©Deeper Life High School.

2023

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 SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

1 ENERGY QUANTIZATION production of x-ray, duality of matter, conduction

of electricity through gases, cathode ray
oscilloscope,

2 ENERGY QUANTIZATION Atomic spectral, laser, optical fibre, hologram,

3 ROCKETS AND SATELLITE, Rockets and satellites, semiconductors, pure and

SEMICNDUCTOR impure semiconductor, Junction diode, uses

WEEK: ONE

TOPIC: ENERGY QUANTIZATION

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

By the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

i. Describe how X-ray is produced.

ii. Differentiate between hard x-ray and soft x-ray.

iii. Explain the term wave-particle duality of matter.

iv. Mention the two conditions under which gas can transfer electricity.

v. Mention the parts of the cathode ray oscilloscope and their functions.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have been taught photoelectric effect.

CONTENT

I. production of x-ray, characteristics of x-ray.

ii. types of x-ray, advantages and disadvantages of x-ray

iii. conduction of electricity through gas

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SUB-TOPIC ONE
X-RAY
These are electromagnetic radiation of high frequency. It was discovered the German physicist W. Roentgen in
the year 1895. X.ray is produced when fast moving electrons are stopped abruptly by a target. Here, some of
the kinetic energy of the electron is converted to X-ray and the remaining to heat energy. About 1% of the
energy of the electron is what is converted to x-ray. The remaining 99% is converted to heat energy in the
anode. ( x-ray production is a reverse of the photoelectric effect)
X-ray is produced in the Coolidge tube.

Cooling fins
cathode

Anode (target)
x-ray

The cathode is heated to emit electrons by thermionic emission. The electrons are then accelerated by a high
potential difference set up between the anode and the cathode. These accelerating electrons are then stopped
abruptly by the target to produce x-ray.
The energy of the accelerating electrons is
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝑉
The maximum energy of the x-ray produced equal the energy of the electron
ℎ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉 … … … … (𝑖)
V is the accelerating potential of the tube
E is the electronic charge
h is the Planck’s constant
fmax is the maximum frequency of the emitted x-ray.
The Coolidge tube consist of the following::
i. thermionic cathode; from which electrons are emitted

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 ii. Anode: a block of copper with a target on it which help to stop the accelerating electrons whereby
producing x-ray.
iii. Potential difference source; this set up a large potential difference (50 000V) between the anode
and the cathode to accelerate the emitted electrons toward the anode.
iv. Cooling fins. This help to remove the heat from the anode thereby cooling the tube.

The x-ray produced depends on the type of material used as target and the potential difference between the
anode and the cathode of the tube.
Properties of x-ray.
- They have very short wavelength (10-11 to 10-8 m)
- They travel in straight line
- They undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction… like every other wave
- They can affect photographic plate
- They can penetrate most materials
- They travel at the same speed as the speed of light (~3.0 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 )
- It can be stopped by a lead

Types of X-ray
1. Hard X-ray:
- they have higher frequency
- Short wavelength
- high penetrating than the soft X-ray.
- Produced by high tube voltage
2. Soft X-ray:
- they have lesser frequency
- longer wavelength than hard x-ray
- they are not as penetrating as the hard x-ray.
- Produced by lower tube voltage than that required for hard x-ray

Uses of X-ray
1. For diagnostic purpose in medicine
2. For destroying cancerous cell
3. Used as analytics tool in industry
4. Scanning luggage in airport
5. Used for pest and disease control in Agriculture
6. Used in checking the authenticity of art works

Solved problems

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1. An x-ray tube operates at a potential of 2500V. If the power of the tube is 750W. Calculate the speed of the
electron striking the target. ( e = 1.6 x 10 -19, mass of electron = 9.1 x 10 -31 kg)
Solution
Maximum kinetic energy of electron = eV
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 1.6 × 10−19 × 2500
2
1
× 9.1 × 10−31 × 𝑣 2 = 4000 × 10−19
2
2
4 × 10−16
𝑣 = = 0.88 × 1015
4.55 × 10−31
𝑣 = √8.8 × 1014 = 2.97 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following properties is NOT applicable to X-rays? They
A. travel in straight lines B. travel with the speed of light
C. are deflected by magnetic field D. affect photographic films
2. Calculate the energy carried by an x-ray of wavelength 6.0 x 10-10𝑚. [ℎ = 6.6 x 10-34𝐽𝑠, 𝑐 =
3.0 x 108𝑚𝑠-1]
3. An x-ray tube is operated at 40𝑘𝑉 and the current through it is 2.5𝑚𝐴.
Calculate the electrical power input.
4. Which of the following statements about X-rays is correct? X-rays
A. are produced when a metal surface is irradiated with ultraviolet light
B. are produced when a metal target is used to block fast moving electrons
C. have long wavelength and are therefore very penetrating
D. are not part of the electromagnetic spectrum
THEORY
1. (a) State the energy transformations which take place during the operation of a modern x-ray tube.
(b) State three : (i) properties of x-ray (ii) reasons to show that x-rays are waves (iii) uses of x-rays
(iv) hazards of over-exposure to x-rays in a radiological laboratory, and indicate any two safety
precautions.

