Teacher Notes for “Introduction to Cells”1

In this minds-on analysis and discussion activity, students learn about the characteristics shared
by all cells and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, bacteria and archaea,
and animal and plant cells. Students analyze the reasons why cells are so small. They also learn
about the diverse chemical capabilities of prokaryotes, the functions of the organelles in
eukaryotic cells, and how organelles work together to accomplish the activities of life.
Table of Contents
Learning Goals – pages 1-2
Instructional Suggestions and Background Biology
General and first page of Student Handout – pages 2-4
Cells are tiny. – pages 4-5
Prokaryotes – pages 5-7
Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells – pages 7-9
Additional information, including Possible Addition to Student Handout – pages 10-13

Learning Goals
In accord with the Next Generation Science Standards2:
 This activity helps students to prepare for the Performance Expectation:
o MS-LS1-2. "Develop and use a model to describe the function of a cell as a whole and
ways parts of cells contribute to the function."
 Students learn the following Disciplinary Core Ideas (LS1.A):
o "All living things are made up of cells, which is the smallest unit that can be said to be
alive. An organism may consist of one single cell (unicellular) or many different numbers
and types of cells (multicellular)."
o "Within cells, special structures are responsible for particular functions, and the cell
membrane forms the boundary that controls what enters and leaves the cell. "
 Students engage in recommended Scientific Practices, including "Constructing Explanations.
Apply scientific ideas, principles, and/or evidence to provide an explanation of
phenomena…".
 This activity helps students to learn the Crosscutting Concept: Structure and function.
"Complex and microscopic structures and systems can be visualized, modeled, and used to
describe how their function depends on the shapes, composition, and relationships among its
parts; therefore, complex natural and designed structures/systems can be analyzed to
determine how they function."
Additional Content Learning Goals include:
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells. Cells are the smallest unit that is alive.
 All cells have DNA, ribosomes, a cell membrane, and cytoplasm, which includes cytosol and
a cytoskeleton.
 Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus with a membrane around the DNA and additional
membrane-enclosed organelles, whereas prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-enclosed
organelles.
 The rate of diffusion into and out of a cell is proportional to the surface area of the cell
membrane. In contrast, the rate that a cell uses substances such as O2 is proportional to cell

1
By Dr. Ingrid Waldron, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, © 2021. These Teacher Notes and the Student
Handout are available at https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/CellIntro.
2
Quotations are from http://www.nextgenscience.org/sites/default/files/HS%20LS%20topics%20combined%206.13.13.pdf
 volume. As cell size increases, the surface-area-to-volume ratio decreases. Therefore, cells
need to be tiny.
 Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea, which have fundamental differences at the
molecular level.
 Prokaryotes have a wide diversity of chemical capabilities.
 Membrane-enclosed organelles in eukaryotes include the nucleus, rough endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which work together with ribosomes to produce the proteins
that are secreted from the cell. Mitochondria make the ATP which provides the energy for
protein synthesis and many other cellular processes. This illustrates how different organelles
work together to accomplish the activities of life.
Instructional Suggestions and Background Biology
You can maximize student participation and learning, by having your students work individually,
in pairs, or in small groups to complete groups of related questions and then having a class
discussion after each group of related questions. In each discussion, you can probe student
thinking and help them develop a sound understanding of the concepts and information covered
before moving on to the next group of related questions.
If your students are learning online, I recommend that they use the Google Doc version of the
Student Handout available at https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/CellIntro. To
answer questions 2, 9, 10 and 12, students can either print the relevant pages, draw on them and
send pictures to you, or they will need to know how to modify a drawing online. To answer
online, they can double-click on the relevant drawing in the Google Doc to open a drawing
window. Then, they can use the editing tools to answer the questions.3 You may want to revise
the GoogleDoc or Word document to prepare a version of the Student Handout that will be more
suitable for your students; if you do this, please check the format by viewing the PDF.

A key is available upon request to Ingrid Waldron (iwaldron@upenn.edu). The following

paragraphs provide additional instructional suggestions and background information – some for
inclusion in your class discussions and some to provide you with relevant background that may
be useful for your understanding and/or for responding to student questions.
First Page of Student Handout
The Student Handout begins with two important points from Cell Theory
 all organisms are made up of one or more tiny cells and
 cells are the smallest unit that is alive.
Cell Theory includes the additional point that all cells come from already existing cells. 4
(https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book

3
To draw a shape
1. At the top of the page, find and click Shape.
2. Choose the shape you want to use.
3. Click and drag on the canvas to draw your shape.
To insert text
1. At the top of the page, click Insert.
 To place text inside a box or confined area, click Text Box and drag it to where you want it.
2. Type your text.
3. You can select, resize and format the word art or text box, or apply styles like bold or italics to the text.
When you are done, click Save and Close.
4
In contrast, billions of years ago cells arose by evolution from aggregates of molecules.
2
%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_and_Grewal)/05%3A_Cells/
5.02%3A_Discovery_of_Cells_and_Cell_Theory)
The first paragraph of the Student Handout recommends the video, “Neutrophil Chasing a
Bacterium” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_xh-bkiv_c; also available at
https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/CellIntro). In this video, a eukaryotic
phagocytic cell uses chemical information to pursue and then eat a bacterium. Students will see
the dynamic changes in shape as the phagocytic cell moves, as well as the extreme difference in
size between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. This video introduces the theme that cells are
active and dynamic, even though typical cell diagrams are static.
The Student Handout description of the cell parts found in all cells does not mention some
exceptions. For example, during the final stages of development of mammalian red blood cell the
nucleus and mitochondria are ejected, so mature red blood cells do not have DNA. The cell
membrane is often called the plasma membrane. Students can learn more about the cell
membrane in “Cell Membrane Structure and Function”
(https://serendipstudio.org/sci_edu/waldron/#diffusion).
If your students have trouble answering question 1, encourage them to reread the first paragraph
of the Student Handout. In your discussion about how the parts of the cell carry out the various
activities of life, you will want to include the contribution of the cell membrane to homeostasis
and the contribution of DNA and ribosomes to protein synthesis which contributes to cell
growth.5

