumpers, bicycle parts, Tin cans,
Silver sports trophies, plaques, ornaments, cutleries, Nickel Form
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

corrosion-resistant layer, Gold Watches, plaques, water taps,

Silverware, jewelry, watches, Copper Printed circuit boards.
Electrolytic cell : An electric cell consists of 2 electrodes made of 2
metals of different reactivity. The cathode is made of more
reactive metal. This is because they have more tendency of losing
electrons. The anode is made of less reactive metal. The further
apart the metals in reactivity series, the higher voltage is created.
How the Voltage is produced Using zinc and copper as electrodes
and sodium chloride as electrolyte as zinc is more reactive than
copper, zinc is the cathode while copper is the anode. At the
cathode, Zn atoms in anode lose electrons to form Zn2+
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Zn2+ goes into solution while the electrons lost make the zinc
negative.
The electrons flow against conventional current towards copper
anode. Both Na+ and H+
ions in solution are attracted to the copper anode due to
electrons in it but only H+ ions discharged, due to selective
discharge, to form hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)
The overall ionic equation is:
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Which comes from the equation?
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Compressed chart indicating test and possible inferences for

common cations and anions
Solution of sample

+ NaOH (aq)

White ppt. Blue ppt.

Reddish brown No ppt.
Cu2+ Dirty green ppt. ppt. Fe3+
Al3+, Pb2+, Ca2+, Zn2+ NH4+, K+, Na+.
2+
Fe

Test sample with excess sodium hydroxide solution

For Al3+, Pb2+ white ppt. are soluble
For Ca2+, Zn2+ white ppt. are insoluble
For Cu2+ blue ppt. remain
For Fe2+ green ppt. remain
For Fe3+ Reddish brown ppt. remain
For K+, Na+, NH4+ there is no observable reaction

Test sample with Ammonium hydroxide solution in drops

For Ca2+ there is no observable reaction
Zn2+, Al3+, Pb2+ white ppt. is formed
Cu2+ blue ppt. is formed
Fe2+ green ppt. is formed
Fe3+ Reddish brown ppt. is formed
K+, Na+, NH4+ no observable reaction
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Test sample with Ammonium hydroxide solution in excess

For Ca2+ no observable reaction
Zn2+ white ppt. are insoluble
For Al3+, Pb2+ white ppt. are soluble
For Cu2+ blue ppt. formed a deep blue solution
For Fe2+ green ppt. remain
For Fe3+ Reddish brown ppt. remain
For K+, Na+, NH4+ there is no observable reaction

SS 2 THIRD TERM
TREATMENT OF TOWN WATER SUPPLY We use water at home
for drinking, cooking, washing and bathing. While in industries, we
use it as heat exchanger, raw material for food and drinks, as a
solvent, cleaning and purification, irrigation, dyeing and bleaching
process. Inside that. E.g aluminum, calcium, potassium, etc.
Dissolved oxygen given out by aquatic animals by photosynthesis,
Organic matter (living/dead plants, animals, microorganisms)
exists.
Purification–Taking care of those harmful stuffs
1. Water from rain and river downstream is collected in reservoir.
2. Water is transported via pipe to a flocculation tank where alum,
Al2 (SO4)3, and lime, Ca(OH)2 are added to water so that small solid
clay particles join together into large lumps of solid (coagulation).
3. Water is moved to sedimentation tank where the lumps of solid
settle to the bottom of the tank. This is called sedimentation.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Carbon, in form of activated charcoal, is added to remove the

taste and smell of water.
4. Water is filtered off in filtration tank, where there are sand
particles filter which traps the remaining solid particles in water.
5. Chlorine and fluorine are added in chlorination tank. This is
called chlorination. Chlorine is used to kill bacteria while fluorine
is used to strengthen teeth.
Desalination Ocean is vast source of water. Salts in Sea water
must be removed so it is drinkable.
Desalination is the process where seawater is distilled until it
becomes steam (free of salt) which is then cooled and condensed
into drinking water.

Carbon and its inorganic Compounds

Carbon exists as element and in compounds.

Carbon Element

Crystalline Amorphous

Diamond graphite coal

charcoal lamp black

Lignite bituminous coal anthracite

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Plant charcoal animal

charcoal

Wood charcoal sugar

charcoal

Allotropy is the existence of elements in two or more form having

the same but different physical properties
Allotropes are the different form of the element. Examples of the
allotropes of carbon are GRAPHITE and DIAMOND.

Diamond Graphite
Structure *carbon atoms are *carbon atoms are arranged
arranged in a in parallel layers
tetrahedron *the covalent bond within
*carbon atom are layers are strong
joined in a strong *the covalent bond
covalent bonds between layers are very
resulting in a three- weak and non covalent
dimensional giant
structure
Properties *hard and transparent *soft and black
*high melting and *very high melting and
boiling points boiling points.

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

*Non conductor of *good conductor of

electricity electricity
Uses *To make jewellerys *in pencils and graphite
*as tips for cutting, composites
polishing and grinding *as a dry lubricants for
tools machine parts
*to make inert electrodes
Destructive distillation of Coal this is the process of heating coal
at a high temperature in the absence of air
The products of the destructive distillation of coal are Coal gas,
Coke, Coal tar and Ammoniacal liquor.
Coal gas is a mixture of gases which includes H2, CH4, CO. it is used
as fuel for heating and as reducing agents.
Coal tar is a mixture of liquid which includes Benzene, toluene,
naphthalene, and anthracene. It can be separated by fractional
distillation. It is used in the production of medicines, dyes,
explosives, plastics, paints, pesticides and synthetic fibres. The
residue of this is the tar used in road construction and waterproof
roofs.
Ammoniacal liquor this is a solution of ammonia in water
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4 +(aq) + OH-(aq)
It is used in the production of ammonium compounds, fertilizers
Coke is the non volatile residue. It consists of carbon only. It is
used as solid fuel, also used as synthetic gas.
Gasification of Coke is the process which converts coke into
useful gaseous fuel. i.e producer gas and water gas which are also
referred to as synthetic gas
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Water gas is produced when at a temperature >10000C steam is