2. The potential difference between the cathode and target of an x-ray tube is 5.00 x 104𝑉 and the current
in the tube is 2.00 x 10-2𝐴. Given that only one percent of total energy supplied is emitted as x-radiation,
determine the ; (i) maximum frequency of the emitted radiation; (ii) rate at which heat is removed from
the target in order to keep it at a steady temperature. 3. With the aid of a labeled diagram
describe the mode of a modern x-ray tube. (b) Define, as applied to x-rays, the following terms:
(i) hardness (ii) intensity [ℎ = 6.6 x 10-34𝐽𝑠; 𝑒 = 1.6 x 10-19𝐶 ] -
2000, 15 & 2004, 15; *2007, 15*

TOPICAL TEST
1.(i) Explain why x-rays can be used to produce photographs of fractures in bones.
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 2. (ii) List four uses of x-rays other than in medicine.
3. (b) State the energy transformations which takes place during the operation of an x-ray tube.
4. (c) (i) Explain three named dangers to which human beings may be exposed when subjected to large
doses of x-rays.
5. (d) In an x-ray tube, an electron is accelerated from rest towards a tungsten target biased at a
potential of 33 kV. Calculate, for the electron, the : (i) Kinetic energy (ii) Velocity

[ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠; 𝑀𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔; 𝑐 = 3.0 × 10−8 𝑚𝑠 −1 ; 𝑒 =

1.6 × 10−19 𝐶. ] W2012/15

SUB-TOPIC 2: Wave-Particle Paradox.

Light is a form of electromagnetic wave. It exhibits all the properties of wave such as reflection refraction,
interference. However, the phenomenon of photoelectric emission, Compton effect,… cannot be explained
from this perspective. Einstein in order to explain the photoelectric effect assumed that light travel through
space as a concentrated bundle or packet of energy called photon and it is the bundle that interacts with
electron to cause emission.
Light is taken as a wave to explain it interference and diffraction but as a photon (bundle of energy) to explain
it photoelectric effect Compton effects. Thus light has a wave-particle duality. Other electromagnetic radiations
have similar behaviour.
In 1923, a French Physicist Victor De Broglie proposed the wave-particle duality theory which state that the
wavelength of the wave associated with a moving particle equal to the ratio of the Planck’s constant and
the momentum of the particle.
ℎ
𝜆= … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑝
P is the momentum of the particle. h is the momentum of the particle and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the wave.
Example of phenomena in which wave exhibit particle like behaviour
1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton effect

Phenomena of particles behaving as wave

1. Electron diffraction (which is applied in electron microscope)
2. Neutron diffraction

Heisenberg uncertainty Principle.

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This principle states that it is not possible to measure two canonical events simultaneously to a high degree
of accuracy.
Example of canonical event
1. Momentum and position
2. Energy and time
∆𝑥. ∆𝑝 ≥ ℎ … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ ℎ … … … … (𝑖𝑣)
But p = mV
ℎ
∆𝑥. ∆𝑉 ≥ …. … … … .. (𝑣)
𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∆𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
∆𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∆𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Solved problem
1. An electron moves with a speed of 2.0 x 106 m/s in a straight line. Calculate the wavelength of the
electron.
Solution
Speed off electron v = 2.0 x 106 m/s
Momentum of electron p = mv = 9.1 x 10-31 x 2.0 x 106 = 18.2 x 10-25
Recall the De Broglie’ equation
ℎ 6.6 × 10−34
𝜆= = = 0.36 × 10−9
𝑝 18.2 × 10−25
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝜆 = 3.6 × 10−10 𝑚
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. De Broglie equation can be stated as;
ℎ ℎ 1
(a) 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 (𝑏) 𝜆 = 𝑝 (𝑐 ) 𝜆 < 𝑝 (𝑑) 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2. The approximate energy of a electromagnetic radiation in eV of a quantum whose wavelength is 12nm
is ----
3. What is the wavelength of an electron which has been accelerated through a p.d of 100V (assume e
=1.6 x 10-19C mass of electron =9.1 x 10-31kg and h = 6.6 x 10 -34Js)
4. What is 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑥?
5. Mention three phenomena that can only be explained in terms of the particle nature of light. – 1999, 10

THEORY
1. Write down the name of : (a) two particles used in explaining the wave nature of matter; (b) one device whose
invention is based on the wave nature of matter. – 2013, 10. *8 &9*

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 2.State four phenomena associated with radiation which support the wave theory of radiation OR List three observations
in support of the de Broglie’s assumptions that moving particles behave like waves.

SUB-TOPIC 3: CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN GASES

CONTENT

❖ Condition for discharge

❖ Characteristics of cathode rays and application
❖ Thermionic emission and application
❖ Diode valve/Cathode rays Oscilloscope

Condition for Discharge

Experiments with discharge tube show that gases conduct electricity under low pressure and high potential difference.
At very low pressure and high voltage, the gas in the discharge tube breaks into ions. The positive ions move towards the
cathode, the negative ions and free electrons move towards the anode. The positive ions knocks off electrons from the
metal plate of the cathode. The electrons produced at cathode are called cathode rays.

