I n t e r n a t i o n a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n U n i o n

ITU-T Series G
TELECOMMUNICATION Supplement 59
STANDARDIZATION SECTOR
OF ITU (09/2016)

SERIES G: TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS AND MEDIA,

DIGITAL SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Guidance on optical fibre and cable reliability

ITU-T G-series Recommendations – Supplement 59

 ITU-T G-SERIES RECOMMENDATIONS
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS AND MEDIA, DIGITAL SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

INTERNATIONAL TELEPHONE CONNECTIONS AND CIRCUITS G.100–G.199

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS COMMON TO ALL ANALOGUE CARRIER- G.200–G.299
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL CARRIER TELEPHONE G.300–G.399
SYSTEMS ON METALLIC LINES
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL CARRIER TELEPHONE SYSTEMS G.400–G.449
ON RADIO-RELAY OR SATELLITE LINKS AND INTERCONNECTION WITH METALLIC
LINES
COORDINATION OF RADIOTELEPHONY AND LINE TELEPHONY G.450–G.499
TRANSMISSION MEDIA AND OPTICAL SYSTEMS CHARACTERISTICS G.600–G.699
DIGITAL TERMINAL EQUIPMENTS G.700–G.799
DIGITAL NETWORKS G.800–G.899
DIGITAL SECTIONS AND DIGITAL LINE SYSTEM G.900–G.999
MULTIMEDIA QUALITY OF SERVICE AND PERFORMANCE – GENERIC AND USER- G.1000–G.1999
RELATED ASPECTS
TRANSMISSION MEDIA CHARACTERISTICS G.6000–G.6999
DATA OVER TRANSPORT – GENERIC ASPECTS G.7000–G.7999
PACKET OVER TRANSPORT ASPECTS G.8000–G.8999
ACCESS NETWORKS G.9000–G.9999

For further details, please refer to the list of ITU-T Recommendations.

 Supplement 59 to ITU-T G-series Recommendations

Guidance on optical fibre and cable reliability

Summary
Supplement 59 to ITU-T G-series Recommendations provides guidance regarding the long term
reliability of cabled optical fibres. This Supplement uses currently accepted models combined with
current experience to describe items that can impact the performance of an optical fibre over time. The
document describes ''optical reliability'' for fibres, ''mechanical reliability'' for fibres and describes how
optical cables impact these properties.

History
Edition Recommendation Approval Study Group Unique ID*
1.0 ITU-T G Suppl. 59 2016-09-30 15 11.1002/1000/13123

* To access the Recommendation, type the URL http://handle.itu.int/ in the address field of your web
browser, followed by the Recommendation's unique ID. For example, http://handle.itu.int/11.1002/1000/1
1830-en.

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) i

 FOREWORD
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations specialized agency in the field of
telecommunications, information and communication technologies (ICTs). The ITU Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is a permanent organ of ITU. ITU-T is responsible for studying technical,
operating and tariff questions and issuing Recommendations on them with a view to standardizing
telecommunications on a worldwide basis.
The World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA), which meets every four years, establishes
the topics for study by the ITU-T study groups which, in turn, produce Recommendations on these topics.
The approval of ITU-T Recommendations is covered by the procedure laid down in WTSA Resolution 1.
In some areas of information technology which fall within ITU-T's purview, the necessary standards are
prepared on a collaborative basis with ISO and IEC.

NOTE
In this publication, the expression "Administration" is used for conciseness to indicate both a
telecommunication administration and a recognized operating agency.
Compliance with this publication is voluntary. However, the publication may contain certain mandatory
provisions (to ensure, e.g., interoperability or applicability) and compliance with the publication is achieved
when all of these mandatory provisions are met. The words "shall" or some other obligatory language such as
"must" and the negative equivalents are used to express requirements. The use of such words does not suggest
that compliance with the publication is required of any party.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

ITU draws attention to the possibility that the practice or implementation of this publication may involve the
use of a claimed Intellectual Property Right. ITU takes no position concerning the evidence, validity or
applicability of claimed Intellectual Property Rights, whether asserted by ITU members or others outside of
the publication development process.
As of the date of approval of this publication, ITU had not received notice of intellectual property, protected
by patents, which may be required to implement this publication. However, implementers are cautioned that
this may not represent the latest information and are therefore strongly urged to consult the TSB patent database
at http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/ipr/.

 ITU 2016
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, by any means whatsoever, without the prior
written permission of ITU.

ii G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016)

 Table of Contents
Page
1 Scope............................................................................................................................. 1
2 References..................................................................................................................... 1
3 Definitions .................................................................................................................... 1
4 Abbreviations and acronyms ........................................................................................ 1
5 Conventions .................................................................................................................. 1
6 General comments on reliability................................................................................... 1
7 Optical reliability .......................................................................................................... 3
7.1 Bending loss ................................................................................................... 3
7.2 Hydrogen ........................................................................................................ 4
7.3 Impact of nuclear radiation ............................................................................. 5
7.4 Attenuation stability ....................................................................................... 5
8 Mechanical reliability ................................................................................................... 6
8.1 General comments on mechanical strength of optical fibres .......................... 6
8.2 Power law theory ............................................................................................ 7
8.3 The time to failure or fibre lifetime is often the parameter of interest. .......... 8
8.4 Static and dynamic stress corrosion parameter and impact on reliability ...... 8
8.5 Relationship between proof stress and proof-testing on reliability ................ 9
8.6 Handleability of optical fibre.......................................................................... 9
8.7 Test proceedures that measure aspects of mechanical reliability ................... 9
9 Strain due to bends tension, to axial tension or a combination of the two
mechanisms................................................................................................................... 9
10 Impact of cable properties on reliability ....................................................................... 10
10.1 Fibre strain and cable strain ............................................................................ 10
10.2 Installation load vs. long term load ................................................................ 10
Appendix I  Lifetime expectation in case of small radius bending of single-mode fibre ...... 11
I.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 11
I.2 General aspects of failure characteristics under small radius bending ........... 11
I.3 Network and network failure examples .......................................................... 12
I.4 Fibre lifetime considerations .......................................................................... 13
I.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 15
Appendix II  Long term reliability of deployed optical fibre cables ..................................... 16
II.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 16
II.2 Factors having an impact on the objectives for the reliability of deployed
optical cables .................................................................................................. 16
II.3 Example of objectives for the reliability of laid optical cables ...................... 17
Bibliography............................................................................................................................. 18

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) iii

Introduction
Supplement 59 to the ITU-T G-series Recommendations provides information on long-term
reliability of optical fibre and cable. ITU-T establishes optical fibre and cable Recommendations such
as [ITU-T G.651.1], [ITU-T G.652], [ITU-T G.653], [ITU-T G.654], [ITU-T G.655], [ITU-T G.656],
and [ITU-T G.657]. Also, ITU-T standardized optical cables as described in some of the L series
Recommendations. This Supplement also provides more detail on optical fibres reliability described
in [ITU-T G-Sup.40].

iv G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016)

Supplement 59 to ITU-T G-series Recommendations

Guidance on optical fibre and cable reliability

1 Scope
The scope of this Supplement is to give the end user guidance on the long-term performance of optical
fibre and cables. Though it is difficult to address all situations and to guarantee long-term
performances, this supplement helps understand general long-term behaviour of optical fibres and
cables and provides guidelines to help the end users minimize the number of mechanical and optical
failures during the expected lifetime of the fibre and cable.