passed over red hot coke a mixture of CO and H2 gas is formed
C(s) + H2O(g) >10000c CO(g) + H2 (g)
The water gas is used directly as fuel as seen in the equations
below
2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
2H2 (g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
It is also used in the production of methanol where water gas
reacts with more H2 in the presence of an oxide of zinc and
chromium as catalyst and at a temperature of 450oC and a
pressure of 200 atmosphere
Producer gas in a reactor called the producer hot air containing
oxygen is blown from the bottom up a white hot coke. Carbon (IV)
oxide is formed. And as the gas rises through the producer CO2
react with more carbon and CO is produced. Incombustible N2
from air mixed with the CO to form a mixture of the gases in the
ratio 1:2, CO : N2 it is called producer gas

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

CO2(g) + C (s) 2CO (g)
CO (g) + N2 (g) …………………producer gas

Oxides of Carbon (II) oxide Carbon (IV) oxide

carbon

Physical *Colourless, odourless * Colourless, odourless

properties gas gas
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

*Poisonous * Denser than air

*Insoluble in water *slightly soluble in water
*it sublimes at -78oC
Chemical *It is combustible *gas is acidic
properties *React as a good *a good oxidizing agent.
reducing agent
*Combined with
haemoglobin in the
blood to form carboxy
– haemoglobin
Uses *Serves as a reducing *used as refrigerants or
agent in the coolants
*manufacture of some *used to put fizz to
metals e.g lead, iron carbonated drinks
from their oxides *used as fire extinguisher

Trioxocarbonate IV acid and salt

Trioxocarbonate acid IV is a weak dibasic acid as we see in the
reaction below
H2O (l) + CO2(g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)
H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + HCO3- (aq)
H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ 2 H+(aq) + CO 32-(aq)
Its acidic radicals react with metals according to reactivity series
to form salts
Properties of some common trioxocarbonate (IV) salts

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Carbonates Solubility Action of heat Action of acid

of in water
K Soluble Does not All trioxocarbonate
Na decompose on (IV) salts reacts with
heating acids to form salt,
Ca Insoluble Decompose to water and carbon (IV)
Mg metallic oxide and oxide.
Al CO2. E.g
Zn CaCO3(s) Note if an insoluble
CaO (s) + CO2(s) salt is formed the
Note: Al2(CO3)3 reaction does not get
does not exist to completion in
which the insoluble
Fe Decomposes into salts forms a coating
Pb metal, oxygen and around the salt and
Cu CO2. E.g thus prevent further
Ag reaction with the
2Ag2CO3(s)
Hg acid and invariably
4Ag(s) +O2(g) +
Au the reaction will stop.
2CO2(g)

Uses of some trioxocarbonate (IV) salts

1. K2CO3 employed in the manufacture of glass
2. Na2CO3 -in cleaning
-in textile treatment
-as a food additive
-to control pH of substances
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

* NiCO3 -in manufacture of ceramics

-in electroplating
* CoCO3 - as pigment in ceramics

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds.
Examples of compounds found in living organisms are sugar, fats,
plant oils, urea
Characteristics of Organic Compounds They are compounds of
carbon and Hydrogen. Other elements in them include oxygen,
nitrogen, or a halogen etc.
Uses of Organic Compounds Fuels, plastic, rubber, detergents,
insecticides, most medicines etc.
Classification of Organic Compounds
Organic compounds can be classified based on their chemical
structures
Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only
Carbon is a tetravalent element thus while forming covalent bond
in a chemical reaction, it is capable of forming bond with possible
four other element with its four unpaired electrons
Aliphatic Hydrocarbon contains chain of interlinked carbon atoms
which may be straight chain or branched chain. Important
member of this group includes Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes
Homologous series is a family of organic compounds with a
regular structural pattern which each successive member differs
in its molecular formula by a –CH2 group
General Characteristics of Homologous Series
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

1. They have the same general molecular formula

2. Each member of a group defers by CH2- group
3. They show gradual change in their physical properties
4. They can be prepared by similar methods
5. They have the same functional group. Hence similar chemical
properties
Functional Group is the special group of atoms available in the
compounds forming homologous series which is responsible for
the chemical properties of the compound
Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons which the combining
capacity of the carbon atoms is as fully used as possible in
bonding with hydrogen atoms. They only have single bond in their
carbon to carbon structure. e.g Alkanes
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons whose combining
capacity of the carbon atoms is not fully used, in bonding with
hydrogen. e.g. only 2 or 3 hydrogen are attached to a carbon
atom. This is usually indicated by double bond (=) or triple bond
(≡) with another carbon atoms.
Alkanes
1. Usually used as fuels. examples: natural gas, petrol, diesel
2. They are homologous series with a general formula
of CnH2n+2. Where n is the number of carbon
atom. Example: propane has three carbon atom, thus n=3.
Then the formula of propane is C3H8
3. Their names end with a suffix – ane
4. Each member differs from the next by –CH2 atoms. Eg:
methane: CH4, ethane: C2H6
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Structure of Alkanes shows how all atoms in a molecule joined

together by drawing lines between atoms to represent the bonds.
Example: butane has a formula of C4H10, therefore the structural
formula is:

H H H H
| | | |
H-C–C-C–C-H
| | | |
H H H H
It has 4 carbon atoms bonded together with 10 hydrogen atoms.
Organic compound containing only single bond is saturated. Eg:
methane
All alkanes are saturated. All alkenes are unsaturated
Physical Properties of Alkanes
1. Melting points and boiling points increase as the bonds
become larger and heavier which increases the forces of
attraction between molecules so more energy (from heat) is
needed to separate them with the increase of strength
of forces of attraction.
2. Alkanes are Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
such as tetra chloromethane as alkanes are organic
compounds.
3. Alkane density increases down the series; all alkanes are less
than 1g/cm3
4. Alkanes become more Viscous going down the series as the
longer molecules tangles together when it flows.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