EVALUATION

1. Draw a discharge tube and explain how electricity is conducted through it.
2. What are cathode rays?

Characteristics of Cathode rays

1. They consist of streams of fast moving electrons.

2. They cause glass and other materials to glow or fluoresce with a greenish colour.
3. They travel in straight lines
4. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
5. They can ionize a gas
6. They will turn a light paddle wheel in the tube because they have mass, momentum and energy.
7. They are highly energetic particles.
8. They can affect photographic plates
9. They can produce x-rays from high density metals when they are suddenly stopped by such metals.
10. They are highly penetrating and can penetrate through metals such as aluminium, steel and gold foil.

Application of Cathode rays

One application of cathode rays is in fluorescent tubes used commercially for lighting and display signs. The tube contain
mercury vapour, which at low pressure glow or fluoresce at the passage of cathode rays.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Mention at least five characteristics of cathode rays

2. Describe how cathode rays are used in fluorescent lamp and in the production of neon sign.

SUB-TOPIC 4: Thermionic Emission

Whenever a metal is heated to a sufficiently high temperature, electrons are emitted from the surface of the metal in a
process known as thermionic emission

When the filament is heated to a high temperature, extra energy given to its free electrosn at the surface of the metal
enables them to break through the surface of the metal and exist outside it as an ‘electron cloud’. This is the process of
thermionic emission.

The diode valve is a simple application of the principle of thermionic emission. It consists of an anode, usually in the form
of a cylinder, a hot filament (heater ) made of tungsten wire and components

surrounding the filament. All these components parts are enclosed in a highly evacuated glass bulb.

Action of a diode, diode characteristics

The filament supplies free electrons when heated by the current from the battery (E), when the anode is made positive
in potential with respect to the cathode, electrons flow towards the anode and constitute the anode current (Ia) which is
registered by the milli-ammeter.

Ia

Va

Diode Characteristics

Diode characteristics curve shows that diode valve does not obey Ohm’s law . That is why it is called non-Ohmic
conductor . Because the action of diode allows current to flow only in one direction, the valve is used as rectifier to
produce d.c. voltage from an a.c supply.

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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The cathode rays oscilloscope is an instrument used for the investigation of currents voltages in electronic circuits. It is a
vacuum tube containing an electron gun at one end, and a fluorescent screen at the other end. Between these are to
pairs of deflector plates near the middle of the tube. The electron gun consists of (i) the heated filament, to supply
electrons by thermionic emission, (ii) the anode (iii0 the cathode. The anode acts as focusing lens t o accelerate and
focus the electron on to a spot in the fluorescent screen.

The cathode rays oscilloscope is used for studying all types of wave forms especially the alternating current wave forms
and to measure frequencies and amplitude of voltage of electronic devices.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. When a metal is heated to a high temperature and electrons are emitted from its surface, this is known as ____
(a) photoelectric emission (b) Thermionic emission (c) field emission

(d) secondary emission

2. The term electrical discharge means (a) voltage is a gas (b) current in a liquid ( c) current in a gas (d) voltage in
a liquid.

3. Which of the following is an application of glow discharge phenomena? (a) filament lamp

(b) fluorescent lamp (c) cathode ray oscilloscope (d) electron microscope .

4. Which of the following is an application of hot cathode emission. (a) filament lamp (b) cathode ray oscilloscope
(c) electron telescope (d) Binoculars

5. Which of the following contributed to conduction in a gas? (i) molecules (ii) electrons (iii) ions (A) I only (b) II
only (c) I and III only (d) II and III only.

THEORY

1 (a) Draw a labeled diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope showing the essential parts (b) What are the
functions of: (i) the hot filament (ii) the anode (iii) fluorescent screen

(iv) deflector plates

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 (c) State one way in which cathode rays differ from electromagnetic waves

2 (a) Describe briefly how electrons can be liberated from i. a cold cathode ii. A hot cathode

(b) What is thermionic emission.

3. a) On what principle does lighting in a fluorescent tube operate?

(b) State two factors which determine the color of light produced in a fluorescent tube.

accelerating potential in a cathode ray oscilloscope is 2.5𝑘𝑉. Calculate the maximum

3. The
speed of the accelerated electrons. [𝑒 = 1.6 x 10−19 C; 𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 x 10−31 𝑘𝑔]

