“We keep moving forward, opening new doors and

doing new things, because we are curious and

curiosity keeps leading us down new paths.”
- Walt Disney

Thermal Physics
- Mr Kelvin Lin
 Mastery Objectives
At the end of today’s lecture, you will be able to
• Describe what is meant by the internal energy of
a system / body
• Distinguish between internal energy and thermal
energy
• State what is meant by thermal equilibrium
• Distinguish between the Centigrade scale,
Thermodynamic Temperature scale and Celsius
scale
• Describe what is meant by heat capacity and
latent heat of a substance
 Mastery Objectives
At the end of today’s lecture, you will be able to
• Describe what is meant by the internal energy of
a system / body
• Distinguish between internal energy and thermal
energy
• State what is meant by thermal equilibrium
• Distinguish between the Centigrade scale,
Thermodynamic Temperature scale and Celsius
scale
• Describe what is meant by heat capacity and
latent heat of a substance
Boiling Water
 Pg. (10)-2
Internal Energy
Sum of the random kinetic and potential energies of
the individual atoms or molecules of the system.

The kinetic energy is due to the translational,

rotational & vibrational motions of the
atoms/molecules

The potential energy is due to intermolecular forces &

is dependent on the separation between the
atoms/molecules
 Pg. (10)-2
Internal Energy
Sum of the random kinetic and potential energies of
the individual atoms or molecules of the system.

The kinetic energy is due to the translational,

rotational & vibrational motions of the
atoms/molecules

Translation Rotation Vibration

 Pg. (10)-2
Internal Energy
Sum of the random kinetic and potential energies of
the individual atoms or molecules of the system.

The potential energy is due to intermolecular forces &

is dependent on the separation between the
atoms/molecules

GPE
δ- δ+

Analogy
 Pg. (10)-2

What is Internal Energy

Due to the Sum of
random Kinetic
Energies and
Potential Energies
of the molecules
that made up the
fluid

mgh
 Pg. (10)-2

Which is at a higher Temperature?

• The average kinetic energy of the molecules of the

water is larger
• An increase in Temperature of the water means that
the average kinetic energy of the molecules increases
 Pg. (10)-3

Which is at a higher Temperature?

• Assuming that sum of random potential energies of the

water molecules remains the same
• An increase in temperature, which means an increase in
average kinetic energy of the water molecules would imply
that internal energy of the water increases
 Mastery Objectives
At the end of today’s lecture, you will be able to
• Describe what is meant by the internal energy of
a system / body
• Distinguish between internal energy and thermal
energy
• State what is meant by thermal equilibrium
• Distinguish between the Centigrade scale,
Thermodynamic Temperature scale and Celsius
scale
• Describe what is meant by heat capacity and
latent heat of a substance
 Boiling Water
1. The body of
2. Its internal
water remains in in
energy INCREASES!
its position

3. Where does 4. There must

the energy be a flow of
comes from? energy from
the flame to
the water!
 Pg. (10)-3

Heating & Thermal energy

• Heating is the process whereby there is a
transfer of energy to an object, resulting in an
increase in random kinetic energies and/or
potential energies of the atoms/molecules.
• The energy being transferred is called
thermal energy (or heat).

+ Heating Process
=
Initial Internal Energy + Thermal Energy = Final Internal Energy
28 J + 2J = 30 J
 Pg. (10)-3
from Thermal energy to Internal energy

B
A
Energy in the process of
being transferred
(= Thermal energy = Heat)

• The thermal energy causes the hotter body to decrease

internal energy, and cooler body to increase internal energy
• Once thermal energy has been transferred to a body, it ceases
to be thermal energy, and instead becomes internal energy.
• Thermal energy is not IN a body;
whereas internal energy is possessed by a body
 Pg. (10)-3
What indicates a thermal energy transfer?

Higher Lower
B temperature
temperature A
Energy in the process of
being transferred
(= Thermal energy = Heat)

• Temperature is a SI base quantity that measures the degree of

hotness of a body
• Its SI unit is kelvin (K)
• It does NOT measure the amount of energy in a body.
• It indicates in which direction the thermal energy will flow
 Summary Time
• Turn to your shoulder partner and summarize
the following
– What is internal energy of a body?
– What is the difference between internal energy &
thermal energy?
– What is Temperature and what does it indicate?
 Mastery Objectives
At the end of today’s lecture, you will be able to
• Describe what is meant by the internal energy of
a system / body
• Distinguish between internal energy and thermal
energy
• State what is meant by thermal equilibrium
• Distinguish between the Centigrade scale,
Thermodynamic Temperature scale and Celsius
scale
• Describe what is meant by heat capacity and
latent heat of a substance
How do we measure temperature?