2 References
[ITU-T G.651.1] Recommendation ITU-T G.651.1 (2007), Characteristics of a 50/125 µm
multimode graded index optical fibre cable for the optical access network.
[ITU-T G.652] Recommendation ITU-T G.652 (2016), Characteristics of a single-mode
optical fibre and cable.
[ITU-T G.653] Recommendation ITU-T G.653 (2010), Characteristics of a dispersion-shifted,
single-mode optical fibre and cable.
[ITU-T G.654] Recommendation ITU-T G.654 (2016), Characteristics of a cut-off shifted
single-mode optical fibre and cable.
[ITU-T G.655] Recommendation ITU-T G.655 (2009), Characteristics of a non-zero
dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fibre and cable.
[ITU-T G.656] Recommendation ITU-T G.656 (2010), Characteristics of a fibre and cable
with non-zero dispersion for wideband optical transport.
[ITU-T G.657] Recommendation ITU-T G.657 (2016), Characteristics of a bending-loss
insensitive single-mode optical fibre and cable for the access network.
[ITU-T G-Sup.40] Supplement ITU-T G.Sup40 (2010), Optical fibre and cable
Recommendations and standards guideline.
[ITU-T L.126] Recommendation ITU-T L.126/L.27 (1996), Method for estimating the
concentration of hydrogen in optical fibre cables.

3 Definitions
None.

4 Abbreviations and acronyms

None.

5 Conventions
None.

6 General comments on reliability

Optical cables were first deployed commercially in 1977. Thus, our knowledge of their performance
in the field is less than 40 years and much information provided in this Supplement is speculative,
although today significant spontaneous fibre breakage in these old fibres is not known. Detailed

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 1

analysis of attenuation characteristics and mechanical attributes for cabled fibre that have been
installed for 25 years [b-Hopland 1] [b-Hopland 2] indicate that the optical properties are very stable
over time. With this background we can use our accumulated field knowledge combined with
accelerated aging to estimate the reliability of optical cables.
Reliability falls into two major categories:
– Mechanical reliability (will the fibre break over the cable lifetime)
– Optical reliability (will optical transmission be maintained over the cable lifetime)
It is hard to separate optical fibre reliability from optical cable reliability as the two are intimately
related, but in this Supplement we will focus primarily on the fibre attributes and how they relate to
cabled optical fibre.
General trends in optical transmission must be considered in our evaluation of optical reliability. The
general trend is towards more information traveling down optical fibres. Optical cables are trending
toward higher fibre counts in smaller optical cables resulting in the potential for more residual strain
on the individual optical fibres. There is a trend towards the use of more of the optical spectrum and
thus a desire to preserve the attenuation across the full spectrum from 1260 to 1625 nm to allow the
most opportunities for bandwidth upgrades.
In general, the reliability of an optical cable during the course of its deployment is strongly impacted
by the attention paid to the reliability during the phases of work carried out before the cable is put
into service.
These phases can be described as follows:
i) Manufactory of the optical fibres (fibre drawing and primary protection, storage)
The manufacturing phase of the fibres is critical from the point of view of reliability of the optical
cable during the commercial operation. In this phase it is recommended that tests be carried out to
ensure that optical and mechanical degradations will not adversely impact system performance during
the lifetime of the cable deployment and storage.
ii) Design of the optical cable structure
The structural characteristics of the optical cables (fibre protection, strength member, filling
materials, protections sheaths, armour, etc.) should be chosen so they will comply with the limits
stated in i) for stress and for minimum bending radius, during all the next phases.
Important inputs for the definition of these characteristics are the foreseen installation method and
mechanical stress (cable directly put underground, laid in ducts, laid on external poles, etc.) and,
possibly, also an indication of the path that the cable will follow.
Finally, the choice of the characteristics of the cable should also be compliant, without degradation
of the characteristics of the fibres, with the maximum temperature or humidity excursions that the
cable has to face during the lifetime.
iii) Insertion of the fibres in the optical cable (cabling)
The cabling of the optical fibres should comply with all conditions set out in points i) and ii)
iv) Design of the infrastructure for the cable laying
The infrastructure for the cable laying installation should be designed and implemented in order to
preserve as much as possible the cable, from external damages different from those indicated in
point i).
v) Laying operations
Even in this phase, attention should be placed on maximum stress and minimum bending radius of
the fibres in order to respect the limits mentioned in point i).

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vi) Life of the deployed optical cable
The cable faults during the lifetime of the deployed optical cables can be divided into two categories:
internal faults and external faults.
The internal faults (fibre breakage, increase of attenuation, etc.) are those related to the quality of the
optical fibres. With the adoption of the reliability objectives pointed out in i) and ii) these internal
faults should be kept to a minimum or not present at all.
External faults are those caused by external elements (excavations for other services, floods,
landslides, etc.). The number of this type of faults mainly depends on the quality of the protections
used in the laying of the cable (depth of the excavation, dimensioning of the infrastructure of overhead
lines, etc.). External faults are outside the scope of this Supplement.
The main purpose of this Supplement is limited to the study of the reliability objectives quoted in
point i), i.e., the following:
– illustrate the processes by which the quality of the fibres degrades from the point of view of
mechanical strength and from that of the increase in attenuation;
– list the test methods to check these degradations;
– give the quality objectives currently adopted during the manufacturing process of the fibres.
It should be clearly pointed out that in this framework the reliability objectives during the commercial
life of optical cables, and the input for defining those to be considered during the production of the
fibres (point i))are not specified in ITU-T. Examples of the main factors that have an impact on the
choice of the reliability objectives to be considered during the commercial life of the optical cables
are outlined in Appendix II.
However, the more than thirty years of satisfactory operating experience on optical cables and their
wide deployment in all parts of the telecommunications networks (from the access network to
intercontinental deployment) is a guarantee that the reliability objectives currently adopted in ITU-T
for the production of optical fibres described in clauses 7 and 8 are suitable to ensure a very high
reliability with respect to internal faults in all operating conditions.