TOPICAL TEST
1. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron which has fallen through a potential difference of 100𝑉. [ℎ =
6.6 x 10-34𝐽𝑠; 𝑒 = 1.6 x 10-19𝐶; 𝑀𝑒 = 9.1 x 10-31𝑘𝑔
2. Why is it difficult to design an experiment in which matter will exhibit both particle and wave nature simultaneously?
3. State 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔’𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒. Write out the expression for this principle in terms: (i) position &
momentum, (ii) energy & time
4. What is the major significance of the 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒?
5. The uncertainty in the position of a proton is 10-9𝑚. Given that the mass of
the proton is 10-13𝑘𝑔, calculate the uncertainty in the simultaneous
measurement of its velocity.
6. The uncertainty in determining the duration during which an electron remains in a particular energy level before
returning to the ground state is 2.0 x 10-9𝑠. Calculate the uncertainty in determining its energy at that level. [Take
ℏ = 1.055 x 10-34𝐽𝑠]
7. An electron moves in a straight line with a constant speed 𝑣 = 1.10 x 106𝑚/𝑠 which has been measured to a
precision of 0.10%. What is the maximum precision with which its position could be simultaneously measured?
8. What is the uncertainty in position, imposed by the uncertainty principle, on a 150𝑔 baseball thrown at (93 ±
2) 𝑚𝑝ℎ = (42 ± 1) 𝑚/𝑠? (Should the umpire be concerned? Can he use Heisenberg as an excuse?)
ℎ 6.625 x 10-34
[Note : ℏ = = = 1.055 x 10-34𝐽𝑠.]
2𝜋 2𝜋
9. Calculate the 𝑑𝑒 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 wavelength of a 0.20𝑘𝑔 ball with a speed of 15𝑚/𝑠. [ ℎ = 6.6 x 10-34𝐽𝑠]
10. The uncertainty in determining the duration during which an electron remains in a particular energy level before
returning to the ground state is 2.0 x 10−9 𝑠. Calculate the uncertainty in determining its energy at that level. (ℏ =
ℎ 6.625 x 10-34
2𝜋
= 2𝜋
= 1.054 x 10-34𝐽𝑠) W2011/9&10

THEORY

1. List three advantages of fluorescent tubes over filament bulbs.

List three advantages of a p - n junction diode over diode valve. W2017/6 & 7
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 2. (a) State two experimental evidences of the particle nature of matter. (b) Name one
experiment that is used to : i. estimate the size of a molecule, ii. determine motion of
molecules.
3. State three differences between ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑 and soft 𝑥 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠. N2016/9 & 10

4. State two : (i). applications of a photocell, (ii). hazards that occur from
exposure to x-rays.
5.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑹
Name the three basic components 𝑷, 𝑸 and 𝑹 that makes up a cathode ray tube (CRT), as
illustrated in the diagram above.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

i. Cathode ray: Beam of high speed electron.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: Differentiate between photoelectric emission and thermionic emission

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE: "The universe is under no obligation to make sense to you." - Neil de Grasse Tyson

WEEK: TWO

TOPIC: ENERGY QUANTIZATION

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

i. Differentiate between emission and absorption spectrum.

ii. Explain the concept LASER.

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III. Explain the uses of Laser.

iv. Explain the term Hologram.

v. Describe the optical fibre.

vi. Explain the uses of optical fibre.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have done quantization of energy.

SUB-TOPIC 1: Atomic Spectra

CONTENT:

A gas can give off light only if energy is given to the atoms of the gas. A gas atom given energy is said to be
excited. A gas can be excited by heating, by sending electrical discharge through the gas this can be done by
placing a high voltage across a tube containing the gas at low pressure. The light given out by the gas consists of a
large number of spectral lines.

spectrum simply means an array of entity in order of increasing or decreasing magnitude.

These spectra of light can be grouped into two
1. Emission spectra: This is the light emitted directly from a source(hot gas). There are three types of
emission spectra
(i) Line spectra: it consists of distinct and separate bright lines of definite wavelength. They are
produced by gas or vapour at low pressure e.g sodium in sodium vapour lamp, mercury in
mercury vapour lamp, gases in discharge tubes.

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 (ii) Band spectra: it consists of many distinct groups or bands of lines which are very close together
and at one side of the band and fading out at the other end. They are obtained from molecules
of glowing gases or vapour and by discharge tubes. E.g Calcium or barium salts in a Bunsen
flame.

(iii) Continuous spectra: these are produced by solid and liquids or by gases at high pressure. It can
be produce by the filament of electric lamp.

RAINBOW

2. ABSORPTION SPECTRA: these are produced when part of the radiation emitted by a source is absorbed
by a material and observed with a spectrometer, the obtained spectrum is called absorption spectrum.

i. Line Absorption spectrum: it occurs when white light passes through a monoatomic gas(cold gas) and
observed through a spectrometer. , it is found to have dark lines in the position corresponding to bright line
in the emission spectra.

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 ii. Band Absorption spectrum: if white light is allowed to pass through gases with more than one atom i.e
iodine vapour or dilute solution of blood, dark bands on continuous bright background are obtained

iii. Continuous Absorption spectrum: these are produced when white light falls on solid and liquids. When
white light falls on a green plate, it absorbs every other colour except green and gives a continuous
absorption spectrum.

Kirchhoff explain this phenomenon by

stating this law
A substance which emits light of a
certain wavelength at a given
temperature will absorb light of the
same wavelength at that temperature.

PRACTICE EXERCISE:

THEORY

1. What do you understand by ‘ground state’ and ‘excited state’?

2. Write a short note on the line spectra using energy level to explain the phenomenon
3. Differentiate between excitation and ionization.

4.(i) State the three types of emission spectra. (ii) Name one source each of the spectra
stated 1(b)(i).
5.(a)(i) Define atomic spectra. (i) Differentiate between emission spectra and absorption spectra.

