CRIMINOLGY AND PENOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY: PRIYA TIWARI

ENROLMENT ID: 20FLICDDN02021
COURSE: B.A LL. B (HONS)
SECTION – A
BATCH: 2020-2025

SUBMITTED TO – MR. DEEPAK KUMAR

 CRIMINOLOGY AND PENOLOGY

TOPIC
CRITICALLY EXAMINE VARIOUS THOUGHTS ON CRIMINOLOGY AT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF HISTORY.

SUBMITTED BY- PRIYA TIWARI

SUBMITTED TO- MR. DEEPAK KUMAR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the present world of competition there is a race of existence in which those are having will,
will come forward to survive. Project is like a bridge between theoretical and practical
working and with this willing I joined this particular project.
I am greatly indebted to the authorities of our college ICFAI LAW SCHOOL for providing us
the necessary facilities to successfully carry this mini project work title “CRITICALLY
EXAMINE VARIOUS THOUGHTS ON CRIMINOLOGY AT DIFFERENT STAGES
OF HISTORY.” and would also like to thank and express my solicit gratitude to MR.
DEEPAK KUMAR for his invaluable help and support which helped me a lot in successfully
completion of this mini project.
Finally, I would like to thank and express my heartfelt thanks to my parents who were very
supportive financially and mentally and for their encouragement to achieve my set goals.

PRIYA TIWARI
20FLICDDN02021
SECTION A
WHAT IS CRIME?

Crime is a concept that refers to any act or behaviour that is prohibited by law and punishable
by the legal system. It is a social construct that defines certain actions or behaviour as
offenses against the community or the state. Crimes can range from relatively minor offenses,
such as petty theft, to more serious offenses, such as murder or fraud.

Key elements of the concept of crime include:

Legality: Crimes are defined by laws, statutes, and regulations within a particular legal
system. Conduct is considered criminal if it violates established legal norms.
Culpability: Generally, crimes involve intentional or negligent actions that demonstrate a
level of culpability on the part of the offender. Some legal systems differentiate between
different degrees of intent and negligence when classifying crimes.
Punishment: Criminal acts are typically subject to legal penalties, such as fines,
imprisonment, probation, or other forms of punishment. The severity of the punishment often
corresponds to the seriousness of the crime.
Social Harm: Crimes are often actions that are deemed harmful to individuals, communities,
or society at large. They may involve violations of personal rights, property, or public order.
Legal Process: The identification, investigation, and adjudication of crimes involve legal
processes. This may include the gathering of evidence, arrest, trial, and sentencing within the
framework of the legal system.

It's important to note that the definition of crime can vary across different legal systems and
cultures. What constitutes a crime in one jurisdiction may not be considered a crime in
another. Additionally, societal perceptions of what should be considered criminal can evolve
over time, leading to changes in laws and legal definitions. The study of crime and its causes
is a central focus of criminology, which seeks to understand, explain, and prevent criminal
behaviour.
DEFINITION OF CRIME
Various authors and criminologists have provided definitions of crime, reflecting different
perspectives and approaches within the field. Here are a few notable definitions:

Emile Durkheim:
Durkheim, a founding figure in sociology, defined crime as "normal" and essential for the
well-being of society. He argued that crime serves important functions, such as reinforcing
social norms and boundaries.

Cesare Beccaria:
Beccaria, a key figure in classical criminology, defined crime in terms of harm to society. He
argued that crime is the result of a rational choice made by individuals seeking to maximize
pleasure and minimize pain. Beccaria emphasized the need for punishment to be swift,
certain, and proportionate.

Edwin Sutherland:
Sutherland, known for his work on differential association theory, defined crime as "any
behaviour that is learned in interaction with others and that is not the result of physical or
mental abnormality." He focused on the role of social learning in criminal behaviour.

Howard Becker:
Becker, associated with labelling theory, suggested that crime is not an inherent quality of an
act but a label attached to certain behaviours by those in positions of power. He emphasized
the social construction of deviance and the impact of societal reactions.

Travis Hirschi:
Hirschi, known for his social control theory, defined crime as "acts that are not only contrary
to the norms and values of society but also injurious to the community." He explored the
importance of social bonds in preventing individuals from engaging in criminal activities.

Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson:

Cohen and Felson, associated with routine activity theory, defined crime as the result of three
elements converging in space and time: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the
absence of a capable guardian.
WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?
Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminal behaviour, and the mechanisms of the
criminal justice system. It involves examining the causes, consequences, prevention, and
control of criminal behaviour at individual and societal levels. Criminologists seek to
understand patterns of criminal activity, the impact of crime on individuals and communities,
and the functioning of the criminal justice system.