7 Optical reliability
In the 30 years of commercial optical cable deployment, several mechanisms have been identified
that deteriorate the optical performance of glass fibres. These mechanisms can be considered as
starting points in identifying processes that need to be accounted for to assure the optical
performances of manufactured and cabled fibres prescribed in ITU-T G.65x series Recommendations.
This clause focuses on three known mechanisms that have an impact on optical reliability:
– Bending loss (microbending and macrobending)
– Chemical attacks (hydrogen being the most common contributor)
– Radiation sensitivity
Many of the tests performed on optical fibre and cable found in IEC and ITU-T documents were
developed to help assure long term reliability of optical cables. All the tests focused on optical
reliability and monitored the fibre or cabled attenuation during the course of the test to see if any
change occurs. If the change is under the recommended threshold the optical cable is expected to
operate in the field for a reasonable period of time (typically 20-30 years) without significant
degradation in the transmission properties.

7.1 Bending loss

Bending loss falls into two types, macrobend loss and microbend loss. In the simplest terms
macrobends are visible bends on the scale of several millimetres in radius and microbends are very

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small, in the order of a few microns in radius. Bends occur on many length scales in optical fibres
and separating macrobends from microbends can often be difficult especially in the transition region
between the two phenomena. For single-mode fibres both effects cause increasing loss with
increasing wavelengths, in particular threatening the higher wavelengths (C- and L-bands up to
1625 nm).
Optical fibre with improved macrobend performance is the subject of [ITU-T G.657]. One key
attribute discussed in this Supplement is the loss as a function of bend radius for several fibre types.
From an installation and deployment perspective the concept is that as long as an installer deploys an
optical cable with macrobends that are greater than or equal to the minimum design radius, the impact
of macrobend loss on the deployed link can be quantified. With known macrobend properties
deployment guidelines for optical cable as well as storage guidelines for optical fibres in splice boxes
can be developed.
Microbending loss occurs in single-mode fibre when small transverse perturbations in the fibre axis
result in the coupling of energy out of the fundamental mode and into lossy higher-order and radiation
modes. Significant microbending loss can occur even when the magnitude of the perturbations have
nanometre scale size if they occur at the appropriate frequency along the fibre axis so that strong
(sometimes resonant) mode coupling occurs. The spectral dependence of microbending loss varies
with the axial distribution of the perturbations. Microbends can be a result of temperature changes
causing the cables to expand and contract or swelling of the fibre coating or cabling materials as they
react with the external environment. Fibres and cables are exposed to many stress tests including
temperature changes, humidity, liquid water and other solvents to estimate how the optical cable will
perform over the deployed lifetime. Typical stress test standardized in IEC can be found in
Appendix VI.4 of [ITU-T G-Sup.40].

7.2 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a small molecule that can easily diffuse into the glass structure. Hydrogen can react with
glass to create irreversible absorption peaks (Type 1) that add to the optical loss or interstitial
molecular hydrogen that can be present in the glass adding to the attenuation (Type 2) [b-Lemaire].
Both mechanisms are of concern in deployed optical cables as they can add to the overall attenuation
of the optical cable.
Interstitial hydrogen (Type 2) is only a problem where optical cable is subject to high partial pressures
of hydrogen. One application where this type of hydrogen is of concern is underwater cables. Optical
cables used in deep water, over 100 meters below the surface of the water, are put in hermetic
packages, most commonly stainless steel tubes, to prevent Type 2 absorption from occurring. Type 2
absorption in optical cables deployed in shallow water (less than 100 m in depth) increases due to
hydrogen, and the impact increases with depth. The impact of Type 2 hydrogen is reversible. Once
the cable is removed from the water, the hydrogen diffuses out of the cable and attenuation returns to
normal.
Hydrogen can react with defects in the glass matrix. These Type 1 defects are most apparent in
ITU-T G.652.B fibres. These defects form as hydrogen reacts with the glass resulting in OH groups
which – if created in sufficient quantity in the light guiding portion of the optical fibre – add to the
attenuation of the optical fibre across the full useable spectrum. In sufficient quantity these defects
can cause the optical fibres to become unusable.
In 2001 ITU-T introduced full spectrum ITU-T G.652 fibre. These ITU-T G.652 fibres differed from
their predecessors in that the glass that is transmitting the light is stabilized so that under typical
deployment conditions Type 1 hydrogen defects do not form in sufficient quantity to adversely impact
the transmission properties of the optical fibre. Today most optical fibres meet this specification
providing more reliable long-term optical performance. If ITU-T G.652 fibres are exposed to
hydrogen concentrations significantly higher than what occurs in ambient conditions these defects

4 G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016)

may form and degrade the optical performance of the fibre. More information on hydrogen in optical
cables is provided in [ITU-T L.126].

7.3 Impact of nuclear radiation

The exposure of germanium-doped optical fibres to doses of ionizing radiation can cause defects to
form in the atomic structure of the glass resulting in an increase in absorption losses
(radiation induced attenuation: RIA). Radiation testing is currently performed at high doses rates over
short time intervals. The results of these accelerated tests are then used to estimate the increase in the
fibre attenuation over the estimated useful lifetime when the radiation exposure is at the typical
background levels. We have experience with optical cables deployed since 1977 and background
radiation does not appear to impact the attenuation performance of deployed cables under normal
conditions. Document [b-IEC TR 62283] provides guidance for nuclear radiation tests, but it still
need refinement before accurate predictions can be made.

7.4 Attenuation stability

The expected lifetime of optical fibres is typically more than 20-30 years. The purpose of aging tests
is to help an end user predict optical properties during the life of the optical cable. These tests look at
cyclical conditions as may be encountered with changing conditions over the course of the year,
localized events such as bends, as well as degradation in performance over the cable lifetime. A
number of tests that have been developed in both IEC SC86A as well as ITU-T SG15 are listed in
Appendix VI.4 of [ITU-T G-Sup.40].
Many of the tests performed are for cyclical type events and time based, for example:
– Temperature cycling of optical fibre and cable
– Humidity aging of optical fibre and cable
– Macrobend tests of optical fibre and cable
– Crush and impact tests of optical cable
– And other tests
In these tests there are requirements that help to predict worst case performance under a given set of
conditions that are representative of adverse field conditions. When an optical cable is deployed it is
expected that increases in attenuation will be less than or equal to those observed in these tests.
Tests used to determine if there is any degradation of optical fibre attenuation over time is a complex
topic. These tests are more difficult as the only way to be sure if a product will have the desired
properties after many years of deployment is to deploy the optical cable in the desired environment
and wait to see if the attenuation increases, but this is impractical. Attenuation tests can reveal changes
that are due to the attenuation of the glass itself or that may be the result of uneven forces in the
cabling materials bending being transferred to the optical fibres. Accelerated aging is often done at
higher temperatures and higher moisture levels and are assumed to give insight into the long term
performance of the optical fibre and cabling materials. When performing these tests one must be
careful that high temperature degradation mechanisms are not activated resulting in an unrealistically
short lifetime estimate. Accelerated aging tests give an indication of how the cabling materials age,
developing anisotropic stress on the optical fibres, and one may see attenuation changes over time.
Current materials have been developed to minimize the impact of aging on attenuation, and
temperature/humidity tests are used to validate that the material system will protect the performance
of the optical fibre.
With 30 years of deployed optical cables and an assumption that any degradation effect will double
with twice the time we can assume that other than the hydrogen effect, we are unlikely to see any new
degradations to optical performance that will result in more than a few 100ths of a dB per km over
the life of the optical cable.