SUB-TOPIC 2: LASER

CONTENT:

LASER
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The LASER is a device which amplifies
light waves similar to the transistor which amplifies electric current. The laser is a powerful source of light.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER
Laser radiation is different from normal light radiation. The characteristics of laser are given below:
1. Laser radiation is monochromatic. It contains only one particular
wavelength (colour) of light. The wavelength is determined by the
amount of energy released.
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 2. Laser radiation is coherent. In emitted radiation all the photons are
having the same phase and amplitude.
3. Laser radiation is highly directional. Laser beam of light can travel very
long distance, without much divergence.
4. Laser radiation is very intense. The intensity and hence the brightness
of the laser radiation is high.
5. The radiation having single wavelength, same amplitude and same
phase is called ‘coherent radiation’.

PRINCIPLE OF LASER
Laser works on the principle of quantum theory of radiation. When an atom in the lower energy E1 absorbs the photon
energy of incident radiation, it is excited to the higher energy level of energy E2 . This process is called absorption. The
number of absorption transition take place per unit time per unit volume is directly proportional to the number of atoms
in the lower energy level and the number of photons in the incident radiation.The energy difference E2 –E1 is called
excitation energy and it is equal to the energy of the photon absorbed by the atom. In higher energy level(E2 ), the atom
cannot remain long time, since it has a tendency to drop energy. So the atom jumps to the lower energy level (E1 ). At
that time, the energy difference E -E is emitted in the form of radiation as photon. The energy of the photon released, E2
–E1 =hf, where f is the frequency of the radiation and h, the Planck's constant.
STIMULATED EMISSION
Einstein found a new process called stimulated emission to increasethe number of transition of atoms from higher
energy levels to lower energy levels. Stimulated emission is the process of photon emissions takes place by an
inducement given by another photon incident on the the atoms in higher energy levels. The energy of the photon
emitted is equal to the energy of the photon incident.
Consider an atom in the higher energy level (E2 ). When an external radiation of photon energy E2 –E1 is incident on the
excited atom photon stimulates the atom to make transition from higher to lower energy level. As a result the same
photon energy E2 –E1 is emitted in the form of radiation. During this process, the stimulating photon and the photon
emitted by the excited atom are emitted simultaneously in the same direction. Hence they are identical in phase,
direction and frequency and
are coherent. This process of stimulated emission is used to produce laser beam.
The number of stimulated transition (N ) taking place per unit time st
per volume is directly to
1) the number of atoms in the higher energy level (N )
2) The number of photons in the incident radiation (Q)
The stimulated emission can be multiplied through a chain reaction. When a single photon hits an atom in the higher
energy level, two photons are emitted by stimulated emission. Then these two photons hit on two atoms of higher level,
four photons are emitted. This process is continued as a chain reaction and the photons are getting multiplied. Finally it
leads to the emission of the powerful, coherent, monochromatic and highly directional beam of laser light. This is called
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

USES OF LASER:
1. Laser is used to find the long distances by direct pulse reflection
method. Using this method, the distance between the moon and earth
was measured accurately.
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 2. It is used to produce high temperature to melt and vapourise the metals
in a very short period.
3. It is used to bore holes in hard substances like tungsten and diamond.
4. It can be modulated to transmit hundred messages at a time on radio,
television and telephone.

5. The big size objects like aeroplanes, missiles etc can be destroyed in a
few seconds by passing a powerful laser beam on to them. For this
reason, laser is called a “Death ray” instrument.

6. In surgery, a laser beam is used in spot-welding of a detached retina in

the eye ball. It is also used for painless drilling and welding the surface
of a tooth to prevent its decay.

7. The laser beam is not easily absorbed by water. So it can be used in

under-water communication between submarines.

HOLOGRAMS

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Holograms are three dimensional images recorded on film by lasers. Holograms are used for amusement, decoration
on novelty items and magazine covers, security on credit cards and driver’s licenses. Hologram is a true three
dimensional image because object changes relative position in the image when viewed from different angles.

PRODUCTION OF HOLOGRAM
Single-wavelength of coherent light from a laser produces a well defined interference pattern on a piece of film.

The laser beam is split by a partially silvered mirror with part of the light illuminating the object and the remainder
shining directly on the film. Light scattered from the object interfere with the reference beam producing constructive
and destructive interference, the exposed film is foggy, where the interference was constructive the film was
darkened.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)

I. a) What does the acronym LASER stand for? (b) What is a laser? W2018/6 & 7
1. State three properties of LASERS that make them preferable to ordinary light beam.

SUB-TOPIC 3: OPTICAL FIBRE

CONTENT:

OPTICAL FIBRE
OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE AS A WAVE GUIDE

The optical fibre cables are used as wave guides for transmitting electromagnetic waves at optical frequencies. These
frequencies are in 15 10 the order of 10 Hz higher than that of radio wave frequency of 10 Hz.The number of information
transmitted is directly proportional to the frequency of the transmitted signals. Hence 15,000 and more simultaneous
telephone conversations are possible to transmit along a single optical fibre cable. But in a single pair of metallic cable,
only 48 simultaneous telephone conversations can be transmitted in the form of electric current.

An optical fibre cable is a cylindrical core made of silica glass of radius 0.0002 cm to 0.001 cm. Around this core cladding
is formed by the addition of small amount of boron, germanium or phosphorus to form the rarer medium. The cladding
is necessary to retain the light waves within the core and also to provide mechanical strength. Further the cladding is
coated with buffer jacket made of plastic to protect the fibre from moisture and scratches. The buffer jacket is also
surrounded by a thick tougher like Kevlar that provides toughness and tensile strength to the fibre. Finally the cableis
covered by black polyurethane outer jacket that provides flexibility to the fibre.

