CRIMINOLOGY, ITS ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION:

Introduction:
Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice
system. It examines the causes of crime, its impact on society, and methods for
prevention and control. Criminologists analyze patterns of criminal activity, law
enforcement practices, and rehabilitation strategies. The field combines sociology,
psychology, law, and forensic science to understand and address crime effectively.
Origin:
Criminology began in ancient times, when crime was seen as a sin and punished harshly.
Crime:
An act which adversely affects society. Such an act is considered wrong in society. And
society wants to prevent it.
Procedure:
Whenever a crime is happened, it is investigated by law enforcement agencies. Then
prosecution take the matter to the court along with evidences. The court imposes
punishment to culprit. The culprit is kept in prison which means punishment is enforced.
Parole:
Parole in the criminal justice system is the conditional release of a prisoner before
completing their full sentence. It allows the individual to serve the remaining portion of
their sentence under supervision in the community, rather than in prison. Parole is
granted based on good behavior, rehabilitation progress, and the likelihood of
reintegration into society. Parolees must follow specific conditions, such as regular
check-ins with a parole officer, avoiding criminal activity, and maintaining employment.
If they violate these conditions, they may be sent back to prison.
Criminal law:
It is a response of the state to the crime or criminal activity.
Institutions:
They play their role to stop or prevent crimes.
Punishment:
A method adopted by the state to stop crimes.
Punishment: Physical and monetary (fine).
Purpose is deterrence, rehabilitation, prevention of crimes from society.
Collective response by state:
Crimes are the matters for collective concern, therefore preventing it needs collective
response. In Criminal cases, we have the title "State vs Accused" a collective response is
shown by the state.
Evolution of criminology:
Ancient Times:
Crime was seen as a sin or the result of evil spirits. Punishments were harsh, including
torture and execution.
Classical Criminology (18th Century):
Thinkers like Cesare Beccaria argued that crime is a result of free will, and punishment
should be fair, proportionate, and serve as a deterrent.
Positivist Criminology (19th Century):
Scientists like Cesare Lombroso suggested that criminals have biological traits that make
them different from others. Psychology and sociology also began to be used to study
crime.
Sociological Theories (20th Century):
Crime was seen as influenced by social factors like poverty, peer pressure, and lack of
education. Theories like strain theory and labeling theory emerged.
Modern Criminology (21st Century):
Today, criminology combines psychology, sociology, law, and technology to understand
crime. It also focuses on rehabilitation, crime prevention, and the role of technology in
criminal behavior.
Criminal justice system:
The criminal justice system is the framework of laws, institutions, and processes
established to prevent, control, and punish crime while ensuring justice. It consists of
three main components:
Law Enforcement:
Police and investigative agencies responsible for detecting, preventing, and investigating
crimes. They arrest suspects and gather evidence.
Prosecution:
Then after investigation they take matter to the court.
Judiciary (Courts):
Courts handle trials, determine guilt or innocence, and issue fair sentences based on the
law. Judges, prosecutors, and defense lawyers play key roles.

CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR:
Criminal behavior:
Introduction:
Criminal behavior refers to actions or conduct that violate the laws established by a
society and are deemed harmful, threatening, or otherwise detrimental to individuals or
the community as a whole.
Background:
Every human wants to be unique from other humans. Experience shows that harmony
brings peace and betterment. And this happens when humans respect each other and
each other's interests. But humans want to be unique which makes them different.
Every human does crimes which suit them.
Identifying criminals:
External outlook:
Humans judge people by their external outlook. People are judged by the dress they
wear, haircuts and their physical condition.
Family:
If a person belongs to an educated or respectful family then humans consider such a
person to be the same as his family. While if another person belongs to a family having
no such background is deemed as his family.
Color:
Humans also associate the behavior with color. Let white people are considered more
civilized while black people are considered violent and harsh.
Lombroso:
A sociologist 300 years prior conducted a research which resulted that people having
certain face structure reflect criminal behavior.
This theory was prevalent at that time.
But very recently it is proved that the physical appearance and color has nothing to do
with criminal behavior.
Suicide:
It’s a major discussion for the criminologists. At some point human break as we are
influenced by thought and mind. We don’t fight physique but mind set.
Act is either of mind or body. Act of mind and act of body.
In law (CrPC) the term intentionally or fraudulently is mention, and it refers to the state
of mind. The criminal law trying to deals with state of mind. The act of mind is figured
out through act of person.
Role of Geography:
The main element is society and society is because of people. Geography plays an
important role in differences among the people. For instance, dress-up, economy all are
influenced by the geography.
Example:
People living in agricultural area, their economy relying on agriculture. In same way,
people living near water their economy relying on this.