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8 Mechanical reliability
Mechanical reliability of optical fibre studies the probability of a fibre breaking during the lifetime
of a deployed optical fibre. A comprehensive study of mechanical reliability is provided in [b-IEC TR
62048], which contains work done in IEC as well as information from COST 218 (European
Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Technical research) work prior to [b-IEC 60793-1-33]. The
studies predict the reliability of fibre based on small defects or flaws in the glass, likely formed in the
manufacturing process, that increase when the glass is under the effect of different types of stress,
mechanical or environmental, that could experience during storage, cabling, installation, deployment,
lifetime. Essential to these predictions are a) understanding the initial distribution of flaws and b)
determining how the distribution changes with time due to stress, environment, or both and due to
scheduled events (like cabling, installation, long-term field use) and un-scheduled events such as
accidental cable dig-up [b-Bhaumik].

8.1 General comments on mechanical strength of optical fibres

In general, glass optical fibre has a distribution of flaws and consequently a distribution strength.
Figure 1 shows an example of distribution of breaking stresses observed for 10 metre lengths of fibre
[b-Mazzarese]. The figure shows the results for over 100 km of fibre and the results highlight the
various regimes of fibre strength. In this type of testing, most optical fibre breaks occur in the high
strength intrinsic region shown as Region I in the figure. The larger flaws are found in the extrinsic
Region II on the graph, within the lower failure probability zone.

Figure 1 – Failure probability for over 100 km of fibre tested at 10 m gauge lengths
[b-Mazzarese]

The estimates for fibre reliability are based on a flaw distribution that has two regions: a strong
''intrinsic strength'' and a weaker ''extrinsic strength''. The intrinsic region is characteristic of short
lengths of fibres and can be determined by testing small amounts of fibre. The intrinsic strength has
median value typically greater than 3 GPa (about 450 kpsi). The extrinsic strength distribution
characterizes larger flaws that occur at a much lower frequency and that are typically found only by
testing long lengths (typically 10-20 metre) of fibre, as in the testing represented above. The
maximum allowable flaw size in a population of optical fibre is fixed by proof-testing the fibres,
removing the weakest flaws, and this action is normally applied to 100% of commercial fibre by
manufacturers at the end of the drawing and coating phases. Currently optical fibres are proof tested
to 0.69 GPa proof stress (100 kpsi), which screens flaws that have a depth of 0.5 micron or larger.

6 G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016)

Proof-testing characterizes only a narrow part at the far end of the extrinsic curve. Short gauge-length
tests, on the other hand, usually sample less than 100 metres from a sample population up to a few
kilometres at most, thus defining the intrinsic strength region but little of the extrinsic. A large gap
remains in the flaw size distribution between the results of the two characterization approaches, and
flaws in this missing range could be the cause of mechanical failures in most optical cables.
Understanding this range is essential.
Other factors that have an impact on fibre mechanical lifetime are the environmental conditions at
the glass surface, mainly represented by water but also including chemicals, temperature and stress
on the glass. This is where cable design becomes critical. Optical fibre coatings combined with
cabling materials, gels and water blocking agents, are designed to keep corrosive materials such as
water away from the glass optical fibre. Thus, characterizing the unaged fibre for mechanical strength
along with dry aged fibre, should give a good estimate of what will be observed in the field. This has
been validated as it is a rare event for a mechanical failure to occur in the cabled portion of the fibre
without an external mechanism such as a tree fall or accidental cable dig-up. One exception to this is
the relatively short length of optical fibres in splice enclosures. Here, the optical fibre can come
directly in contact with moisture or water. Consequently, tests on temperature/humidity aged samples
only need to consider changes in the intrinsic properties.
Note that the reliability model shown in clause 8.2 deals with coated fibres, which can predict the
lifetime of fibres inside a cable. Once the coating is stripped off for splicing, the mechanical strength
drops and the fibre does not maintain the original mechanical strength. Correlation of mechanical
strength between coated and stripped fibre is not well understood (i.e., high strength at the coated
state may not guarantee high strength after coating removal), and thus minimizing permanent stress
to the stripped section of the fibre is essential.

8.2 Power law theory

One widely used model, that accounts for the high strength intrinsic region as well as the extrinsic
region, is the power law lifetime equation that appears in [b-IEC TR 62048] and shown as
equation 8-1 in this Supplement. This model will be used to help explain factors that impact
reliability. Many of the variables in the model can be difficult to calculate precisely, so it is
recommended that, when estimating fibre lifetimes, a conservative approach is employed.
𝑛+1
σ𝑝 𝑛 𝑙𝑛(1−𝐹) 𝑚𝑑
𝑡𝑓 = 𝑡𝑝 (σ ) {[1 − ] − 1} (8-1)
𝑎 𝑁𝑝 𝐿

The variables used in the equation and conservative values often used in calculations are given below:

Parameters Description/example
tf is the time to failure (lifetime) calculated
tp is the proof test time see clause 8.5
σ𝑝 is the proof stress 0.69 GPa (100 kpsi )
σ𝑎 is the applied load see clause 10
F is the failure probability See Appendix II
Np is the proof test break rate 1 break per 100 km
L is the length under tension determined by application
n is the stress corrosion parameter See clause 8.4
md is the Weibull m from the fibre dynamic tensile See clause 8.4
strength

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 7

8.3 The time to failure or fibre lifetime is often the parameter of interest.
The proof stress is given in various ITU-T G.65X series Recommendations and the details of the test
method to evaluate the other mechanical parameters are given in [b-IEC 60793-1-30]. The applied
load is determined based on cable design and application. Further information on these parameters
are given in clauses 9 and 10. The failure probability is often set by the service provider; an example
of values that are used in calculations are given in Appendix I. The proof-test break-rate (Np) is not
readily available, but it is suggested that a value of 1 breaks per 100 km be used when more reliable
information is unavailable. In this equation n and md are unknowns that are difficult to measure and
essential in determining the lifetime. These parameters will be discussed in clause 8.4.