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MODE OF OPERATION

When the optical signal enters at one end of the fibre, it is incident onthe layer separating the core and cladding. The
angle of incidence isgreater than the critical angle. Since the core is a denser medium and the cladding is a rarer
medium, total internal reflections take place continuously throughout the core region as shown in the figure. Finally it
comes out from the other end of the fibre. Hence the optical fibre functionsas a wave guide.

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE CABLES (O.F.C)

1. The fibre material is made of silica glass which is available in surplus in the world compared to copper
2. or aluminium.
3. Silica is very much cheaper than copper.
4. There is no electrical danger, since no electric current flows through the fibre. It carries only optical signal.
5. Optical fibre can be handled more easily because of their light weight,smaller in size and flexibility.
6. The optical signal transmitted through the fibre cannot be disturbed by the radio frequency interference.
7. Tapping (overhear secrets) of information is impossible in fibre optic systems.
8. A large number of signals can be simultaneously transmitted along the optical fibre cables compared to the
metallic cables.
9. The loss of intensity of energy is less in optical fibre cables compared to the metallic cables. In the optical fibre
cables the loss is 12.5 dB per km

PRACTICE EXERCISE:

1. (a) State the principle of operation of fibre optics. (b) State two applications of fibre optics in medicine.

2. (a) In the design of an optical fibre, what type of material is most suitable for the design of the core?
(b) State one condition necessary to confine signals to the core of an optical fibre.

TOPICAL TEST:

1. List two applications of fibre optics.

2. Mention the five parts of the optical fibre.

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3. Which signal is used in optical fiber ?
4. The loss of optical power as light travels along a fibre is called
a. dispersion b. scattering c. attenuation d. absorption
5. The cladding performs all except which of the following functions a. reduces the scattering loss at the
surface B. reduces the source of light from the core c. reduces mechanical strength d. protects the
fibre core from absorbing surface contaminants
6. Fiber optics uses what medium to send information?
a. photons b. light c. electrons d. link11

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY: Fiber-0ptic communication is a method of transmitting

information from one places to another by sending pulses of infrared or visible light through an optical fiber.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER: Mention the differences between Laser beam and ordinary light.

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES: "Science is a way of thinking much more than it is a body of knowledge." - Carl Sagan

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WEEK: THREE

TOPIC: ROCKET, SATELLITE, SEMICONDUCTOR

LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

i. Differentiate between emission and absorption spectrum.

ii. Explain the concept LASER.

III. Explain the uses of Laser.

iv. Explain the term Hologram.

v. Describe the optical fibre.

vi. Explain the uses of optical fibre.

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students have done velocity, period and energy of a satellite.

SUB-TOPIC 1: ROCKET

CONTENT:

Rocket
These are self propelled device that obtains it thrust by ejecting a stream of fast moving fluid through it rear
end. The force of these hot gases shooting out in one direction causes the rocket to move in the opposite
direction. A rocket engine is the most powerful engine for its weight. Other forms of propulsion, such as jet-
powered and propeller-driven engines, cannot match its power.

Uses of rocket
1. For fireworks used in entertainment
2. For firing missiles
3. Sounding rocket for carrying scientific instrument to high altitude for scientific research
4. Jet-Assisted-Take-Off (JATO) rocket for airlifting heavy laden planes
5. Life-saving rocket used for carrying lifeline rope to stranded ships
6. Saturn V rocket which carries human to the moon
7. Rocket ejection seats safely boost pilots out of jet planes during emergencies
8. Signal rocket launched from ships in distress to signal for help.
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Components of the rocket

1. Propellant tank: it stores the fuel or the propellant

2. Combustion chamber, this is where the fuel is burnt to produce the hot gases that gives the rocket a
forward thrust.
3. Nozzle; this is the opening at the rear of the rocket from where the hot gas escape.
4. Fins: these are located at the side of the rocket to stabilize it and maintain it direction of motion in space.
5. Payload: this depends on the function of the rockets.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

SUB-TOPIC 2: SATELLITE

CONTENT:

SATELLITES
A body moving in an orbit around another bigger body is called a satellite. A body that moves around a planet is called a
satellite.
NATURAL SATELLITES: The objects that are moving in orbit by nature itself around a planet are called natural satellites.
For example, moon is the natural satellite for the earth. The earth is a satellite for the sun.
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES: Man also has placed artificially some satellites to move in orbit around the desired planets.
Artificial satellites are carried by rockets to the predetermined height, a few hundred kilometers above the surface of the
earth. At this height the air is in a rarefied state and hence air friction is negligible. After reaching the predetermined
height, the satellite is given very high horizontal velocity so that it remains moving in a nearly circular orbit.
CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
1. Earth resource satellites
2. Meteorological satellites
3. Satellites carrying microwave sensors.