• Assuming no loss of thermal energy,

– Thermometer will reach a stable value
• No net thermal energy transfer between them
 Pg. (10)-3

Thermal Equilibrium
• Occurs when two bodies have no net
transfer of heat / thermal energy

• Key Concept:
– If 2 bodies are arranged so that they
exchange heat with each other but are
isolated from their surroundings, they will
eventually reach thermal equilibrium.
 Pg. (10)-3

What indicates a thermal energy transfer?

Higher Lower
B temperature
temperature A

• If thermal equilibrium means there is no net

transfer of thermal energy, then
– 2 bodies that are in thermal equilibrium are at
the same temperature.
– If 2 bodies have the same temperature, they will
be in thermal equilibrium if placed in thermal
contact
• heat transfer via conduction, convection or radiation
can happen)
 Pg. (10)-4
Example 3
Is it necessary that heat flows from the body with more
internal energy to one with less internal energy?

• Not necessary, as the body with more internal

energy (due to its large mass) may be at a lower
temperature than the body with less internal energy
and heat flows from a body at higher temperature
to one at a lower temperature.

• Key idea: It is the temperature of the 2 bodies that

will determine which direction heat will flow or
whether it will flow at all, not the internal energy of
the body.
An illustration… (Example 3 cont’d)
• Recall that internal energy is the sum of the
random kinetic energies and the potential
energies of the atoms/molecules of the body.

• Thermal energy is transferred from the candle

flame to the water, regardless of the amount of
internal energy.
 Mastery Objectives
At the end of today’s lecture, you will be able to
• Describe what is meant by the internal energy of
a system / body
• Distinguish between internal energy and thermal
energy
• State what is meant by thermal equilibrium
• Distinguish between the Centigrade scale,
Thermodynamic Temperature scale and Celsius
scale
• Describe what is meant by heat capacity and
latent heat of a substance
 Pg. (10)-4

Temperature Scale
• There are two types of Temperature Scale
1. Empirical Temperature Scale
• Centigrade Scale
• Celsius Scale
• Experimentally Determined
2. Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
• kelvin scale of Temperature
• Absolute scale of Temperature
• Theoretically Determined
 Pg. (10)-5

Centigrade Scale
• Established empirically (i.e. by experiment)

• by measuring a thermometric property

(i.e. a measurable physical property that
varies when temperature varies) at 2 fixed
points.
 Pg. (10)-5

Centigrade Scale
• Established with the following 2 fixed points:
– Ice point (for example 0C)
– Steam point (for example 100C)

• 100 divisions between the 2 fixed points

(hence ‘centigrade’)
– “Centi” refers to 100th division, “grade” means
the “gradient”
 Pg. Pg.
(10)-5
Setting up a Thermometer
1. Select a thermometric property

2. Select 2 fixed points

3. Determine how the chosen thermometric

property varies with temperature
(linear, quadratic, cubic, etc.)
 Pg. (10)-5
Defining the Centigrade Scale

Linear
relationship
assumed

By similar triangles,
B
 ( X  X 0 )

100 ( X 100  X 0 )
( X  X 0 )
D  / C  100
( X 100  X 0 )
 An example of a Thermometer

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
l100
• Thermometric property:
Volume of Liquid
lθ
• Since the cross-sectional
area of the tube is fixed,
length of liquid thread is a
more convenient property
that we look at l0

(l  l0 )
 / C  100C
(l100  l0 )
 Pg. (10)-5

Centigrade Scale
• It is important to note that in practice, there is no
thermometric property that is entirely linearly
varying with temperature

• The assumption that it is linear is for

experimental convenience and only for those
properties that are very close to being linear
 Pg. (10)-6

Disadvantages of Empirical Scales

• For a certain degree of hotness, two thermometers
may not give the same reading
1. Due to the non-linearity of thermometric
property with temperature