8.4 Static and dynamic stress corrosion parameter and impact on reliability
The three fibre parameters that have the greatest impact on the lifetime predicted in equation 8-1 are
the proof-stress (σ𝑝 ) , the stress corrosion parameter (n), and the Weibull slope (m). As explained in
clause 8.1, the proof-stress is set by the manufacturers and is used as a screen to eliminate the largest
flaws. The stress corrosion parameter must be measured and that measurement can be challenging.
This parameter represents the susceptibility of the fibre glass to withstand stress corrosion and
subsequent increase of flaws due to the water effect.
Though the stress corrosion factor is shown as a constant in equation 8-1, the value obtained is
dependent on the conditions under which the parameter is measured. The limits of this parameter are
the static stress corrosion parameter (ns), which tends to provide higher values of n, and the dynamic
stress corrosion parameter (nd), which tends to provide lower values. What further complicates this
analysis is that it has been shown that the value of n is dependent on the rate of strain applied to the
fibre. In the work of COST 218 [b-IEC 60793-1-33] it was shown that the value of n varied from a
value of ~17 for the fastest tests to ~40 for very slow tests. The power law reliability model does not
specify which value of n should be used in the equation, nevertheless lower values means a more
conservative approach (worst case).
Larger values of n result in longer time until failure in equation 8-1. Alternatively, a larger value of
n implies that a larger permanent strain can be allowed in the fibre by the cable design. Thus
conservative engineering principles suggest that a fibre supplier shows that their fibre demonstrates
a value for the dynamic stress corrosion parameter greater than 18 [b-IEC 60793-2-50] and n~20 is
typically used in predicting typical lifetimes. Higher values than 20 will not translate into
demonstrable enhanced fatigue resistance.
If the cable manufacturer or end-user should wish to design for more aggressive loading of the optical
fibres, or for longer anticipated lifetime in service (e.g., up to 100 years), the value of n for the fibre
population should be characterized carefully and by the appropriate methodology to obtain the most
accurate determination of the stress corrosion parameter. For example, [b-IEC 60793-1-33] indicates
that any silica fibre mechanical test should determine the fracture stress and stress corrosion
properties under conditions that model the practical applications as closely as possible. In such a
situation, the static stress corrosion parameter approach to characterizing the n-value can be useful,
representing stress situation most similar to installed fibre. Since it has been found that large, extrinsic
region flaws (the danger to long lengths of fibre under stress) exhibit a stress corrosion factor larger
than found in the intrinsic strength flaws [b-Griffioen2], [b-Craig], [b-Glaesemann2], [b-Breuls],
[b-Yuce] static stress corrosion parameter is arguably both less conservative and more accurate.
The Weibull slope (m) corresponds to the slope of failure probability in the extrinsic region, i.e., the
slope in Region II in Figure 8-1. Accurate characterisation of this parameter requires measuring the
mechanical strength of many kilometres of fibre, using a long gauge length test and determining the
m value from information such as what is shown in Figure 8-1. This low strength tail often determines
the long term mechanical reliability of deployed fibre cables.

8 G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016)

8.5 Relationship between proof stress and proof-testing on reliability
Proof-testing screens out the largest flaws in optical fibre. Recommendation [ITU-T G.650.1]
explains test methods and parameters for proof testing where load is applied on optical fibre for as
short a time as possible, yet sufficiently long to ensure the glass experiences the proof stress, typically
much less than one second. As the proof-test level increases smaller flaws are removed from the fibre
reducing the chance the fibre will break when strained. The current ITU-T G.65X series
Recommendations state that the fibre should be proof-tested to a minimum stress of 0.69 GPa
(100 kpsi). Further in many IEC documents it is suggested that the long term load on such proof-
tested cabled fibres should not be greater than 20% of the proof-test load, generally in agreement with
an n-value of nd = 20.

8.6 Handleability of optical fibre

The fibre lifetime model describes how flaws can grow over time under stress. As these flaws grow,
the optical fibre becomes weaker. When no tension is on the fibre, they may have sufficient strength
to retain their mechanical integrity, but it may become difficult or impossible to handle or splice the
fibre. This is sometimes referred to as ''brittle fibre'' in the field. Many mechanisms can result in this
occurring, such as coating abrasions or delaminations that expose bare glass to the aggressive
elements. When the fibre strength is less than 2 GPa the fibre becomes difficult to handle and splice
[b-Griffioen1]

8.7 Test proceedures that measure aspects of mechanical reliability

Supplement [b-ITU-T G-Sup 40] provides some details on tests for mechanical reliability of optical
fibre and cable. Below is an additional list of IEC test method documents that address measurements
of parameters discussed in this Supplement:
– [b-IEC 60793-1-30] Fibre Proof Test
– [b-IEC 60793-1-31] Fibre Tensile Strength
– [b-IEC 60793-1-33] Stress Corrosion Factor
– [b-IEC 60793-1-50] Damp Heat Aging
– [b-IEC 60793-1-51] Dry Heat Aging
– [b-IEC 60793-1-53] Water Immersion
It is well understood that the environment surrounding and optical fibre can impact the results of these
tests. As a result end users may require additional tests to support local conditions. Examples include
tensile strength and attenuation tests after fibre is exposed to cable filling compounds, wasp sprays,
fuels or other environments in which the fibre may be exposed.
Experimental evidence shows that high-power (500 mW to 2 W) damage can occur relatively quickly
at bends less than 15 mm diameter. Damage occurs when the coating temperature increases at bends
as the coating absorbs the light lost at the bend. Damage can take the form of coating ageing, pyrolysis
and burning and if the temperature increases above 700°C catastrophic softening of the glass. Burning
of the coating can result in a fire. Document [b-IEC TR 62547] provides guidance for the
measurement of high-power damage sensitivity of single mode fibres to bends.

9 Strain due to bends tension, to axial tension or a combination of the two mechanisms
Flaws grow in an optical fibre when it is under stress. This stress can be the result of axial tension, a
small bend in the fibre or a combination of the two mechanisms. In determining the stresses imposed
on optical fibres it is essential to understand the deployment conditions, installation practices as well
as the cable design.

