CBE 3322: Heat Transfer Operations

Section 2a: 1D Steady-State Conduction

(Introduction)

Dominic Pjontek, Ph.D., P.Eng.

University of Western Ontario
Conduction
◼ Reminder:
❑ Thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by
microscopic diffusion and collisions of molecules/particles
within a body. It occurs in the presence of a temperature
difference (transfers from hot to cold) and is not accompanied
by any macroscopic or bulk motion in the medium.
❑ The temperature difference is referred as the driving force.

◼ We’ve previously discussed Fourier’s law, the conduction rate

equation (established in 1822 by Jean Joseph Fourier).
❑ It is important to note that the equation is
phenomenological (i.e., it is derived from observed or
experimental phenomena rather than from first principles).

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(Introduction) 2
Conduction rate equation

◼ If you had the system below, what experiments would you carry out
to determine the relationship?

◼ Experiments demonstrated the following relationship for the heat

transfer rate, qx [W]:
T
qx  A
x

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 3
Conduction rate equation

◼ The previous proportionality remains valid when changing the

material, however the heat transfer rate may increase or decrease.

◼ This leads to the material property of thermal conductivity, k

[W/m·K], and the relation can be rewritten as:

dT qx " dT
qx = − k A or = qx = − k
dx A dx
heat rate heat flux

❑ Recall: the minus sign is necessary because heat is transferred in the

direction of decreasing temperature

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 4
Conduction rate equation (Example)

◼ A hot water pipe with an outside radius r1 has a temperature T1. A

thick insulation applied to reduce the heat loss has an outer radius
r2 and a temperature T2. On T-r coordinates, let’s sketch the
temperature distribution in the insulation for 1D steady-state heat
transfer with constant properties.

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(Introduction) 5
Conduction rate equation

◼ The direction of a heat flux is normal to the cross sectional area of a

surface at constant temperature (i.e., isothermal surface).

◼ Noting that the heat flux is a vector quantity, we can write a more
general statement of Fourier’s law:

"   T  T  T 
q = − k  T = − k  i +j +k 
 x y z 
◼ We can also resolve into Cartesian coordinates:

T T T
"
qx = − k q"y = − k "
q = −k
x y z
z

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(Introduction) 6
Thermal properties - conductivity

◼ The previous equations demonstrate that, for a given temperature

gradient, the conduction heat flux increases with a greater
thermal conductivities.

◼ Thermal conductivity is a fundamental property of a material that

gives a measure of the effectiveness of the material in
transmitting heat through it.

◼ A material that demonstrates equal thermal conductivity in all

directions (i.e., x, y, z) is referred as an isotropic material.

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(Introduction) 7
Thermal properties - conductivity

◼ Solids
❑ The molecular motion is restricted to vibrations about an
equilibrium position. In the presence of a temperature gradient
heat energy is transferred from one molecule to a neighboring
molecule through molecular vibrations.

◼ Metals
❑ Conduction of heat occurs more through the drift of free
electrons than by molecular vibrations. The motion of free
electrons in metals is similar to that of molecules in a gas and
this is why a material having good electrical conductivity also
possess good thermal conductivity.

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 8
Thermal properties - conductivity

◼ Gases
❑ conduction of heat occurs through collisions of molecules
having more thermal energy (i.e., faster moving) with
molecules having less thermal or kinetic energy (slower
moving).

◼ Liquids
❑ Similar phenomenon is responsible for heat conduction.
However, in liquids, the molecules are more closely spaced and
the molecular interactions are stronger and more frequent and
therefore, involve intermolecular forces.

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 9
Thermal properties - conductivity

◼ The relative thermal conductivity for various states of matter is thus

demonstrated below:

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 10
Thermal properties - conductivity

◼ Temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity:

Solids Saturated liquids Gases

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(Introduction) 11
Thermal properties - conductivity

◼ In heat transfer calculations, it is generally satisfactory and

sufficient to take thermal conductivity value of a substance at the
average temperature of the material or medium.

◼ However, a linear or quadratic equation is often used to describe

thermal conductivity as a function of temperature.