5. Alkanes become less flammable down the series as Boiling

point becomes larger.
6. Alkanes are unreactive with metals, water, acids or bases
because the C –C and C –H covalent bonds are harder to
break
Chemical properties of alkanes
1. Combustion Alkanes burn in air to always form carbon
dioxide and water.
C2H6(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
2. When there is insufficient oxygen, the product is ALWAYS
carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon.
2C4H10 (g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) +10 H2O (l)
Higher alkanes burn less completely and give soot (unburnt
carbon) and CO
Reaction with Chlorine/Other Halogens (Alkyl Halides)
Chlorine molecule replaces the hydrogen atom in the alkane with
chlorine atom
Substitution reaction the reaction in which one or more atoms
replaces other atoms in a molecule. Light is needed to break
covalent bond between chlorine molecule atoms

Alkenes
They have a general formula CnH2n
All alkene names end with suffix – ene.
The formula of one alkene differs from the next by –CH2 atoms.
They have similar chemical properties like alkanes going down the
series.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

No. of C atoms Name Molecular formula

Structural formula state of matter
2 ethene C2H4 CH2 = CH2
gas
3 propene C3H6
CH3CH2= CH2 gas
4 butene C4H8
CH3CH2CH = CH2 gas
5 pentene C5H10
CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2 liquid

Structure of Alkenes
Alkene compound containing C = C double bond, it is said to be
unsaturated because not all Carbon atoms are bonded to the
maximum number of 4 other atoms
Reactions of Alkenes
Combustion : alkenes burn in air to form carbon dioxide and
water
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Incomplete combustion forms soot and CO. This is produced more
than in alkane
Addition Reaction Is the reaction of 2 or more molecules to form
a single product.
E.g Addition of hydrogen: Alkenes react with hydrogen to form
alkanes, called
Hydrogenation. Nickel is used as catalyst and then heat.
C2H4 (g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Nomenclature
ALKENE is named according to the number of carbon atoms it
contains.
Addition of bromine to ethene for example. Bromine add to C = C
double bond of alkene molecules. In the presence of Phosphoric
acid (H3PO4), high temperature of 300oC and 60-70 atm. pressure
are needed as catalyst .Eg: ethene to 1,2 –dibromoethane
C2H4(g) + Br2(g) C2H4Br2(l)
Nomenclature (n)(bromo) + (alkene name), where n is the number
of bromine atoms. E.g. Above, Ethene reacts with 2 bromine
atoms producing DI(2) BROMO(Bromine) ETHENE(alkene name).
Hence we call the product DIBROMOETHANE.-
Addition of water Alkene reacts with water, in the form of steam,
to produce alcohol. Alkene + steam is passed over phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) catalyst and temperature of 300oC. H2O molecule adds to
C = C bonds to form alcohol.
C2H4(g) + H2O(g) C2H5OH(l) or CH3CH2OH(l)

Nomenclature
(alkene name) + (-ol) E.g. in above, the alkene ethene (C2H4)
reacts with steam to form
ETHANOL(alkene name –ETHAN + OL group of alcohol)-
Polymerization The joining of several identical alkene molecules
to form a big molecule Eg: Ethene poly(ethene)
Testing for Unsaturated Compounds

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Mix bromine solution with alkene (for liquid alkenes –shake).

Reddish-brown colour of bromine disappears. This shows that the
compound is an alkene.
Foods of Unsaturated Compounds
The Manufacture of Margarine (Poly unsaturated food) – food
containing C = C bond in their molecules
Eg : Vegetable oil to produce margarine: Hydrogen is reacted with
vegetable oil in the presence of nickel catalyst and heat, this add
to C = C bond, increasing the molecular mass of the compound.
With increase in mass, the compound has higher boiling point.
Therefore margarine is solid at room temperature. Since only
some C=C bonds react with hydrogen, margarine is partially
hydrogenated and each has different hardness, depending on the
number of C=C bonds.
The Cracking of Alkanes
Cracking is the breaking down of higher molecular Hydrocarbon
into smaller ones in the presence of heat, pressure and catalyst.
Higher molecular Hydrocarbon can be cracked into shorter chain
hydrocarbons because of the higher value of its carbon to create
more variety of products as it occur in petrochemical industries.
We crack alkane by catalytic cracking, which is, using catalyst to
break alkane into simpler hydrocarbons. We crack alkane to get
more valuable hydrocarbons. The total number of carbon and
hydrogen atoms from products should be equal to the total
number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in cracked alkane.
E.g. Octane can be cracked into simpler hydrocarbons such as the
reaction below.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

C8H18(l) C2H4(g) + C5H10(l) + CH4(g)

Isomers are compounds with same molecular formula but
different structural formula.
Due to different chain length, they have different physical
properties (e.g. boiling point).
Isomerism is the ability of a compound to exist in two or more
different structural form.
Nomenclature deals with the naming of organic compounds.
IUPAC have developed a system by which this is achieved. This
involved a set of rules.
Rules for naming organic compounds
1. By counting, identify the longest possible carbon atom in the
given compound called the root or the parent. This will form
the last part of its name
2. Identify all the attaching functional groups to the parent. This
is called the branching, which are named according to their
order of strength.

Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
carbon atoms

prefix name met- eth- prop- but- pent- hex-

hept- oct- non- dec-

Homologous series General formula Functional

group suffix name

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Alkane CnH2n+2 C-C -

ane
Alkene CnH2n C=C
-ene
Alkyne CnH2n-2 C≡C
-yne
Alkanol ROH -O-H -ol
Alkanoic RCOOH -COOH
-oic
Alkanoate RCOOR’ -COOR
-oate
Alkaone RCOR’ -COR
-one
Alkanal RCOH -COH
-nal
Ether RCOCR’’’ -C-O-C-
ether
Amine R-NH2 - NH2
amine
Amide R-CO-(NH2) -CO-
(NH2) amide
Note Alkyl group R = CnH2n+1
Different alkyl groups of different carbon content R’, R’’, R’’’

H H H H H H
I I I I I I
H -C–C–C–C–C–C-H
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

I I I I I I
H H H H H H
The structure above is C6H14 and it is simply hexane or n-hexane
But there are more variations of C6H14 and each variation has its
own name. The figure below shows the nomenclature (i.e. how to
name) these isomers.

H H H H H
I I I I I
H-C–C–C–C–C–H
I I I I
H H H H

H-C-H

H
The structure above is 2-methylpentane. The number 2 indicates
the position of methyl group (CH3) attached to a carbon atom
from the nearest end.
H H H H H
I I I I I
H-C–C–C–C–C–H
I I I I
H H H H

H-C-H

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

H
The methyl group is on carbon 3 and so the name is 3-
methylpentane.

H
I
H-C-H

H H H
I I I
H-C–C–C–C–H
I I I
H H H

H-C-H

H
The name is 2,2-dimethylbutane.
There are 2 possible numbers: 2 or 3 but since 2 are closer, we put
2 in place. Also the second number 2 indicates the position of the
second methyl group attached to carbon atom. Since it is attached
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

to the same carbon atom as the first methyl group, we put the
same number 2 with a , (2,2) and a dash (-) which is used to
separate numeric from the name. Also note that the name is now
“butane”. This comes from the number of carbon atoms in the
STRAIGHT chain only. The turns leading to methyl is ignored. Bear
in mind that “di” in “dimethyl” indicates the number of methyl
groups in the isomer (“di” means two). One methyl has no prefix,
if it’s three it is “tri” and so on. Note that Students often
misinterpret this as 1,2,2-trimethylpropane while in fact, we do
not take the last bend in the chain as another methyl group.
Instead, we consider it as PART OF THE STRAIGHT CHAIN.

H
I
H-C-H

H H H
I I I
H-C–C–C–C–H
I I I
H H H

H-C-H

H
The figure above is another isomer called 2,3-dimethylbutane. It is
possible to flip the positions of methyl group without changing
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

formula- Note that the second number is 3 while in fact, the

position closest to the end of isomer is 2.
For isomerism in alkene and in alkyne we apply the same theory
as isomerism in alkane, and just to only add a double bond or
triple bond as it applies.

H H H H H
I I I I I
H -C–C–C–C–C=C-H
I I I I I
H H H H H
The compound above is Hexene, Hex-1-ene or n-Hexene. Notice
that the double bond is on carbon 1 of the nearest carbon to the
end.
For alkene, double bond position can be changed.
H H H H H
I I I I I
H -C–C–C–C=C–C-H
I I I I I
H H H H H

This figure is hept-2-ene, where the number in between indicates

position of double bond from nearest isomer and so on

Alkanols (Alcohol)
1. Are homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1OH
2. They have –OH functional group (hydroxyl group)
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

3. All alcohols end with suffix -ol

First three members are Methanol CH3OH, Ethanol C2H5OH or
CH3CH2OH, Propanol C3H7OH or CH3CH2CH2OH
Note For alcohol, the –OH is not of ionic hydroxide ion, OH-, but is
covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen, O–H
Manufacturing of Ethanol Fermentation of sugars with yeast-
Reacting ethene with steam Fermenting glucose
Fermentation is the breakdown of sugars into smaller molecules
by microorganisms.
C6H12O6 (aq) 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
Temperature is kept constant at 37oC to prevent destruction
of yeast at higher temperatures. Oxygen is removed by limewater
and carbon dioxide is produced during fermentation. Alcohol is
separated from solution by fractional distillation.
Reacting Ethene with Steam
Ethene and steam are passed over phosphoric acid H3PO4 (as a
catalyst) under high temperature of 300
oC and pressure of 65 atm.

C2H4 (g) + H2O(g) ⇌ C2H5OH(aq)

Since this is reversible reaction, both ethene and water are
produced aside from ethanol. The ethanol is separated by
fractional distillation.
Uses of Alcohol
As organic solvent; alcoholic drink; preservatives; vehicle fuel
REACTIONS OF ALCOHOL
Combustion Alcohols burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and
water. E.g. combustion of ethanol
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

C2H5OH (aq) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

Oxidation
1. Alcohol can be prepared in laboratory by warming alcohol with
oxidizing agent (e.g. acidified potassium chromate (VI)). The
product is carboxylic acid and water. E.g. oxidation of ethanol
produces water and ethanoic acid
C2H5OH (aq) + 2[O]{from oxidizing agent} 2CH3COOH(g) +
3H2O(l)
2. Alcohol can be oxidized when left in air with bacterial enzymes
as catalyst. The products are carboxylic acid and water. E.g.
ethanol produces water and ethanoic acid when left in air.
C2H5OH (aq) + O2(g) 2CH3COOH(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Carboxylic Acids homologous series with general formula
CnH2n+1COOH
1. They have – COOH functional group (carboxyl group)-
2. All carboxylic acids end with suffix – oic acid
First three members of the series
Methanoic acid, HCOOH
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
Propanoic acid, C2H5COOH
PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS.
Natural gas is passed over air and catalyst to form ethanoic acid
and water. E.g. production of ethanoic acid from methane
2CH4 (g) + 2O2(g) CH3COOH(aq) + 2H2O(l)
PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS Carboxylic acids are weak
acids (partially ionizes in water) -Carboxylic acids react with
metals to form metal ethanoate (salt) and hydrogen
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