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 9

When a glass fibre is bent, the outer radius of that bend is subject to tension that can lead to fractures.
Appendix I gives an example of how this property may impact reliability of optical fibres in splice
boxes. Overhead cables are often pulled tight to minimise sag. If some of this tension is transferred
to the fibre it must be accounted for in determining the long term reliability of the suspended cable.
Axial tension and bending tension are additive. Thus both forces must be considered when the two
forces occur together. This combined force may need to be considered when small diameter optical
cables containing G.657 fibres are installed inside of buildings.

10 Impact of cable properties on reliability

Optical fibres are placed in cables. These cables can help protect the fibre in several ways including:
– Limit the tensile stresses on optical fibres through use of load-bearing elements
– Limit fibre bend diameter
– Protect the fibre from crush and impact
– Protect the fibre from chemical attacks including water and hydrogen
Choosing cabling materials is an important design consideration and though cabling material can
protect the fibre one must also consider interactions between the glass fibre and the cabling materials
that may occur over time.

10.1 Fibre strain and cable strain

One of the functions of the optical cable is to limit the strain on the optical fibres contained within.
When there is no strain on optical fibres they can last for a very long time. When a fibre is under
strain, the impact of weak flaws of the fibre increases and can eventually lead to failure. In order to
extend the life of fibres, optical cables are designed with strength elements that take some or the entire
load. One also needs to be sure that loading the optical cable does not induce excessive attenuation
due to bends in the optical fibre that may occur when the cable is loaded.

10.2 Installation load vs. long term load

During installation, optical cable may be subject to short-duration loads that are higher than the loads
to which they are exposed once deployed. As a general rule a short term load may be a few hours
while a long term load may be several months or even years.
Installation loads as described are short in duration. The IEC model clearly shows this as the fibre
lifetime is related to the ratio of stresses raised to the power of the stress corrosion factor. As a result,
the shorter the load time, the higher the stress an optical fibre can withstand without breaking. The
recommended value for short term loads on the optical fibre is 60% of the proof-stress level.
Long term loads are a bit more complex. This criteria of 20% of the proof-test level for 0.69 GPa
(100 kpsi) fibre comes from work done by Glaesemann [b-Glaesemann1] in 1991. Currently there is
a push to deploy higher fibre count optical cables with fewer load-bearing materials. One solution
being considered is optical fibres that are proof-tested at levels greater than 0.69 GPa (100 kpsi).
Current work has shown that for optical fibres proof-tested at levels higher than 0.69 GPa (100 kpsi)
the formula needs to be modified. [b-Mazzarese] The current recommended criteria are as follows:
– Maximum short term load on optical fibres is 60% of the proof-test load
– 0.69 GPa (100 kpsi) proof-tested fibre: Maximum long term load = 20% of proof-test load
– 0.69-1.38 GPa (100-200 kpsi) fibre: Maximum long term load = 17% of proof-test load
– There is no recommendation for proof-test levels greater than 1.38 GPa (200 kpsi) at this
time.

10 G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016)

 Appendix I

Lifetime expectation in case of small radius bending of single-mode fibre

NOTE – The reliability of a small bending radius is an ongoing topic under ITU-T and IEC study.

I.1 Introduction
Fibres under installation at a reduced bending radius including multi-dwelling units (MDUs) and
closures may impose concerns with respect to fibre lifetime expectation. Important parameters that
determine the expected lifetime are the extrinsic and intrinsic strength in a fibre. The required values
of these parameters have to be offset against the accepted failure rate in the network, including the
probability of other failures that may occur in the network during its operational lifetime (e.g., failures
due to re-work or re-configuration in the link or due to other causes of cable or cabinet damage). In
assessing the result of this, the major question is whether single-mode fibres as specified in the
relevant Recommendations fulfil the requirements for a sufficiently long life time expectation. More
background is given to this question in this appendix.

I.2 General aspects of failure characteristics under small radius bending

In general, the estimation of mechanical failure probability or the lifetime of a bent fibre is calculated
using the power law theory, as described in clause 8.2 and in [b-IEC TR 62048]. Both these texts
describe two strength regions, intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic strength region is length
independent and dominant for very small radius bending (typically < 3 mm). In the extrinsic region,
the mechanical failure probability of bent fibre increases proportionally with the fibre bending length,
assuming the bending radius is constant. Transition between these regions is hard to determine and
depends on many variables.
It is desirable that a bent region in a fibre link is as short as possible. An example image of failure
probabilities with respect to the bending radius for 1% proof strain level is shown in Figure I.1. In
this calculation, the minimum allowed dynamic stress corrosion susceptibility parameter nd of 18 and
the mean number of break Np per length during a proof test of 0.01 km–1 are used as an example. In
the figure, the values of mechanical failure probability within 20 years are plotted for a fibre with
1 turn bend length for each bend radius. From Figure I.1, two regions are observed: an intrinsic region
and an extrinsic region tail. The failure probability in the extrinsic region is affected by the proof
strain level. On the other hand, the failure probability in the intrinsic region depends on the intrinsic
strength of the fibre, and is close to the theoretical strength of the glass.

Figure I.1 – Example of calculated relationship between failure probability

and bending radius for uniformly bent one-turn fibres after 20 years

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 11

Figure I.2 shows the dependence of time to failure on the bending radius. These experimental results
show that very small radii cause reliability degradation.

Figure I.2 – Example of time to failure under ultra-small bending radius

Fibre storage at a certain radius in fibre management systems and in closures needs evaluation with
respect to fibre lifetime. For these applications, the loop size should be chosen to be large enough that
fibres are in the extrinsic region.
In many applications, loose fibre storage loops have a 30 mm radius with approximately 1-10 m of
fibre stored at a splice point. With improved macrobend fibre, as described in [ITU-T G.657], the size
of these loops could be reduced resulting in smaller enclosures but the amount of fibre required,
1-10 m, for splicing will likely remain the same. Smaller storage loops result in higher stress in the
fibre and thus potentially induce an increased risk of mechanical failure. Table I.1 below uses the
well-known power law theory of optical fibre reliability (see clause 8.2 and [b-IEC TR 62048]) to
show a 25-year failure probability as a function of loop size and fibre length, assuming a worst case
value for the dynamic stress corrosion susceptibility parameter nd = 18 as stated in [b-IEC 60793-2-
50]. Typical values of nd, which are greater than the specified minimum, produce lower calculated
failure probabilities than those in Table I.1. However, care should be taken that nd values are obtained
from the same test method [b-IEC 60793-1-33].