(
k = k 0 1 + aT + bT 2 )

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 12
Thermal conductivity (Example)
◼ An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity employs an electrical
heater sandwiched between two identical samples of diameter 30 mm and
length 60 mm, which are pressed between plates maintained at a uniform
temperature To = 77°C by a circulation fluid. A conducting grease is placed
between all the surfaces to ensure good thermal contact. Differential
thermocouples are imbedded in the samples with a spacing of 15 mm. The
lateral sides of the samples are insulated to ensure 1D heat transfer.
◼ With two samples of SS316 in the apparatus, the
heater draws 0.353 A at 100 V and the
thermocouples indicate ΔT1 = ΔT2 = 25.0°C.

◼ What is the thermal conductivity of the sample?

◼ How does this compare with the expected value?

◼ Why build an apparatus with two identical

samples, rather than one sample? When would you
expect ΔT1 ≠ ΔT2 ?

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(Introduction) 13
Thermal properties - diffusivity

◼ Thermal conductivity is a transport property, whereas

thermodynamic properties can also be of use.
❑ In this case, we make use the product of the density (ρ) and
specific heat (CP), which is referred as the volumetric heat
capacity [J/m3·K].

◼ In heat transfer, the ratio of the thermal conductivity and volumetric

heat capacity is referred as the thermal diffusivity:

 m2  k  W mK 
  =  kg m3  J kg K 
 s   CP  

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 14
Heat diffusion equation

◼ One objective when studying thermal conduction is to determine the

temperature distribution within a medium, T(x, y, z).

1. We can calculate this by applying the energy conservation

requirement to a differential control volume (dx · dy · dz).

2. We then define the relevant energy processes for the

identified control volume.

3. Lastly, by applying appropriate boundary conditions, the

temperature distribution can be found.

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 15
Heat diffusion equation

◼ Let’s define a control volume and develop the heat diffusion equation:

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 16
Heat diffusion equation

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 17
Heat diffusion equation
Cartesian coordinates
◼ The general form of the heat diffusion equation in Cartesian
coordinates is as follows:

  T    T    T   T
k +  k  +  k  + q =  CP
x  x  y  y  z  z  t

◼ We can also express this in a simplified form when the thermal

conductivity is constant:

2 T 2 T 2 T q 1 T
2
+ 2 + 2 + =
x y z k  t

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 18
 Heat diffusion equation
Cylindrical and spherical coordinates
◼ When using the radial (r), circumferential (φ), and axial (z) directions, we
obtain the following heat diffusion equation for a cylindrical system:

1   T  1   T    T   T
k r + 2  k  +  k  + q =  CP
r r  r  r     z  z  t

◼ When using the radial (r), polar (φ), and azimuthal (θ) directions, we obtain
the following heat diffusion equation for a spherical system:

1   2 T  1   T  1   T   T
 k r  +  k  +  k sin   + q =  C
r  r 2 sin 2      r 2 sin 2   
P
r 2 r    t

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(Introduction) 19
Boundary and initial conditions

◼ As the heat diffusion equation is second order with respect to spatial

coordinates, 2 boundary conditions must be expressed for
each coordinate to fully describe the system.

◼ Since the heat diffusion equation is first order with respect to time,
only 1 initial condition must be specified.

◼ Let’s look at some typical boundary conditions…

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(Introduction) 20
Boundary conditions at the surface (x = 0)

1. Constant surface temperature: T(0, t ) = TS

T
2. Finite surface heat flux: −k = q"S
x x =0

T
3. Symmetrical or insulated surface: − k =0
x x =0

T
4. Convective surface: − k = hT − T (0, t )
x x =0

1D steady-state conduction
(Introduction) 21
Heat diffusion equation (Online example)

◼ Passage of an electric current through a long conducting rod of

radius ri and thermal conductivity kr results in uniform volumetric
heating at a rate of qG. The conducting rod is wrapped in an
electrically nonconducting cladding material of outer radius ro and
thermal conductivity kc, and convective cooling is provided by an
adjoining fluid.

For steady-state conditions, write

appropriate forms of the heat equations
for the rod and cladding. Express the
boundary conditions of these equations

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(Introduction) 22