USES OF SATELLITES
1. For telecommunication
2. For identification of place on the earth
3. To enhance military intelligence
4. Tor meteorological studies
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 5. Scientific study of the earth
6. For space science

Since the launch of the first artificial satellite in 1957, thousands of satellite had been positioned to orbit the
earth

Component of satellites
Basically, satellite consists of the following:
1. Power generation and distribution system: most satellite uses solar energy from the sun. They also
contain rechargeable batteries to store energy during eclipse.
2. Command and data handling system. It contains antennae to receive and transmit signal and
computers to process these signals
3. Payload: this contains measuring instruments and imaging devices or any other items relating to the
mission of the satellite.
4. Protective shielding: this protect the satellite against the cold, intense radiation form the sun, collision
of space rocks,…
5. Rocket thrusters system: this is necessary so as to move the satellite back to position when there is a
shift or when the need arises to move the satellite to another location around the earth.

NIGERIA SATELLITES

1. NIGER-SAT I
This was launched in 2003. It was the first Nigeria satellite launched into space. It is a micro-satellite of
about 100kg used for disaster monitoring, cross border monitoring, oil pipeline monitoring, monitor if
area for early indication of coaster erosion, desertification and pollution. The satellite was scheduled to
stay in orbit for five after which it is to be deorbited.

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 Niger-SAT Ie had provided information on mapping of areas in Nigeria, meteorological data, geological
information,… Ever since the launch of the Niger- SAT I, there had been plans to launch other Nigeria
satellites such as the Niger-SAT II and the Niger-SAT X to consolidate the information obtained from
the Niger-SAT I by the time it will be deorbited. There had also been projection that by the year 2025,
Nigeria will launch its first satellite produced by Nigerian engineers and launch from Nigeria soil.
2. NICOM SAT I.
This is a communication satellite intended to expand mobile phone and internal service in Central
Africa. However, due to the failure of it solar cell system, the satellite has cease to function.
PRACTICE QUSTIONS:

i. what is a satellite? A. a dish on the side of a house B. any object orbiting a planet c. a method for
communicating over large distances

ii. which of the following is an example of a natural satellite a. satellite T.V b. GPS satellite C. Moon

III. What is the period of a satellite? A. the time it takes to orbit a planet b. the time to orbit the star c. the time
it takes to fall to the ground.

SUB-TOPIC 4: SEMICONDUCTOR

CONTENT

SEMICONDUCTOR
A Semiconductor is a material which has an electric conductivity intermediate in value between that of a a good
conductor and that of a good insulator.

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR

1. Intrinsic semiconductor
2. Extrinsic semiconductor

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR OR PURE SEMICONDUCTOR

TYPES

germanium and silicon

STRUCTURE
They posses a crystalline structure i.e the atoms are arranged in orderly manner and they have four valence electrons.
They are in group IV of the periodic table.
CONDUCTIVITY
Below room temperature pure germanium is a poor electrical conductor.
At room temperature, thermal energy of the valency electron may become greater than the energy binding it to its
nucleus, such an electron becomes liberated from the bonds and becomes free electron by moving out of its position in
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the atom. This leaves a vacancy at the electron’s former position. This vacant space is called hole. An electron from a
neighboring atom can move into the vacancy.
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases when it is irradiated with electromagnetic waves of a certain maximum
wavelength or temperature is increased.
CARRIERS OF ELECTRICITY
a. free electrons which have negative charges
b. Holes which have positive charges.

APPLICATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD

When an electric field is applied the charge carriers move in opposite directions. Holes behave like positive charged
particle.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR OR IMPURE SEMICONDUCTOR

Addition of impurity to the pure semiconductor is called doping. This is done to increase its conductivity.

TYPES
a. n-type
b. p-type

a. n-type
This is done by doping into germanium with small amount of arsenic( donor). Arsenic is in group 5, it has five valency
electrons. Germanium has four valency electrons so, four of the valency electron of Arsenic forms a covalent bond
with germanium. The fifth valency electron is very loosely bound, it does not participate in covalent bond.
Conductivity is due to the movement of electron. The majority carrier of current are negative electrons while the
minority carrier are holes.

b. p-type
Adding atoms of an element in Group 3 e.g Boron or indium to germanium produces a p-type. Boron has three valency
electrons, to form covalent bond with germanium, it can take electron from germanium, leaving a hole in germanium.
This hole acts as a positive charge that can move through the crystal, The boron is called the acceptor. Conduction is
due to movement of holes. The majority carrier of current are holes.

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
1. Rectifier ( p-n Junction diode)

2. photocell

3. light emitting diode(LED)

Rectifier ( p-n Junction diode)

To fabricate a p-n junction is to deposit some n-type material on the very clean surface of p-type material. It acts as
current rectifier i.e allows current to flow only in one direction (forward bias) and little or nothing in the reverse bias.
It can change alternating current to direct current.

FORWARD BIAS

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If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p- region and the negative terminal to the

n-region, the positive terminal repels the numerous holes across the junction and the negative terminal repels the
electrons across the junction, thus holes plentiful in the p-region flow easily across the junction into the n-region. Free
electrons, plentiful in the n-region easily into p-region, these movement of charge constitute a forward current. The p-
n junction diode in this arrangement has a fairly low resistance and conducts well.