Table I.1 – Twenty-five year failure probability for fibre stored

in loose coils, proof tested at 1%
Length 15 mm radius 20 mm radius 25 mm radius 30 mm radius
1m 5.0  10–6 4.7  10–7 7.9  10–9 1.9  10–10
10 m 5.0  10–5 4.7  10–6 7.9  10–8 1.9  10–9

One can see from this example that using smaller coils will increase the failure probability. Typical
values of proof stress, which are greater than the specified minimum, produce lower calculated failure
probabilities than those in Table I.1. The differences in calculated failure probabilities with a variation
in proof stress levels are reduced as bend diameter is decreased.

I.3 Network and network failure examples

For lifetime calculations, a simple network is considered to consist of, for example, a 1000-fibre
distribution cable with a tree structure as indicated in Figure I.3. Depending on the installation and
customer connection procedures of the operator, the individual fibres or groups of fibres are stored in

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cassettes in the main distribution cable or in the branches. For simplicity and as a worst-case situation,
it is assumed that all 1000 fibres are passing 5 cabinets or enclosures with a storage cassette in every
individual fibre link and in every cabinet or enclosure.

Figure I.3 – Simplified network structure

In this particular network structure, a failure rate per individual single fibre cassette of 0.001% (105)
in 20 years will result in a 5% probability that in 20 years there will be one single spontaneous break
in the total network. This probability needs to be compared with the probability of other failures that
may occur in the distribution network during its 20-year operational lifetime. Such failures may be
due to re-work or re-configuration in the link or due to other causes of cable or cabinet damage. For
most access network situations, it may be assumed that the stated failure probability due to
spontaneous fibre breakage is much lower than the failure probability due to other causes. Each
operator has to determine the accepted failure rate based on more precise data on the outside plant
failure rate statistics.

I.4 Fibre lifetime considerations

Apart from the intrinsic fibre strength characteristics and the fibre environment, the main parameters
that determine the failure rate per cassette are the length of the stored fibre and the bending radius, R,
of the storage. Shorter storage length will have a positive influence, whereas a reduced bending radius
will have a negative influence. Applying the [b-IEC TR 62048] lifetime model with more details in
[b-OFT] on current fibres with a standard setting of proof stress and normal proof-test performance,
the resulting maximum storage length for a 20-year lifetime as a function of the fibre bend radius is
indicated in Figure I.4, for different values of the dynamic stress corrosion susceptibility parameter,
nd, assuming a maximum failure rate of 0.001% (10–5). Note that a value of nd = 18 is the minimum
value as stated in [b-IEC 60793-2-50].

Figure I.4 – Maximum storage length for a bent fibre and different values
of the dynamic stress corrosion parameter nd

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 13

From an optical bend loss point of view, bend-loss insensitive fibres, as described in [ITU-T G.657],
can be stored in smaller cassettes than the usual 30 mm radius cassettes. For a storage length per
cassette of, for example, 100 cm, i.e., 2 × 50 cm for one single fibre, the bend radius can be lowered
from the current 30 mm value down to 15 mm or even lower depending upon the guaranteed nd-value
without violating the 0.001% mechanical failure rate per cassette in 20 years.
A second storage issue is at the entrance and exit ports in the fibre management system. The required
small volume for optical access network components is not only dependent on the storage area, but
also on the minimum bend radius of the input and exit ports. The effect of this can be taken into
account in several ways. For the purpose of this appendix, it is assumed that in every storage cassette
four additional 90-degree bends are required for guiding the fibres into and out of the storage areas.
It is also assumed that the additional failure rate due to these additional bends should be limited to
less than 10% of the accepted failure rate of 0.001% per cassette (so 10–6). This results in the minimum
values as indicated in the middle column of Table I.2.

Table I.2 – Minimum value of non-storage bend radii

nd-value Four 90° bends Single 180° bend
18 Rmin = 15.0 mm Rmin = 12.6 mm
22 Rmin = 11.1 mm Rmin = 9.2 mm
In the right column, the minimum radius in case of a single 180-degree erroneous bend is given. Also
for this situation, a maximum additional failure rate per individual cassette of 0.1 × 0.001% is
assumed. All figures relate to single fibre management are given for two different values of the
dynamic stress corrosion parameter, nd.
Optical cables are traditionally designed to separate bending forces from axial tension. This
assumption is not valid for drop cables used in building applications (e.g., with ITU-T G.657 fibres).
These new cables may be subject to bends and tension simultaneously. In these conditions, the strain
from all sources should be taken into account to accurately predict the mechanical lifetime at the
bend. The resulting failure probability when bends and tension are present can be calculated using
the strip calculation found in [b-IEC TR 62048].
An example of the data regarding mechanical failure rate under tension is described in Table I.3.

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 Table I.3 – Failure probabilities per metre of bent fibre and per number of turns, with
indicated bend radius, for bend stress only, and for bend stress + extra axial tension
(30% of proof test tension) over 30 years
Bend stress only
Bend radius Bend stress + extra axial tension
(without extra axial tension)
(mm)
(Failure prob./m)a) ppm (turn)b) (Failure prob./m)a) ppm (turn)b)
5 1.02  10–04 ~3.2 1.72  10–04 ~5.4
7.5 4.20  10–05 ~2.0 9.3  10–05 ~4.4
10 2.09  10–05 ~1.3 6.20  10–05 ~3.9
15 6.08  10–06 ~.06 3.67  10–05 ~3.5
a)
Failure probabilities per metre of bent fibre.
b)
Parts per million, ppm.

I.5 Conclusion
The examples given support a 20-year operational lifetime for an appropriately installed network
equipped with bend-insensitive fibres as described in [ITU-T G.657], and bend radii less than 30 mm
with acceptable failure rates.

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 15

 Appendix II

Long term reliability of deployed optical fibre cables

II.1 Introduction
The purpose of this appendix is to give some general information on the main factors affecting the
definition of the reliability objectives for the external faults of optical cables during their lifetime.
The reliability objectives for the external faults are mainly related to the specific configuration of the
telecommunication networks and to the specific operating strategies of each network operator.

II.2 Factors having an impact on the objectives for the reliability of deployed optical
cables
II.2.2 The position of the optical cable in the telecommunication network
Tolerance for failure may not be equivalent throughout the optical network. A service provider must
consider several factors in making this decision. The table below gives an example of the different
role an optical cable can play in the various parts of an optical network. The table shows that
depending on the portion of the network being considered, a failure impacts different numbers of
users and may be more or less complicated to repair.