E.g. Reaction between calcium and ethanoic acid forming calcium

ethanoate and hydrogen
Ca(s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2(g)
Carboxylic acids react with bases to form salt and water
(neutralization)
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium
ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH (aq)+NaOH (aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(g)
Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to form
salt, carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium
ethanoate and water.
2CH3COOH (aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) +
H2O(g)
ESTERIFICATION
ESTER is organic compound made from carboxylic acid and
alcohol with the removal of one molecule of water.
Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is added as catalyst then heat the
mixture. The reaction is reversible.
ESTER NOMENCLATURE:
Macro molecules is a large molecule made by joining together
many small molecules
Polymer is a long-chain macromolecule made by joining together
many monomers
Polymerization is the addition of monomers to make one large
polymer

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

ADDITION POLYMERISATION is the one in which small molecules

(monomers) join together to form one molecule as the only
product. From monomer to polymer Example: Formation of poly
(ethene) from ethene Ethene has double bond. Other ethene
molecules add to this unsaturated compound during
polymerization to form bigger compound.
Repeat unit is the simplest part of the polymer which is repeated
many times to form the polymer. We take the repeat unit to write
the simplified formula of the polymer, where n is a large number.
From this repeat unit, to find the monomer formula, we add
double bond between C–C and remove the bonds on each of their
sides. Ester name is [alcohol] yl [carboxylic acid] oate. For
instance, example above is butyl propanoate, where “butyl” is
from butanol; “propanoate” is from propanoic acid. Some plastic
variations and their uses are shown
CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION is the joining of monomers
together to form polymers along with the elimination of water
molecules .Nylon Di carboxylic acid and di amine undergo
condensation polymerization to form nylon. The linkage between
monomers in nylon is called amide linkage. Therefore we can also
call nylon as polyamide. Today, we use nylon as:- a replacement
of stockings and manufacture of garments to replace silk-make
tents and parachutes due to strength-fishing lines- rugs and
carpets Terylene Dicarboxylic acid (acid with 2 – COOH groups)
and diol (alcohol with 2–OH groups)undergo condensation
polymerization to form terylene.

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

The linkage between the monomers in terylene is called ester

linkage. Therefore we can call this polymer as
Polyester. Today, we use terylene in fabrics as its strong, resists
stretching and sinking and does not crumple when washed.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PLASTICS
Plastics are non-biodegradable –they cannot be decomposed by
bacteria. Therefore, many plastic waste will pollute the Earth-
Plastics produce toxic gas (such as hydrogen chloride) when burnt
and this contributes to acid rain.- Plastics produce carbon dioxide
when burnt –increases global warming.- Plastics that require CFC
during production may contribute to global warming when the
CFC is allowed to escape.

Natural Macromolecules
CARBOHYDRATES contain carbon, hydrogen & oxygen where the
ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen is 2 to 1. General formula is
Cn(H2O)n.
The simplest carbohydrate is C6H12O6 (glucose). Glucose
polymerizes each other to form starch. The overall reaction is:
nC6H12O6 nC5H10O5 + nH2O
Starch can also be broken down into glucose by heating with
dilute tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid. This is HYDROLYSIS.
PROTEINS have similar linkage to that of nylon. Only that their
monomers are only amino acids joined together. They are formed
by condensation polymerization. Proteins can be called as
polyamide as it has amide linkage. Proteins can also be broken
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

down into amino acids by boiling protein with tetreoxosulphate VI

acid. This adds water molecule unto the polymer.
FATS have similar linkage to that of Terylene (ester linkage). Only
that their monomers consists of glycerol and fatty acids; different
from Terylene. Fats can also be broken down to sodium salts of
fatty acids and glycerol by boiling it with an acid or alkali. This is
HYDROLYSIS.

Metal and their compounds

The earth provides the natural source of metals in form of ores.
Which can be extracted purified and shaped into the required
form for human and material use. Metals are grouped on the left
side of the periodic table as group I, II and III
Properties of Metals
Physical properties
1. Ductile can be stretched to form wires
2. Malleable can be bent and beaten into different shapes
3. Good conductors of electricity and heat
4. Lustre (Shiny)
5. High melting points and boiling points except mercury and
sodium
6. High density except sodium
7. High tensile strength (Strong)
Chemical properties of Metals
1. They react by losing electron, hence a strong reducing agent
K (s) K+ (aq) + e-

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

2. When they are oxidized they form basic oxide which if soluble
forms alkaline solution
Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
3. They react with dilute acid to liberate Hydrogen
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
ALLOYS are mixture of metallic elements or metallic with non-
metallic elements. Generally pure metals are weak in nature as
the layers of atoms slide over each other easily. Whereas in alloy
of 2 metals or more, they have different sizes of atoms so this
disrupts the orderly layer of atoms making it difficult for atoms to
slide over.
Uses of Alloy:
Steel (iron and carbon as trace element), Brass (copper 70% and
zinc 30 %). It is tough and corrosive-resistant
Coin metals (copper with other metals e.g. nickel). It is tough, heat
resistant and stands up to wear
Stainless Steel is an alloy of iron 73%, chromium 18%, nickel 8%,
carbon 1% Uses: Cutleries, Medical instruments for hospital
operations, Kitchen sinks, Steel objects in chemical factories and
oil refineries.
Reactions on the reactivity series
Reaction of Metals with Water
Potassium, Sodium, and Calcium reacts with cold water to form:
Metal + Water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen
Na(s) + 2H2O(l) NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium, Zinc, Iron reacts with steam to form:
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Metal + Water Metal Oxide + Hydrogen

2K(s) + 2H2O(g) K2O(s) +2H2(g)
Aluminum does not react with water
Copper, mercury and Gold have no reaction with water and steam
Reaction of Metals with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc and Iron reacts with
dilute hydrochloric acid to liberate Hydrogen:
Zn(s) + 2HC l(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Lead reacts with warm hydrochloric acid slowly. Copper and Gold
has no reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid
Displacement reaction is the displacement of ions of metal from
compounds of metals lower in reactivity series by metals higher in
reactivity series.
E.g. Magnesium displaces copper from copper (II) chloride
Mg(s) + CuCl2 (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + Cu(s)