Linear
dependence
assumed

BUT not the

case in reality
 Pg. (10)-6

Disadvantages of Empirical Scales

• For a certain degree of hotness, two thermometers
may not give the same reading
1. Due to the non-linearity of thermometric
property with temperature
2. Calibration not easily reproducible since m.p.
(ice point) and b.p. (steam point) of water
depend on factors such as purity and external
pressure
 Pg. (10)-6

The Absolute Thermodynamic

Temperature Scale
• Thermodynamic Scale of Temperature
– Absolute Scale of Temperature
– kelvin Scale of Temperautre

• Not dependent on any thermometric property

• Entirely theoretical scale

 Pg. (10)-6

The Absolute Thermodynamic

Temperature Scale
• 2 fixed points
– Absolute zero (0 K) – temperature at
which all atomic motions reduce to a
minimum & all substances have a
minimum internal energy
– Triple point of water (Ttr) – temp at which
ice, water and water vapour can coexist in
thermal equilibrium
 Pg. (10)-7
Triple point of water
Triple-point Cell

• Ttr is defined as
Ttr  273 .16 K

• This makes the

temperature interval of 1 K
approximately equal to the
empirical interval of 1 deg
Centigrade
1K  1deg Centigrade
 Pg. (10)-7

Hence…
Definition of “kelvin”:

The kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the

thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.

1
1K  Ttr
273 .16
Where Ttr = 0.01°C. Therefore

t / C  T / K  273 .15
 Summary
• Turn to your shoulder partner and summarize the
points below:
– What is meant by thermal equilibrium?
– Temperature scales: What are the differences between
the Centigrade scale, Thermodynamic temperature
scale & Celcius scale?
 Mastery Objectives
At the end of today’s lecture, you will be able to
• Describe what is meant by the internal energy of
a system / body
• Distinguish between internal energy and thermal
energy
• State what is meant by thermal equilibrium
• Distinguish between the Centigrade scale,
Thermodynamic Temperature scale and Celsius
scale
• Describe what is meant by heat capacity and
latent heat of a substance
 Pg. (10)-8

Heat Capacity, C
• Is a value numerically equal to the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of the
whole body by 1 kelvin.

Q
C 1 kg 1 kg
T
Q  CT
 Specific Heat Capacity

• Specific heat capacity, c, is a value numerically

equal to the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of unit mass of a substabce
by 1 kelvin

C
c
m
Q  mcT
Example 5: Pg. (10)-9
A copper cube of mass 110 g is heated to a temperature of 100 oC
and then rapidly transferred to a well insulated aluminium can of
mass 80 g containing 200 g of water at 10 oC. If the final
temperature of the cube and water (after stirring) is 14 oC,
calculate the specific heat capacity of the copper. You may assume
that heat loss to the surroundings is negligible. (Cw = 4.2x103 Jkg-1K-
1 , C = 9.1x102 Jkg-1K-1)
al

Solution Strategy
1. Identify the Concept
• When heat flows occurs between 2 bodies that are
isolated from the surroundings, the amount of heat
lost by one body is equal to the amount gained by
the other body
2. Identify change in the body
• For this question only, both object undergoes
Temperature Change with no Phase Change
3. Use specific heat capacity to solve
Example 5: Pg. (10)-9
A copper cube of mass 110 g is heated to a temperature of 100 oC
and then rapidly transferred to a well insulated aluminium can of
mass 80 g containing 200 g of water at 10 oC. If the final
temperature of the cube and water (after stirring) is 14 oC,
calculate the specific heat capacity of the copper. You may assume
that heat loss to the surroundings is negligible. (Cw = 4.2x103 Jkg-1K-
1 , C = 9.1x102 Jkg-1K-1)
al

Solution
Heat given = mcu ccu T
= 0.11  c  (100 – 14)
Heat absorbed = mwater cwater T + mAl cAl T
= 0.24.2 x103(14 – 10) + 0.08910(14 –10)

Heat given = Heat absorbed

0.11  ccu  86 = 0.2  4.2 x 103  4 + 0.08  910  4
c = 3.86 x 102 J kg-1 K-1
 Pg. (10)-10