Key aspects of criminology include:

1. Understanding Crime Causation: Criminologists investigate the factors that
contribute to criminal behaviour. This involves examining individual, social,
economic, psychological, and environmental factors that may influence a person to
engage in criminal activities.
2. Criminal Typologies: Criminology categorizes different types of criminals and
criminal behaviours to identify common patterns and characteristics. This
classification aids in developing targeted intervention and prevention strategies.
3. Victimology: Criminologists study the impact of crime on victims, including the
psychological, emotional, and economic consequences. Understanding victimization
helps in developing support systems and policies to assist victims.
4. Social Control and Deviance: Criminology explores how society defines and
responds to deviant behaviour. This includes examining the role of social institutions,
norms, and laws in maintaining order and deterring criminal activities.
5. Crime Prevention Strategies: Criminologists work on developing effective crime
prevention methods and policies. This may involve understanding situational factors,
implementing community policing initiatives, and creating social programs to address
root causes of criminal behaviour.
6. Criminal Justice System Analysis: Criminology examines the functioning of the
criminal justice system, including law enforcement, courts, and corrections.
Researchers investigate issues such as bias, efficiency, and the impact of various
policies on crime rates and societal well-being.
7. Policy Development: Criminologists contribute to the formulation of public policies
related to crime and justice. They provide evidence-based recommendations to
lawmakers and policymakers to improve the effectiveness and fairness of the criminal
justice system.
8. Research Methods: Criminologists employ a variety of research methods, including
surveys, experiments, case studies, and statistical analyses, to gather and analyze data
related to crime and criminal behaviour.
Criminology is an interdisciplinary field that draws on insights from sociology, psychology,
law, anthropology, and other disciplines to gain a comprehensive understanding of crime. The
ultimate goal of criminology is to contribute to the development of informed policies and
practices that can reduce crime, promote justice, and enhance the well-being of individuals
and communities.
DEFINITION OF CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology, as a field of study, has been defined by various authors over the years. Different
scholars emphasize different aspects of the discipline. Here are a few definitions of
criminology according to notable authors:
1. Edwin H. Sutherland:
• Sutherland, a prominent sociologist, defined criminology as "the body of
knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon." He focused on
understanding criminal behaviour within the social context and emphasized
the importance of social learning.
2. E.A. Ross:
• Ross, a sociologist, defined criminology as "the systematic study of the nature,
extent, cause, and control of criminal behaviour in both the individual and in
society." This definition underscores the comprehensive nature of criminology,
covering various aspects of crime.
3. Lawrence W. Sherman:
• Sherman, a leading criminologist, defined criminology as "the scientific study
of the making of laws, the breaking of laws, and the societal reaction to the
breaking of laws." This definition acknowledges the multifaceted nature of
criminology, encompassing both legal and social dimensions.
4. Frank E. Hagan:
• Hagan, a criminologist known for his work in the field, defined criminology as
"the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon, including
the processes of making laws, breaking laws, and societal reaction to
lawbreaking." This definition echoes Sutherland's emphasis on crime as a
social phenomenon and incorporates the legal and societal responses to it.
5. Howard Becker:
• Becker, associated with labeling theory, suggested that criminology is "the
study of social rules and their transgression." He focused on the role of
societal reactions, labeling, and the social construction of deviance in
understanding criminal behaviour.
6. Roger Hopkins Burke:
• Burke, a contemporary criminologist, defined criminology as "the scientific
study of crime, criminal behaviour, and the criminal justice system." This
definition reflects the interdisciplinary nature of criminology, incorporating
elements of sociology, psychology, law, and other fields.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF CRIMINOLOGY