Religion:
It plays a pivotal role that drives people’s thoughts and behavior. Some people consider
it a part of culture and some says it is revealed.
Weather:
Weather is also influenced by the geography. Our life style, dressing etc are influenced
by it.
Social and Anti-social behaviors:
Criminology studies human behavior related to crime, focusing mainly on anti-social
behaviors.
Social Behaviors (Law-Abiding Behavior):
These are positive behaviors that follow societal norms and laws. They contribute to
social harmony and include:
Respect for laws, cooperation, community engagement etc.
Anti-Social Behaviors (Crime-Related Behavior):
These behaviors go against social norms and can lead to criminal activity. They include:
Violence, aggression, theft, fraud etc.
Law:
The state regulates behavior via law.
Pre-state situation:
History:
People will be banished from society who were not following the accepted social
behaviors.
FATA:
People were banished here who were not following the social behaviors.
Regulation of civil and criminal law:
Civil:
In civil law we have restoration that is a remedy whose right was infringed. For instance,
someone took money and court help to restore it back.
Criminal:
In Criminal law the punishment for murder is the death penalty or life imprisonment.
But actually there is nothing in this for the victim.
Role of capitalism:
These people have everything and want peace in society so that no one can threaten
them.
The prison system has also been established in favor of capitalists.
Prime tool of social control:
Criminal law is the prime tool of social control not social justice.
For example:
A death on the highway is concerning for the state as it will affect trade via highways
and not because it is interested in the life of a person.
 WHITE COLLAR CRIME:
Background:
Agrarian society:
Initially people relied on agriculture. They used to do this to survive their lives. Their
source of finance was from agriculture.
Agro based industries:
But after that time evolved and people moved towards industries from agriculture. Like
cloth from cotton etc.
Industrial revolution:
The people then left agriculture and moved to the industrial sector. Technology evolved
the situation. For instance, one tractor does the work of 20 people. Machines replaced
the labor. The raw materials were available and can be imported from other countries
for industries.
White-collar crime:
Definition:
White-collar crime refers to non-violent, financially motivated crimes committed by
individuals, businesses, or government officials in professional settings. These crimes
typically involve fraud, deception, or abuse of trust for financial gain.
Derived from:
The term was coined by sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939, emphasizing that such
crimes are committed by people of high social status in the course of their occupation.
Characteristics of White-Collar Crime:
White-collar crimes are unique from traditional crimes due to their non-violent nature
and financial motivations. Below are the key characteristics:
Non-Violent:
Unlike street crimes, white-collar crimes involve deception, fraud, and manipulation
rather than physical force or violence.
Financially Motivated:
The primary goal is economic gain, often through illegal means like fraud,
embezzlement, or insider trading.
Committed by Professionals:
Typically carried out by business executives, government officials, corporate employees,
or individuals in positions of trust and authority.
Complex and Hard to Detect:
These crimes often involve intricate financial transactions, false records, and digital
manipulation, making them difficult for authorities to uncover.
Abuse of Power or Trust:
White-collar criminals exploit their professional status, company resources, or public
office to commit fraud.
Cartels:
The influential people come together to make a cartel.
Example:
Sugar mills come together and hoard the sugar and then sell it at a high price.
Influence:
Corporations have great influence on politics, economy, policies, tax etc.
Example:
They provide money and support leaders in turn they influence the price of products.
Petroleum and housing:
The same is happening in housing and petroleum. The influencers get internal
knowledge and get a huge profit.
Like petroleum prices are frequently up and down and influential people get internal
news, make a profit.
The land which is close to the road has a high rate in the market. Let "Y" buy land at a
low rate and make road.
Problem related to law enforcement agencies:
National Accountability Bureau (NAB):
NAB is tasked with investigating corruption and financial misconduct, especially in the
public sector. Despite its mandate, NAB may sometimes encounter resistance from
powerful corporate entities that can delay or influence its investigations.
Federal Investigation Agency (FIA):
FIA focuses on a range of crimes, including cybercrime and financial fraud. Its
effectiveness in addressing corporate white-collar crime is contingent on overcoming
technical challenges and resisting external pressures from influential business interests.
Ehtisab Commission:
As a body responsible for ensuring accountability in corruption cases, the Ehtisab
Commission plays a key role in investigating corporate misconduct. However, its impact
can be diminished if corporate influence seeps into its operational framework or if legal
loopholes are exploited by the powerful.
Auditors:
Auditors both internal and external serve as a critical checkpoint for financial
transparency. Their independence and expertise are essential for detecting
irregularities. When compromised by corporate influence, the ability of auditors to serve
as effective watchdogs is severely impaired.