Table II.1 – Example relationship between application area of optical

fibre cable and impact of failure
Users per fibre Impact of failure
Multi-Dwelling Unit (MDU) 1 1 customer down, truck roll
Access network, Fibre to the X 10-100 Several customers down, need for
(FTTx) immediate repair
Trunks and Metro Applications 100-1000 Government reportable incident,
need for immediate repair
Long haul 100-10,000 Government reportable incident,
need for immediate repair
Submarine 100-10,000 International reportable incident.
Failure extremely costly
(Ship must be used)

II.2.3 Laying conditions

Faults caused by external causes mainly depends on the quality of the protections used in the laying
of the cable (depth of the excavation, dimensioning of the infrastructure of overhead lines, etc.).
The goodness of the protections depends by the amount of CAPEX (Capital Expenditure) available
for the specific cable plant. This is an aspect different for each network operator.
II.2.4 Time to repair
The reliability objectives are also related to the mean time to repair (MTTR), i.e., the expected time
needed to repair a failure. It is obvious that with a MTTR of 2 hours it is possible to tolerate a number
of faults higher than in the case of a MTTR of 8 hours.
The MTTR is directly depending from the maintenance organization / strategy, which is different
among the various network operators.

16 G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016)

II.2.5 Duplication of cables/systems
The presence in the telecommunication networks of spare cables/systems for rerouting the traffic
during the reparation time is another important aspect influencing the choice of a reliability objective
for an optical cable.
The presence of a duplicated cables/systems depends by the choice of each specific network operator.

II.3 Example of objectives for the reliability of laid optical cables

Even if the reliability objectives to be respected during the commercial life of optical cables, are not
generally specified in ITU-T, some indications are given in two cases: repeatered submarine optical
cables and for low-cost sustainable telecommunications infrastructure for rural communications in
developing countries.
The main information related to these two cases is summarized in the following.
II.3.1 Submarine cables
The reliability of the submarine portion of an optical fibre submarine cable system is generally
characterized by:
i) the expected number of repairs requiring intervention by a cable ship and due to system
component failures during the system's designed lifetime. The usual requirement for system
reliability is less than three failures requiring cable ship intervention during the system's
designed lifetime;
ii) the system designed lifetime: the period of time over which the submarine optical fibre cable
system is designed to be operational in conformance with its performance specifications.
Usually, a system's designed lifetime is a period of 25 years starting at the provisional
acceptance date of the system, i.e., the date following installation when the system is
compliant with the performance specifications.
The wet plant is more critical than the dry plant in terms of reliability because the MTTR is greater.
Typical MTTR values give around 2 weeks for wet plant repair instead of 2 hours for dry plant.
For further information see [b-ITU-T G.977] and [b-ITU-T G-Sup.41].
II.3.2 Low cost sustainable telecommunications infrastructure for rural communications in
developing countries
Compared with no service at all, a useful target would be that a break in a rural location may occur
perhaps once a year and be repaired in approximately three to four days on average.
It must be noted that, however, natural events may damage the backhaul infrastructure (optical cables
or wireless antennas and repeaters) that connects extremely remote areas through impervious areas
which may need many days before restoration thus exceptionally reducing the availability.
In Appendix I of [b-ITU-T L.1700] it is quoted that an operator of an Asian least developed country
for optical cables in mountainous area have put:
– as an acceptable MTBF (mean time between failure) 7-9 months. This means more than one
fault per year;
– as an acceptable MTTR (mean time to repair) 2-4 weeks (summer-winter).
For further information see [b-ITU-T L.1700].

G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 17

 Bibliography

[b-ITU-T G.977] Recommendation ITU-T G.977 (2015), Characteristics of optically

amplified optical fibre submarine cable systems.
[b-ITU-T G-Sup.41] ITU-T G-series Recommendations – Supplement 41 (2010), Design
guidelines for optical fibre submarine cable systems.
[b-ITU-T L.1700] Recommendation ITU-T L.1700 (2016), Requirements and framework for
low-cost sustainable telecommunications infrastructure for rural
communications in developing countries.
[b-IEC 60793-1-30] IEC 60793-Part1-30 (2010), Optical fibres – Part 1-30: Measurement
methods and test procedures – Fibre proof test.
[b-IEC 60793-1-31] IEC 60793-1-31(2010), Optical fibres – Part 1-31: Measurement methods
and test procedures – Tensile strength.
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and test procedures – Stress corrosion susceptibility.
[b-IEC 60793-1-50] IEC 60793-1-50: (2014) Optical fibres – Part 1-50: Measurement methods
and test procedures – Damp heat (steady state) tests
[b-IEC 60793-1-51] IEC 60793-1-51 (2014), Optical fibres – Part 1-51: Measurement methods
and test procedures – Dry heat (steady state) tests.
[b-IEC 60793-1-53] IEC 60793-1-53 (2014), Optical fibres – Part 1-53: Measurement methods
and test procedures – Water immersion tests.
[b-IEC 60793-2-50] IEC 60793-Part 2-50 (2016), Optical fibres – Part 2-50: Product
specifications – Sectional specification for class B single-mode fibres.
[b-IEC TR 62048] IEC TR 62048 (2014), Optical fibres – Reliability – Power law theory.
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damage sensitivity of single-mode fibres to bends – Guidance for the
interpretation of results.
[b-Bhaumik] Sudipta Bhaumik, Impact of adverse cable handling on lifetime of
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(Interwire 2015).
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optical fibre. SPIE, (September 1993).
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[b-Glaesemann1] Glaesemann, G.S. and Gulati, S.T. ''Design Methodology for the mechanical
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(1991).
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intrinsic and extrinsic flaws in optical glass fiber. 94th annual
meeting of the Am. Cer. Soc., 4-JXVI-92, (1992).
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International wire and cable symposium (1995).

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[b-Griffioen2] Griffioen, W, et al, COST 218 evaluation of optical fibre lifetime models.
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[b-Hopland 2] Svend Hopland, Jan Nordli, Pratik Shah, Kate Roberts, Robert
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G series – Supplement 59 (09/2016) 19

 SERIES OF ITU-T RECOMMENDATIONS

Series A Organization of the work of ITU-T

Series D General tariff principles

Series E Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors
Series F Non-telephone telecommunication services

Series G Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks

Series H Audiovisual and multimedia systems

Series I Integrated services digital network

Series J Cable networks and transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia
signals
Series K Protection against interference
Series L Environment and ICTs, climate change, e-waste, energy efficiency; construction, installation
and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant
Series M Telecommunication management, including TMN and network maintenance
Series N Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits
Series O Specifications of measuring equipment

Series P Terminals and subjective and objective assessment methods

Series Q Switching and signalling

Series R Telegraph transmission

Series S Telegraph services terminal equipment

Series T Terminals for telematic services

Series U Telegraph switching

Series V Data communication over the telephone network

Series X Data networks, open system communications and security

Series Y Global information infrastructure, Internet protocol aspects and next-generation networks,
Internet of Things and smart cities

Series Z Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems

Printed in Switzerland
Geneva, 2016