Chapter – Four

4. Angle and Directions

4.1. Introduction
Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently depends on measurements
of angles and directions. In surveying, directions are given by bearings and azimuths.
4.2. Angles
Depending on the plane in which they are measured, angles are classified as
 Horizontal angles
 Basic measurement for determining bearing and azimuths.
 Vertical angles
 For trigonometric leveling
 For stadia measurement.
 For reducing measured slope distances to horizontal.
Angles in surveying are measured with
 A transit / theodolite, or
 Total station
There are three basic requirements to determine an angle. They are
1. Reference/starting lines
2. Direction of turning.
3. Angular distances (Values of the angle)

Fig. 4.1. The three determinants of an angle

4.3. Measurement of horizontal and vertical angles
An angle is defined as the difference in direction between two convergent lines. A horizontal angle
is formed by the directions to two objects in a horizontal plane. A vertical angle is formed by two
intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one of this lines horizontal. A zenith angle is a complementary
angle to the vertical angle and is formed by two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one of these
lines directed towards the zenith.
4.3.1. Horizontal angle measurement: - are measured through the theodolite’s vertical circle by
adjusting the upper and lower clumps as well as the upper and the lower tangent screws. Then it is
done by rotating the theodolite’s telescope either forward or backward (i.e. towards clockwise or
counter clockwise direction) in the horizontal plane.
4.4. Methods of Describing Angles
4.4.1. Interior angles: It is angle between two adjacent sides in a closed polygon. In a polygon
having n number of sides the sum of interior angles is (n-2) 180.
ˆ B
A ˆ
ˆ C
B
Total angle =
= (n-2) 180
= (3-2)180=1800
A C
4.4.2. Deflection angles: It is the angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line.
Deflection angle can be to the right or to the left depending on the deflection from the
prolongation of the preceding line.

B
D
C
A

In any closed polygon the algebraic sum of the deflection angle (considering right deflections as
of sign opposite to left deflections) is 3600.
5
1

2
4
3

1   2  3   4  5  3600
4.4.3. Angles to the right: angles may be determined by clockwise measurements from the
preceding to the following line. such angles are called angles to the right or azimuths from back
line.

D
B C
A
Example:
Given the azimuth of lines in a polygon, find interior angle, deflections angles to the right and
bearing of lines.
Line AB BC CD DE EF
0 0 0 0
Azim 45 150 180 290 3150
uth 25’ 37’ 12’ 20’ 15’

4.5. Direction of a Line

The direction of a line is the horizontal angle between it and an arbitrary closed reference line
called a Meridian. Meridian is a line on the mean surface of the earth joining the north and south
poles.
• The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal angle between the line and an
arbitrarily chosen reference line called a meridian.
• The horizontal angle between a given line and a specified reference line is called the
direction of the line.
• A line on the mean surface of the earth joining the north and south poles is called a
meridian.
• All lines of meridians are called longitude.
There are four basic types of meridians:
1. Astronomic meridian or true meridian or geographic meridian: It is an imaginary line
on the earth's surface passing through the north-south geographical poles.
2. Magnetic meridian: are meridians that are parallel to the directions taken by freely moving
magnetized needles, as in a compass. Whereas true meridians are fixed, magnetic meridians
vary with time.
3. Grid meridian: A line through a point parallel to the central (true) meridian or y-axis of a
rectangular coordinate system.
4. Arbitrary (Assumed) meridian: An arbitrary chosen line with a directional value
assigned by the observer.
4.5.1 Magnetic Declinations:
The position of the magnetic north and south poles do not coincide with the geographic north and
south poles. Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle observed from the geographic meridian
to the magnetic meridian. when magnetic meridian is inclined to the true meridian and this
deviation is called magnetic declination.