REVERSE BIAS

P N

Connecting the negative terminal of the battery to the p-region and positive terminal to the n-region gives a reverse
bias. The negative terminal repels electrons from p-region to n-region and positive terminal repels holes from n-region
to p-region, but there are few free electrons in the p-region and very few holes in the n-region. As a result the current
in the reverse direction is much smaller than that with the same potential difference in the forward direction.

I-V CHARACTERISTICS FOR P-N JUNCTION DIODE

Forward bias
I

-V

V
Reverse bias
-I
The graph does not obey ohm’s law.

p-n junction diode has a low resistance in one direction (forward bias) and a high resistance in the reverse bias. Thus it
can be used as a current rectifier to change a.c to d.c.

ADVANTAGES OF p-n JUNCTION OVER THERMIONIC DIODE

I. It is much smaller
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2. it needs a small p.d to operate in a radio receiver

3. it requires no time to warm up to produce current carriers.

4. it is cheaper to manufacture in large quantities and less liable to break.

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

In half wave rectifier, if a.c supply is applied at input, positive half cycle appear across output and negative half cycle
suppressed . Only one crystal diode is used.

WAVE FORMS
VInput

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

It has two diodes , D1 produces one half of the cycle, D2 produces another one half of the circuit. The output is
equivalent to a steady voltage together with varying voltages. To filter of the fluctuations, a filter circuit is used which
consists of a high inductance in series with a large capacitance, since inductance and capacitance are in series with
voltage, very little of the varying voltage appears.

D1

D2
WAVEFORM
Vinput

t
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following statements about a diode is correct ?

A. Reverse bias diodes have low resistance

B. Forward bias diodes have high resistance

C. Forward bias diodes produce high current

D. Forward bias diodes function as a result of heat.

2. Which of the following is a semiconductor material?

A. Copper B. Silicon C. Steel D. Iron

3. In a common emitter configuration, the output voltage is through the

A. resistor B. Base C. collector D. emitter

4. Which of the graphs below shows the characteristics of an I-V transistor?

A I B I
I
V
V
D I
C I

V
5. The bond between silicon and germanium is

A. dative B. covalent C. trivalent D. ionic

THEORY

1.(a) What is 𝑑𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 in a semi conductor? (b) Draw the symbol for 𝑂𝑅 gate.

Input
R Output
voltage V voltage

2. The circuit above consists of an 𝑎. 𝑐. voltage input, a diode, a resistor, and a voltmeter.
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 (a) Identify the circuit. (b) Draw the waveform for the output voltage.
(a) Write the de-Broglie equation. (b) Explain the significance of the equation. W2015/5, 6 &
7

3. Explain how doping improves the conductivity of a semiconductor.

TOPICAL TEST

1. The p-n junction diodes can act as rectifiers because they

A. conduct current when forward-biased

B. conduct current when reverse-biased

c. block current when forward-biased

D. conduct current in both directions

2. If a reverse-biased voltage is applied across a p-n junction, the depletion layer width is

A. increased B. decreased C. constant D. halved

3. The electrical properties of germanium can be altered drastically by the addition of impurities. This process is
referred to as

A. saturation B. bonding C. amplification D. doping

4 Which of the following is a pure semiconductor?

A. Silicon B. Phosphorus C. Transistor D. Carbon

5. Which of the following can conduct electricity owing to the presence of free mobile electrons?

A. Germanium B. Silicon C. Grapefruit D. Copper

6. When a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes

A. a p-type semiconductor B. an n-type semiconductor

C. an insulator D. an intrinsic semiconductor

7. Zener diode is used for

A. current amplification B. power amplification C. voltage regulation D. energy conversion

8. When a pure semiconductor is heated, its resistance

A. increases B. decreases C. remains the same D. increases and then decreases.

9. i. For current amplification ii. For voltage stabilization iii. for power amplification iv. Switch.
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 Which of the above are the uses of a transistor?

A. I, ii, iii and iv B. I, iii and iv only C. I, ii and iii only D. I, ii and iv only

10. Silicon doped with aluminium and germanium doped with arsenic become

A. p-and n-types respectively B. n-and p- types respectively

C. p-type semiconductors D. n-type semiconductor

THEORY

1. List three advantages of a p - n junction diode over diode valve. W2017/6 & 7

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:

1. A silicon material is doped with an element of a certain group and an n-type semiconductor is

formed. The most likely group of the element is

A. 1 B. II C. III D. V

2. When impurities are added to semiconductors, the conductivity of the semiconductor

A. increases B. decreases C. remains constant D. increases then decreases

3. The current in a reverse-biased junction is due to

A. majority carriers B holes C. minority carriers D. electrons

4. Explain each of the following terms as used in Electronics : (a) free electrons (b) holes

5. A satellite close to the earth( at a height of 20km) has an orbital speed of 8km/s. Take the radius of the orbit to be
approximately equal to the Earth’s radius of 6400km.

a. Write down an expression for the circumference of the orbit.

b. Write down an equation for the time for one orbit.

c. calculate the time it takes for the satellite to complete one orbit.

INSPIRATIONAL QUOTE: "The greatest discoveries often lie not in finding new things, but in seeing familiar things in new
ways." - Alexander Fleming

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