The nature and scope of criminology encompass a wide range of topics and areas of study,
reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of the field. Here's an overview of the key aspects of
the nature and scope of criminology:
1. Nature of Criminology:
• Scientific Discipline: Criminology is considered a scientific discipline that applies
rigorous research methods to study crime, criminal behaviour, and the criminal justice
system. Researchers use empirical evidence to develop theories, test hypotheses, and
make informed conclusions.
• Interdisciplinary Approach: Criminology draws on insights from sociology,
psychology, law, anthropology, economics, and other disciplines. This
interdisciplinary approach allows criminologists to explore the multifaceted nature of
crime.
• Social Phenomenon: Criminology views crime as a social phenomenon, emphasizing
the role of social, economic, and cultural factors in shaping criminal behaviour. The
study of crime involves analysing how individuals and societies define, react to, and
control deviant behaviour.
• Applied Focus: While criminology is an academic discipline, it has practical
applications in the real world. Criminologists often work in areas such as law
enforcement, criminal justice policy, crime prevention, and rehabilitation, applying
research findings to address societal issues related to crime.
2. Scope of Criminology:
• Criminal Behaviour: Criminology explores the causes and patterns of criminal
behaviour. This includes understanding individual and social factors that contribute to
criminal acts, as well as the development of criminal profiles and typologies.
• Victimology: Victimology is a subfield of criminology that focuses on the study of
victims and the impact of crime on individuals and communities. It examines the
experiences, vulnerabilities, and coping mechanisms of those affected by criminal
acts.
• Criminal Justice System: Criminology encompasses the study of the criminal justice
system, including law enforcement, the judiciary, and corrections. Researchers
analyse the functioning, efficiency, and fairness of these institutions.
• Social Control and Deviance: Criminology investigates how societies define and
control deviant behaviour. This includes examining informal and formal mechanisms
of social control, the creation of laws, and the role of institutions in maintaining order.
• Crime Prevention: Criminologists work on developing effective strategies for
preventing crime. This involves understanding situational factors, implementing
community-based interventions, and addressing the root causes of criminal behaviour.
 • Policymaking: Criminology contributes to the formulation of criminal justice policies.
Researchers provide evidence-based recommendations to lawmakers and
policymakers, aiming to improve the effectiveness and fairness of the criminal justice
system.
• Global and Comparative Perspectives: Criminology also considers crime on a global
scale, examining cross-cultural variations in criminal behaviour, legal systems, and
law enforcement practices. Comparative criminology seeks to identify commonalities
and differences in crime patterns across different societies.
The nature and scope of criminology continue to evolve as researchers explore new theories,
methods, and emerging issues in the study of crime and criminal justice. It remains a dynamic
field that addresses the complexities of human behaviour, societal norms, and the quest for
justice.

STAGES OF CRIME
The Indian Penal Code (IPC) is the primary criminal code of India, which defines various
offenses and prescribes penalties for those offenses. The IPC does not explicitly lay out
"stages of crime" in a chronological sense but outlines the elements and categories of
offenses. However, one can loosely describe the process of a crime within the framework of
the IPC. Here's a generalized breakdown:

1. Intention (Section 34-38): The IPC recognizes criminal intent as an essential element in
many offenses. Sections 34 to 38 deal with situations where several persons act with a
common intention or a shared criminal objective.
2. Preparation (Section 122-130): Certain offenses in the IPC, like "Waging War Against the
Government of India" (Section 121) and "Counterfeiting Government Stamps or Currency"
(Section 489), encompass stages that involve preparations for the commission of a crime.
3. Attempt (Section 511): Section 511 of the IPC deals with attempts to commit offenses. An
attempt involves taking steps beyond mere preparation but falling short of completing the
offense.
4. Commission of the Offense (Various Sections): The IPC defines specific offenses and
prescribes punishments for their commission. For instance, theft (Section 378), robbery
(Section 392), murder (Section 302), and various other offenses are defined with their
respective elements and penalties.
5. Concealment (Section 201): After the commission of certain offenses, individuals may
engage in acts to conceal evidence. Section 201 of the IPC deals with causing the
disappearance of evidence or giving false information to screen the offender.
6. Abetment (Section 107-120A): Abetment involves intentionally aiding, instigating, or
conspiring to commit an offense. Sections 107 to 120A outline offenses related to abetment.
7. Criminal Conspiracy (Section 120A-120B): Sections 120A and 120B deal with criminal
conspiracy, where two or more persons agree to do or cause to be done an illegal act.
8. Post-Offense Acts (Sections 201-204): After the commission of certain offenses,
individuals may engage in acts to obstruct justice or hinder the legal process. Sections 201 to
204 deal with offenses related to causing the disappearance of evidence, giving false
information, and obstructing a public servant in the discharge of their duties.