Measuring Heat capacity

• In solids; Electrical
Components
• Note that it is
expected that
students know
how to sketch an Insulator
experimental setup
for Measuring Heat
Capacity
Thermometer
 Pg. (10)-11

Measuring Heat capacity

By the Conservation of Energy,
Electrical Energy is converted to
thermal energy used to heat up the object + Heat Loss

V1I1t  m1c(T2 - T1 )  H

V2 I 2t  m2 c(T4 - T3 )  H
eliminate H (due to same time interval)
(V1 I1 - V2 I 2 )t  mcT2 - T1  - T4 - T3 
from which c can be calculated
Note that in this experiment, time, temperature, voltage and current values are
read off experimentally. Mass of the object is weighed before the experiment.
Example 6: Pg. (10)-11
In an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of copper, a well-
insulated copper block of mass 1.5 kg is heated for 15 minutes by an electric
heater which is embedded in it. The temperature of the block is found to rise
by 36oC when a p.d. of 12.0 V is applied across the heater and the current is
recorded as 2.0 A.
The experiment is repeated with p.d. and current values of 10.0 V and 1.9 A
respectively and the heating is again carried out for a time of 15 minutes. If the
new observed temperature rise is 28.5 oC, use the two sets of results to
calculate the specific heat capacity of copper. You may assume that the heat
lost to the surroundings is the same for each experiment.
[400 J kg-1 K1]
Solution
Let h be the heat loss in both experiment,
Using I V t = m c  + h
For p.d.= 12.0 V, I = 2.0 A and t = 15 min, (1) – (2),
(12.0)(2.0)(15  60) = (1.5) c (36.0) + h (1) 5(1560) = (1.5)c(7.5)
c = 400 J kg-1 K-1 (Ans)
For p.d.= 10.0 V, I = 1.9 A and t = 15 min,
(10.0)(1.9)(15  60) = (1.5) c (28.5) + h (2)
 Pg. (10)-11

Measuring Heat capacity

• In liquids

VIt  mcT  H  m' c' T

Electrical
Components

Properties of the calorimeter

and the stirrer

Stirrer
 Pg. (10)-12
Example 7:
A 4.0 kW electric immersion heater is used to heat 30.0 kg of water in a
well-insulated domestic hot water tank of heat capacity 800 J K-1. If heat
is lost to the surroundings at the rate of 300 J s-1, how long does it take
to heat the water from 10 oC to 90 oC. ( cw = 4.2 x 103 J kg-1 K-1.)

Solution
Heat supplied = Heat gained by water and tank + Heat loss
P  t = mw cw T + Ctank T + h  t
4000  t = (30)(4200)(90 –10) + (800)(90–10) + 300  t
3700  t = (30)(4200)(80) + 64000
t = 2740 s
 Pg. (10)-13

Latent Heat
• The latent heat of fusion is a value that is
numerically equal to the thermal energy
transferred when unit mass of a substance
changes from solid to liquid or from liquid to
solid, without a change of temperature

Solid Liquid

L
 Pg. (10)-13

Latent Heat
• The latent heat of vaporization is a value that
is numerically equal to the thermal energy
transferred when unit mass of a substance
changes from liquid to vapour or from vapour
to liquid, without any change of temperature
L

Liquid Gas

L
 Pg. (10)-13

Specific Latent Heat

• The Latent heat required per unit mass.

Q
L
m
Q  mL
 Pg. (10)-13

Measuring Latent Heat

• Electrical energy supplied =
heat energy to vaporize Electrical
liquid + heat loss to the Components
surroundings

𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑡 = 𝑚1 𝐿 + 𝐻
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑡 = 𝑚2 𝐿 + 𝐻
 Measuring Latent Heat
• The heat lost to the surroundings (H) may
be eliminated by the method below:
V1I1t  m1L  H
V2 I 2t  m2 L  H
eliminate H (due to same time interval)
(V1 I1  V2 I 2 )t  (m2  m1 ) L
from which L can be calculated
 Mastery Objectives
At the end of today’s lecture, you will be able to
• Describe what is meant by the internal energy of
a system / body
• Distinguish between internal energy and thermal
energy
• State what is meant by thermal equilibrium
• Distinguish between the Centigrade scale,
Thermodynamic Temperature scale and Celsius
scale
• Describe what is meant by heat capacity and
latent heat of a substance