Differences between ductile material and brittle material

Ductile Material Brittle Material

Solid materials that can undergo substantial Solid materials that exhibit negligible plastic
plastic deformation prior to fracture are called deformation are called brittle materials.
ductile materials.
Percentage elongation of the ductile materials Percentage elongation of the brittle materials
before fracture under tensile testing is higher. before fracture under tensile testing is very
less.
Ductile materials fail gradually by neck Brittle materials fail by sudden fracture (without
formation under the action of external tensile any warning such as necking).
loading.
Energy absorbed by ductile materials before Brittle materials absorb very small energy
fracture under tensile testing is more. before fracture.
Various metal forming operations (such as Forming operations cannot be easily
rolling, forging, drawing, bending, etc.) can be performed on brittle materials. For example,
performed on ductile materials. brittle material cannot be drawn into wire.
Ductile materials show longer life when Brittle materials fail faster when subjected to
subjected to fatigue loading. fatigue loading.
Examples of ductile material: Examples of brittle material:

• Mild steel • Cast iron

• Aluminum • Ceramics such as glass, cement,
• Copper concrete, etc.
• Rubber • Stone
• Most plastics • Ice

Universal Testing Machine

An instrument so designed that it is capable of

exerting a tensile, compressive, or transverse stress
on a specimen under test. Further, it can be adapted
for the determination of Brinell hardness, ductility,
cold bend, and other properties.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Strength: The maximum resistance of a material to withstand an applied stress or load without failure or
plastic deformation.

Stress: The internal resistance or counterforce of a material to the distorting effects of an external force or
load. It is the force (or load) applied per unit area to a material.

Strain: The amount by which a material changes (lengthening or shortening) due to application of stress or
load divided by the original length, expressed in inches (or mm) of deformation per inch (or mm) of material
strength.

Proportional limit: The stress is proportional to strain. It is the stress at which the stress-strain curve
deviates from a straight line.

Elastic limit: If the load is increase between point A and B, the body will regain its original shape when
load is removed; it means body possesses elasticity up to point B. It is the maximum stress to which a
standardized specimen may be subjected without a permanent deformation.

Upper yield point: If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach and the material
will start yielding known as Upper Yield Point.

Lower yield point: Further addition of small load drops the stress-strain diagram to point D, as soon as the
yielding start, this point ‘D’ is known as Lower yield point.

Yield Stress, (𝐒𝐲 ) – It is the maximum stress without causing deformation.

Ultimate Stress, (𝐒𝐮 ): After the end of yielding, if the load is increase beyond point ‘D’, there is increase in
stresses up to point E and thus maximum value of stresses at point ‘E’ is called as Ultimate Stress point. It
is the stress that would cause failure.

Breaking Stress: After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed, which decreases
the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The stress corresponding to point F is known as Breaking stress.

Design Stress: Stress used in determining the size of a member

𝐒𝐮 𝐒𝐲
Based on ultimate stress: 𝐒𝐝 = Based on yield stress: 𝐒𝐝 =
𝐅𝐒 𝐅𝐒

Young’s Modulus of the material: is a parameter for the description of the elastic properties of linear objects
like wires, rods, columns which are either stretched or compressed.

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity in tension or compression, (E): The ratio of the unit stress to unit strain
considering the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve. It is the proportionality constant of a material
in tension or compression below the proportional limit at which stress is proportion to strain.

for steel: E = 30 x 106 psi for aluminum: E = 10 x 106 psi

Modulus of Elasticity in shear or Modulus of Rigidity, (G): The ratio of the unit stress to unit strain with
the proportional limit in shear and it usually depends on Poisson’s ratio. It has a value less than the
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity in tension or compression.

for steel: G = 11.5 x 106 psi and μ = 0.3 for aluminum: E = 10 x 106 psi and μ = 0.35
 𝑬
𝑮=
𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝛍 )

Poisson’s ratio, (𝛍): The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal (axial) strain of a material subjected to
uniform longitudinal stress within the proportional limit. Values of Poisson’s ratio range between 0.25 to 0.35
for most materials.

Endurance limit or Fatigue limit: The maximum stress that can be applied to a material during a specified
number of stress cycle without causing failure of the material being stressed.

Factor of Safety (FS) or Design Factor (N): It is the ratio of the ultimate stress to maximum permissible
stress of a material in use.

Stress (S), Strain (ε) and elongation (δ)

Hooke’s Law (Stress is directly proportional to strain)

Sαε

S=Eε

𝛅
𝛅

where:
F N lb
S = stress = , or Pa, or psi
A m2 in2

δ mm
ε = strain = ,
L mm

E = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity or (proportionality constant)

F = force, N
 A= cross sectional area, mm2

δ = elongation (shortening) or total change, mm

L = length, mm

F
S A
E= = δ
ε
L

𝐅𝐋
δ=
𝐀𝐄
=S (𝐄𝐋)

Thermal elongation or shortening (δ) and Stress (S)

ε α Δt

ε = k Δt

δ
= k Δt
L

δ = k L Δt

δ = k L (t2 – t1)
L
S ( ) = k L (t2 – t1)
E

S = k E (t2 – t1)

where:

δ = elongation (shortening) due to temperature change, mm

m in
k = coefficient of thermal expansion, (for steel: 11.7 x 10-6 ) (for steel: 6.5 x 10-6 )
m−°C in−°F

t1 = initial temperature, °C or °F

t2 = final temperature, °C or °F