Extraction of Metals
Minerals elements or compounds are found as Metal ores.
Some important metal ores:
Name of ore Chemical name
Formula
Sodium Rock salt Sodium chloride
NaCl Calcium Limestone Calcium
carbonate CaCO3 Magnesium
Magnesite Magnesium carbonate MgCO3
Aluminum Bauxite Aluminum oxide
Al2O3
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Zinc Blende Zinc sulphide

ZnS Iron
Haematite Iron(III)oxide
Fe2O3
Iron Magnetite Iron(II) trioxide
Fe3O4
Tin Cassiterite Tin(IV) oxide
SnO2
Lead Galena Lead (II) sulphide
PbS
Copper Chalcopyrite Copper (II) sulphide +Iron sulphide
CuFe2 (CuS + FeS)
Mercury Cinnabar Mercury (II) sulphide
HgS
Extraction is the process of removing the Metal ores from ground.
The ores contain useful and unwanted materials. Unwanted
materials are separated to obtain concentrated mineral. The
Metal is then extracted from the mineral.
Occurrence of Metals
Metal ores are compounds, usually as:-Metal oxides, eg:
Al2O3, Metal sulphide, eg: HgS, Metal carbonates, eg: MgCO3
General Method of Extraction of Metals
Least Reactive metals are the easiest to extract; extracted by
physical methods
Less Reactive metals are harder to extract than least reactive; by
blast furnace; usually occur as compounds of oxides or sulphides.

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

Most Reactive metals are the hardest to extract. Strong bonds in

compounds; extracted by electrolysis. i.e. decomposing
compounds with electricity.
Uses of Metals
The choice of metals over another depends on 3 factors:
1. Physical properties (e.g. melting point, strength, density,
conductivity)
2. Chemical properties (e.g. resistance to corrosion)
3. Cost
The Uses of Some Metals and Reason for the choice of the
metals
Aluminum Drink cans-Window frames-Low density, non-toxic,
cheap-Resists corrosion, strong
Copper Electrical wires-Water pipes-Ductile, good conductor of
electricity-Strong, malleable, resists corrosion Gold Jewelry-
Protective coating-Shiny and attractive, very malleable-Good
reflector of heat and light Titanium Supersonic aircraft-
Spacecraft-Light but strong, resists corrosion Recycling of Metals

Extraction of Iron
Iron is extracted from its ore haematite (Fe2O3). In the Blast
Furnace
1 .Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:
2. Carbon dioxide produced in 1above reacts with more coke to
produce carbon monoxide
3. The carbon monoxide reacts with iron(III) oxide to produce
molten iron, which runs down to the bottom of the furnace
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

4. The limestone decomposed by heat to form calcium oxide and

carbon dioxide
5. Iron ore contains many impurities (silicon, sulphur, phosphorus,
etc.) Sand, SiO2, reacts with calcium oxide to produce slag
(calcium silicate). Slag runs down to the bottom of the furnace,
floating on top of molten iron
6. Molten iron & slag tapped off separately in furnace. Slag is for
road construction.
7. Referring to equation, not all iron(III) oxide reacted with
carbon, only small amount
I. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
ii. CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
iii. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
iv. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
v. CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO(3l)

Steel Iron made from blast furnace is not pure enough in

quality as it contains impurities which makes it brittle (can
break easily). it cannot be bent or stretched. Most iron is
converted into steel which is an alloy of iron and carbon with
small amounts of other elements.
Advantages of steel:-it is strong and tough-it can be bent and
stretched without shattering
Manufacturing Steel Impurities of iron is removed by blowing
oxygen into molten iron to change the impurities into oxides.
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

They are then combined with Calcium Oxide and removed as

slag. Carbon and other metals are added in certain
percentage to make steel.
Different Types of Steel:-
1. Mild steel–is low carbon steel with 0.25% carbon. It is strong
and quite malleable. It is used for car bodies, ships, railway
lines and steel rods to reinforce concrete-
2. Hard steel–is a high-carbon steel with about 1% carbon. It is
harder than mild steel and less malleable. It is used to make
tools-
3. Stainless steel–is iron with large amounts of chromium and
nickel. It is hard, shiny and does not rust. It is used to make
cutleries, medical instrument and pipes in chemical
industries.
4. Rusting–corrosion of iron and steel Rust –brown solid
product formed during rusting Rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide
Fe2O3.x H2O where water molecules varies.
Conditions for Rusting : Tubes A B and C are tubes where iron
nails are put. A is left open, B contain boiled water and C contains
solid CaCl2. After a few days, only nail in tube A rusts. This shows
that air and water is needed for rust. In boiled water, the nail
doesn’t rust in B as boiled water removes dissolved air while in C,
CaCl2, keeps air dry so there’s no water. Other factor is the
dissolved salt.
Preventing Rusting
a. Surface protection
b. Sacrificial protection
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

c. Use of stainless steel Surface Protection

d. covers metal with a layer of substance e.g Paint, Grease or oil
(this also help to lubricate
e. Plastic protection
f. Metal Plating –covering metal with thin layer of another
metal (e.g. tin, chromium, silver)
Advantage –These methods are cheap (except metal plating)
Disadvantage -If the layer is broken, air and water can reach
metal to rust
Sacrificial Protection is to sacrifice more reactive metal to corrode
with water and air by layering it over less reactive metal (e.g. iron
covered by magnesium). If layer is broken, water & air reach
underneath layer, overlying metal still protect it. Applications:1)
Galvanized Iron–is steel coated with zinc, usually used on roofs.
2) Protecting ships–blocks of zinc are attached to hulls to corrode
instead of steel which is the ship metal.
3) Underground steel pipes–these are attached to magnesium
block using insulated copper cables. Magnesium corrodes first
steel.

ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENT

Air The atmosphere is a layer of air containing mixture of several
gases. This mixture composition varies according to time and
place. The composition of water vapour varies from 0 - 5%,
depending on the humidity of air.
Percentage Composition of Oxygen in Air

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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

A known volume of air is passed through tube with burning

copper powder and oxygen in air will react with hot copper
powder to produce black copper oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
If oxygen is depleted, the readings on both syringes will be steady
and the reaction has completed. Hence, to find the volume of
oxygen in air collected in syringe Volume of O2 = Initial volume of
air – Final volume of air Example, the initial volume of air in one
syringe is 80cm3 and the final volume is 64cm3. Hence, the
percentage volume of O2 in air is
% Volume of O2=80 – 64 = 16cm3
= 16/80 X 100% = 20%
Liquefaction of Air Firstly, CO2 is removed by passing air through
NaOH. Then, the air is cooled to -25oC to freeze water vapour to
be removed and the remaining air is cooled and compressed to
become liquid which is then separated into its constituents by
fractional distillation as each constituent has different boiling
point.
Combustion MOST substances react with O2 in an exothermic
reaction, which is called combustion. If flames are produced
during combustion, it is called burning. ALL carbon compounds
burn in O2 to produce CO2 while ALL hydrogen containing
compounds burn in O2 to produce H2O.When adequate supply of
oxygen is available during burning; it will create a complete
combustion. If otherwise, the combustion is incomplete
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Typical Combustion Reaction
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

When air hole is closed, oxygen cannot enter reaction chamber,

and hence soot (unburnt carbon) and CO is produced from
incomplete hydrocarbon gas combustion. As a result, flame is
yellow due to glowing specks of hot soot in heat and the flame is
not hot. When air hole is opened, air supplies plenty of oxygen,
allowing complete combustion.
Oxygen in combustion Reaction used as
1. As rocket fuel
2. In steel making, to burn off impurities
3. In oxy-acetylene cutting and welding
4. In oxygen tanks for deep sea divers and mountain climbers to
provide oxygen
5. For respiration for most animals
6. Used as oxygen tents in hospital to aid patients with
respiratory problems

Pollution is the process of making the environment dirty as

against the well being of the inhabitant.
Types of pollution include water, air and soil.
Pollutants in the soil and water are metallic compounds such as
cadmium, iron, manganese, etc. from waste discharge, like
Phosphates from fertilizers, detergents or sewage treatment
plants, Nitrates from fertilizers or sewage treatment plants are
also present.
Sewage from sewage treatment plants or septic systems, Harmful
microbes from sewage treatment plants, septic systems, naturally
occurring in water or growing in abundance due to pollution. Acid
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 OYO STATE LECTURE NOTES (CHEMISTRY)

from industrial discharges, Oil spills from oil tankers. While

mineral salt are needed for basic functions of human body such as
bone growth, fluid regulation, normalize nerve and muscle
functionality, metabolism control, aquatic plants to make food
and produce oxygen for aquatic organisms. Dissolved oxygen is
needed for respiration and growth of aquatic life. Organic matter
for growth of aquatic organisms
Acid Pollutant is Harmful as it Kills aquatic organisms and plants.
It makes water acidic and corrosive as well as unsafe to drinking.
Nitrates Causes eutrophication which deprives marine organisms
of oxygen. Nitrate ions may cause breathlessness or kill babies
when consumed
Phosphates Can cause eutrophication as it encourages the growth
of algae, hence killing aquatic organisms when they die and takes
away oxygen
Heavy metal ions these are carcinogenic that can cause skin
cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, etc.
Sewage Contains pathogens which when consumed carry diseases
such as diarrhea
Oil Is capable of trapping bird’s feathers and kills them eventually.
Oil spills also depletes oxygen as air is not able to mix with water
to provide sufficient oxygen for the aquatic animals.
Air Pollution: Pollutants are substances in atmosphere which are
harmful for living things and environment, for contributing to air
pollution. From nature, pollutant sources are volcanoes, forest
fires, decay of dead matter, etc. but from humans, they are
exhaust fumes, power stations, oil and gas, etc. Air pollutants are:
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Carbon monoxide from unburnt hydrocarbons; exhaust fumes;

forest fires. It Combine with haemoglobin when inhaled, which
produces carboxyhaemoglobin that reduces efficiency of
haemoglobin to transport oxygen. Cells then die. It is prevented
by installing catalytic converters in cars, Reduce number of cars
on road, Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete
hydrocarbon combustion
2. Sulphur dioxide it is obtained from the Combustion of fossil
fuels containing sulphur impurities; volcanic eruptions. Side effect
includes Lung irritation, eye irritation, and acid rain. It can be
Prevented using fuels containing sulphur impurities, e.g. coal-
Reduce the sulphur impurities inside fossil fuels, Spray exhaust
gases from factories with water/ hydrated CaO /alkalis to absorb
sulphur dioxide before it is released into the atmosphere, also by
adding CaO to soil and rivers to neutralize acid rain.
3. Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2, N2O4) it is obtained generally
from Lightning activity; forest fires; internal combustion engines
(as nitrogen oxides are formed by oxygen and nitrogen under high
temperature); power stations. Side effects includes
eutrophication (lung damage), acid rain. Can be controlled by
installing catalytic converters in cars, Design car engines which run
at lower temperatures.
Control for Pollution
Setting up of minimum standards for Proper disposal of rubbish
to prevent more water pollution.
Legislations to Prohibit activities potentially causing water
pollution near rivers/reservoirs such as camping or swimming
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Enforcement of legislation by Dispatching monitors to prevent

accidents and activities that could result in pollution
ACID RAIN Acid is formed by 2 main constituents SO2 and
NO2 (Sulphur dioxide/nitrogen dioxide), both react with oxygen
and water to form tetreoxosulphate VI acid/ trioxonitrate V acid.
This is called hydrolysis.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 4HNO3 (aq)