Fig Declination East Fig. 7.12. Declination set off on a compass circle

The following are the two main horizontal angles measured from the reference directions.
I. Azimuths (whole circle bearings ) and
II. Bearings (quadrantal bearings)
I. Azimuths (whole circle bearing)
 Azimuth is an angle measured clockwise from the reference north
direction.
 It is always measured clockwise and north direction and ranges from 00 -
3600.
 Unlike bearing the cardinal direction symbols will never be mentioned.
 Azimuth is sometimes called whole circle bearing
Example: look at the following diagram’

Fig. 4.1

 Azimuth of line OA is 350 Azimuth of line OC is 2500

 Azimuth of line OB is 1500 Azimuth of line OD is 3300
II. Bearings (Fore bearings)
 Bearing of a line is a horizontal angle measured either from the reference
north or south towards either east or west direction i.e. towards clockwise or
counterclockwise direction is sometimes called quadrantal bearing or fore
bearing. Or it is the acute angle between the reference meridian and the line
is known as the bearing.
 It is always measured from either of the two references to west or east
direction depending on whichever is nearer to the line for which bearing is to
be measured.
 It only measures angle from 00 - 900.
 It is shown with the cardinal direction (N, S, and E, W) within which it is
referenced.
 Bearing always accompanied by letters that locate the quadrant in which the
line falls (NE, NW, SE or SW).
 Look at the following diagram

Fig. 4.2

 Bearing of line OA is N 600 E Bearing of line OC is S 700 W

 Bearing of line OD is N 450 W Bearing of line OB is S 250 E
Relationship between bearing and azimuth

The relationship between azimuth and bearing is different in different quadrants.

I. In the first quadrant

Angular value of bearing is equal to azimuth.

Fig. 4.3
II. In the second Quadrant:
Bearing is obtained by subtracting azimuth from 1800
 Fig. 4.4
III. In the third quadrant
Bearing is obtained by subtracting 1800 from the given azimuth.

Fig. 4.5

IV. In the fourth Quadrant

Bearing is equal to 3600 minus the angular value of the given azimuth.

Fig. 4.6

 To convert from azimuths to bearings by using this table:

To convert from bearings to azimuths by using this relationships:

Reverse Directions:
It can be said that every line has two directions.
• Forward direction is direction that oriented in the direction of fieldwork or computation
staging.
• Back direction is direction that oriented in the reverse of the direction fieldwork or computation
staging.
Back azimuth: - is the reverse of the forward azimuth whose angular difference between them is
1800 and as a result is sometimes called reverse azimuth or that is the azimuth of a line opposite
to the direction of the survey progress.
 To reverse an azimuth …. Add or subtract 180ْ0 to the original direction.
 Fig. 4.7

Back azimuth of AB = Azimuth of BA

Back bearing: - is the bearing of a line in the opposite direction of progress of survey is known
as back bearing or reverse bearing. Geometrically bearing and back bearing are opposite interior
angles of any straight line intersecting two parallel lines (i.e. they are equal in magnitude but
different in Direction).

Fig. 4.8

Back bearing of AB = Bearing of BA or N 650 E = S 650 W respectively.

 4.6 Vertical angle measurement

A vertical angle may be defined as the angle subtended by the inclined line of sight and the
horizontal line of sight at the in a vertical plane. If the point sighted is above the horizontal axis of
the -theodolite, the vertical angle formed is known as angle of elevation and if the point that is
sighted is below the horizontal axis, the vertical angle formed is angle of depression. The
maximum range of angle of elevation and angle depression is from zero degree up to normal (i.e.
right angle) in both East and West directions. Angle of elevation is represented by plus sign while
angle of depression is by minus sign whenever they are identified through their names. An angle
measured from the reference vertical axis of the theodolite downward towards the positive
horizontal axis up to the point to be observed (line of sight of the theodolite) is known as Zenith
angle where an angle which on the other hand is measured from the reference vertical axis of the
theodolite upward towards the positive horizontal axis of the theodolite up to the theodolite’s line
of sight is known as Nadir angle.
4.6.1 Algebraic relationship between the vertical angles

The interrelationship between vertical angles depends on the target to be observed. For instance
look the following diagrammatic representation of the theodolite set up on point A whose line of
sight is a target on the staff held on point B. The line of sight relates the three angles except
angle of depression.

4.6.2 Reference Directions for Vertical Angles

Vertical angles are referenced to:

1. The horizon by up (+), or down (-)
2. Zenith
3. Nadir
Note: Zenith: is directly above the observer
Nadir: is directly below the observer
Figure 4.2 The three reference directions for vertical angles: horizontal, zenith, and nadir

Relation Ship between Zenith and Vertical angle