EVOLUTION OF CRIMINOLOGY WITH TIME

Criminology, the study of crime, its causes, effects, and social impact, has evolved
significantly over different stages of history. Various schools of thought have emerged, each
offering unique perspectives on the nature of crime and how society should respond to it.
Here's a critical examination of some key thoughts on criminology at different stages:
1. Classical Criminology (18th-19th centuries):
• Key Figures: Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham.
• Ideas: Emphasized the importance of free will and rational choice. Punishment
should be swift, certain, and proportionate to deter individuals from
committing crimes.
• Critique: Critics argue that it oversimplifies the complex factors contributing
to criminal behaviour and ignores social and economic influences.
2. Positivist Criminology (late 19th-early 20th centuries):
• Key Figures: Cesare Lombroso, Raffaele Garofalo.
• Ideas: Criminals are born with certain physical or psychological traits that
predispose them to criminal behaviour. Focused on scientific methods and the
study of biological, psychological, and social factors.
• Critique: Critics argue against biological determinism and highlight the
importance of environmental and societal factors in crime causation.
3. Chicago School (early to mid-20th century):
• Key Figures: Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, Clifford Shaw.
• Ideas: Introduced ecological and social disorganization theories, emphasizing
the impact of the physical and social environment on crime rates. Studied
urban areas and the social organization of communities.
• Critique: Critics argue that it downplays individual responsibility and
oversimplifies the relationship between crime and environment.
 4. Strain Theory (mid-20th century):
• Key Figures: Robert K. Merton.
• Ideas: Crime results from the strain between societal goals and the means
available to achieve them. Individuals turn to crime when they cannot achieve
success through conventional means.
• Critique: Critics argue that it tends to ignore other motivations for criminal
behaviour and doesn't account for the fact that not all individuals facing strain
turn to crime.
5. Labeling Theory (mid to late 20th century):
• Key Figures: Howard Becker, Edwin Lemert.
• Ideas: Focuses on the societal reaction to individuals labeled as criminals.
Argues that labeling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy where individuals
adopt a deviant identity.
• Critique: Critics argue that it may overlook the initial criminal act and place
too much emphasis on societal reactions.
6. Critical Criminology (late 20th century - present):
• Key Figures: Jock Young, Richard Quinney.
• Ideas: Examines the social and economic structures that contribute to crime.
Emphasizes the role of power, inequality, and social injustice in criminal
behaviour.
• Critique: Critics argue that it can be overly focused on structural factors,
neglecting individual agency and personal responsibility.
7. Routine Activity Theory (late 20th century - present):
• Key Figures: Marcus Felson, Lawrence Cohen.
• Ideas: Crime occurs when three elements converge - a motivated offender, a
suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. Focuses on the routine
activities of individuals.
• Critique: Critics argue that it may oversimplify the complex interplay of
factors leading to criminal behaviour.
In summary, the evolution of criminological thought reflects shifts in societal perspectives
and a recognition of the multifaceted nature of criminal behaviour. Each school of thought
has made valuable contributions, but none offers a complete explanation for crime,
emphasizing the need for an interdisciplinary and holistic approach in contemporary
criminology.
 CONCLUSION
Crime and criminology can have various impacts on our day-to-day activities, influencing
individual behaviours, societal perceptions, and the functioning of institutions. Here are some
ways in which crime and criminology intersect with our daily lives:
1. Safety Concerns:
• Individual Behaviour: The fear of crime can affect individual behaviour,
influencing decisions about where to live, work, and socialize. People may
alter their routines or take precautions to minimize perceived risks.
2. Legal Awareness:
• Knowledge of Laws: Criminology, as the scientific study of crime, contributes
to our understanding of legal systems and the laws that govern society. This
knowledge can influence how individuals interact with the legal framework,
impacting their awareness of rights and responsibilities.
3. Media Influence:
• Public Perception: Media coverage of crime can shape public perception and
attitudes toward safety. High-profile cases or sensationalized reporting may
lead to heightened concerns, affecting public discourse and influencing
individual opinions about crime rates.
4. Policy and Governance:
• Public Policy: Criminological research informs the development of criminal
justice policies. These policies, in turn, can impact the allocation of resources,
law enforcement strategies, and the overall approach to crime prevention and
control.
5. Social Dynamics:
• Stigmatization: Crime and criminal behaviour can lead to the stigmatization of
certain communities or groups. This stigmatization can affect social
interactions and contribute to negative stereotypes.
6. Crime Prevention Measures:
• Security Measures: The awareness of crime may prompt individuals and
businesses to invest in security measures, such as alarms, surveillance
systems, and enhanced access controls.
7. Legal Professions:
• Legal Careers: Criminology influences the legal profession by providing
insights into criminal behaviour, the causes of crime, and effective legal
strategies. It contributes to the training of law enforcement officers, lawyers,
and criminal justice professionals.
 8. Community Engagement:
• Neighbourhood Watch Programs: Awareness of crime can lead to community-
driven initiatives, such as neighbourhood watch programs, where residents
collaborate to enhance safety and prevent criminal activities.
9. Policy Advocacy:
• Social Activism: Criminological insights may fuel social activism, leading to
advocacy for criminal justice reforms, changes in sentencing policies, and the
promotion of alternatives to incarceration.
10. Education and Research:
• Academic Impact: Criminology as an academic discipline influences
educational programs, research agendas, and the development of critical
thinking skills related to criminal justice issues.
While crime and criminology can have significant effects on day-to-day activities, it's crucial
to note that individuals and societies respond in diverse ways. Responses may include
community organizing, policy advocacy, legal reforms, and personal adjustments aimed at
enhancing safety and well-being. The field of criminology continues to evolve, shaping our
understanding of crime and influencing efforts to create more just and secure communities.