Effects of Acid Rain -The acid corrodes buildings, CaCO3 materials

and metal statues, Acid rain damages trees, Acid rain increases
acidity of soil, making soil unsuitable for plant growth, Fish cannot
survive in acidic water,
Aggravates respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and asthma.
Acid Rain can be controlled by Removing sulphur dioxide from fuel
gases by desulphurization (the removal of sulphur dioxide from
fuel or waste gases), Adding Ca(OH)2 to soil to neutralize acid
from acid rain, Burn fuels with less sulphur. The product is CO2,
which is non-polluting gas, and calcium sulphite.
CaCO3(s) + SO2 (g) CaSO3(s) + CO2 (g)
To increase profit, calcium sulphite further oxidized to produced
gypsum to be sold
2CaSO3(s) + O2 (g) + 4H2O (l) 2CaSO4.2H2O (g)
4. Methane is obtained from the decomposition of vegetable
matter; rice field; cattle ranching; natural gas; mines. It is
highly flammable, it is a greenhouse gas. It is controlled using

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Cattle and other ruminant animals as improved diet, Animal

manure and rotting vegetation can be used as biomass fuel
5. Unburnt hydrocarbons is obtained from internal combustion
engines; incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It
is Carcinogenic, it forms photochemical. It can be prevented
by installing catalytic converters in cars, by reducing the
number of cars on road, by creating more efficient engines in
cars to ensure complete hydrocarbon combustion
6. Ozone It is an allotrope (two/three different forms of a pure
element) of oxygen having structural formula O3 having
characteristic odour. It is created by reaction of nitrogen
oxides with volatile organic compounds in presence of UV
radiation. It reacts with unburnt hydrocarbons to form
photochemical smog capable of causing eye, nose and throat
irritation.
It corrodes and kills plants and trees. it can be controlled using
HCFCs which destroys faster.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG is a hazy brown air, which is a mixture of
fog and smog, that reduces visibility, causes eye irritation and
breathing difficulties. It is produced by reaction between NO2 and
O2 in the presence of sunlight to form NO, Oxygen atom and O2
molecule. This reaction is called photochemical reaction.
NO2 (g) + 2O2 (g) NO(g) + O + O2(g)
The oxygen atom is reacted with the oxygen molecules
formed to form ozone, O3.
O2(g) + O O3(g)

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Ozone can react with unburnt hydrocarbons to produce eye-

irritating substances.
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE LAYER
Use of ozone layer in stratosphere: It blocks UV rays from sun
which causes skin cancer; acts as blanket to block out high sun
energy radiation and prevent it from penetrating into Earth’s
surface. It is depleted when Ozone layer absorbs some UV
radiation and reflects some back to space. CFCs, found in coolants
in refrigerator and air conditioners, propellants in aerosols and
blowing agents, are released into the atmosphere. In the presence
of light, CFC decomposes into Cl2 at the stratosphere where ozone
is located.
2CFCl3 (g) CFCl2 ( g) + Cl CFCl2
further decomposes to produce more chlorine atoms, Cl, and CFCl
CFCl2 (g) CFCl (g) + Cl
As a result, the Cl atoms produced react with O3 molecules to
form chlorine oxide, ClO, and oxygen O2.
Cl+ O3 (g) ClO(g) + O2 (g)
The reaction uses up ozone which covers the earth and hence
creating a hole in the layer. Harmful UV rays from sun can now
reach Earth through these holes. To control depletion of ozone
layer HCFCs is used which destroys faster than CFCs.
GLOBAL WARMING Greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat
from sun by greenhouse gases to regulate Earth temperature so
that not all heat is reradiated back to space. However, increased
industrialization releases more greenhouse gases to atmosphere,

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contributing to Global Warming (increase in temperature of

Earth’s atmosphere due to trapping of heat by greenhouse gases).
EXAMPLES OF GREENHOUSE GASES ARE:
1.Carbon Dioxide which is naturally occurring or by combustion of
hydrocarbons.
2. Methane which occur naturally or emitted during production of
fuels or from decaying vegetable matter.
3. Nitrogen II Oxide is produced by industrial and agricultural
activities, and by incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
Side Effect of Global Warming It melts polar icebergs, floods low
lying areas and coastal regions alter the climatic conditions of
certain places, alter crop yield, and evaporation of water supply.
Control of GLOBAL WARMING Reduce the use of fossil fuels, Use
alternative forms of energy such as wind, tidal and hydroelectric
power, Use more electric vehicles, Reduce number of cars on
road, Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete
hydrocarbon combustion.
CARBON CYCLE about 0.03% of the atmospheric air is carbon
dioxide and this is kept constant by the process of carbon cycle.
Carbon cycle is the removal of carbon dioxide by plants by
photosynthesis and the replacement of these carbon molecules
by combustion, respiration and natural processes. In the past the
rate of absorption of carbon dioxide balances the rate of
production of carbon dioxide. Men over the time have upset this
balance. Plants use carbon dioxide from atmosphere, sunlight and
chlorophyll for photosynthesis of sugars. Some carbon is used up
in plants for growth and development, while some others are
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released to atmosphere during respiration. When plants die &

decomposed by microorganisms, CO2 released to atmosphere.
Animals on the other hand as herbivores and omnivores eat
plants, they gain carbon from them to grow and develop.
Carnivores eating these animals also gain the carbon. When
animals respire, they release carbon dioxide. When they die and
decay due to microorganism, they release carbon dioxide which is
later taken in by plants.
NON-LIVING THINGS Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are
released from electric power, plants, exhaust fumes and factory
emissions. Man burns fossil fuels, which needs millions of years to
form, that takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. This
makes man depleting natural resource as they use them rapidly
than the time needed to form, damaging natural environment and
upsetting balance of carbon cycle.

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