As your students should know, cells are alive, but individual molecules are not. Thus, life is an
emergent property at the level of the cell due to the specific organization of molecules within the
cell. You may want to ask your students the following question in order to reinforce student
understanding that life depends on the specific organization of molecules within the cell.
3. If you ground up a cell and put all the molecules from the cell in a mini-test tube,
would this mixture of molecules be alive? Explain why or why not.

The defining difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells have a
membrane surrounding their DNA and prokaryotic cells do not. Eukaryotic means that the cell
has a true nucleus (DNA surrounded by a nuclear membrane). (The word eukaryote comes from
the Greek eu, meaning true or well, and karyon, meaning nut or kernel. The word
prokaryotic comes from the Greek pro, meaning before, and karyon, meaning nut or kernel.)
Compared to prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have a diameter which is roughly 10 times larger,
a surface area which is roughly 100 times larger, and a volume which is roughly 1000 times
larger.
The definition of an organelle given in the Student Handout figure includes ribosomes. Some
sources restrict the definition of an organelle to membrane-enclosed organelles, a definition
which excludes ribosomes.
This figure shows more information about (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-wmopen-biology1/chapter/
prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes/)
a “typical” prokaryotic cell. The cell wall
provides structure and protection. The

5
You may also want to introduce the evolution of antibiotic resistance as an example of another characteristic of life
observed in cells.
3
capsule with its pilli enables the cell to
attach to surfaces in its environment. The
DNA is in a circular chromosome (as
opposed to the linear chromosomes in
eukaryotic cells).6

Prokaryotes differ in size, shape and ability

to move. For example, some bacteria have
one or more flagella, which help these
bacteria to swim.
Recent research has shown that many prokaryotic cells have more internal structure than was
previously believed. For example, prokaryotes have cytoskeleton proteins
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton). Various prokaryotes also have internal membranes,
including at least one example of a membrane that surrounds the bacterial DNA
(https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0091344). Although prokaryotes are
often described as unicellular, many prokaryotes live in colonies, such as a biofilm, where a
secreted extracellular substance provides protection and there may be cooperation between
individual prokaryotic cells. However, these colonies do not have the same level of connection
and coordination as a multicellular organism
(https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_Concepts_in_Biology_(OpenStax)/13%3A_Diversity_of_Microbes%2C_Fungi
%2C_and_Protists/13.1%3A_Prokaryotic_Diversity).

Cells are tiny.

The recommended animation at https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/scale/ should help
your students develop an intuitive understanding of how tiny cells are.7
You may need to emphasize for your students the logarithmic scale in the Student Handout
figure that shows how tiny cells are. To help students understand why cells are so tiny, the
Student Handout discusses the supply of O2 (which diffuses across the cell membrane) relative to
the demand for O2 (which increases in proportion to volume of a cell). The calculations in
question 4a are presented for a hypothetical cuboidal cell, since these calculations are quite easy.
Similar results would be observed for a spherical cell; if r is the radius of the sphere, surface area
is proportional to r2, volume is proportional to r3, and the surface-area-to-volume ratio is
proportional to 1/r. Thus, the surface-area-to-volume ratio for either a cube or a sphere decreases
as it gets larger. Since substances like O2 enter the cell by diffusion across the cell membrane,
6
In prokaryotic cells, in addition to the circular chromosome, there are often small circles of DNA called plasmids,
which can be exchanged between prokaryotic cells, even of different species. In eukaryotic cells, in addition to the
DNA in the nucleus, there is DNA in the mitochondria and, for plant cells, also in the chloroplasts. This is one
reason why most biologists believe that eukaryotic cells evolved, in part, by endosymbiosis (a prokaryotic cell
taking up permanent residence within another cell).
7
If you want to emphasize the relative sizes of molecules and cells, you can use the Card Sort Activity, From Coffee
to Carbon, available at https://teach.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/files/Coffee-to-Carbon.pdf. This activity has
students sort cards (each with a molecule, organelle or cell) according to size. To use this card sort activity to
reinforce student understanding of the relationship between molecules and cells, I recommend that you begin by
having your students sort the cards into four categories: molecules, organelles, cells, and other. After you have
discussed this initial card sort, then have your students organize the cards from smallest to largest. (Depending on
your students, you may want to omit some cards such as adenine and baker's yeast.) This card sort would
complement the recommended animation (https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/scale/). The orders of
magnitude differences in size can be used to help students realize that eukaryotic cells are made up of many many
organelles and each organelle is made up of many many molecules.
4
cell surface area limits the supply of these substances. (Some other molecules and ions are
actively pumped into cells ("Cell Membrane Structure and Function";
https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/waldron/diffusion).)
Surface area increases if the cell has thin extensions (e.g. the axons and dendrites of neurons).
This explains why diffusion
across the cell membrane can
supply enough O2 for the
long slender axons of the
nerve cells that extend from
the bottom of your spine all
the way down your leg to
your foot. (From Krogh, Biology – A Guide to the Natural World, Fifth Edition)

Prokaryotes
The number of prokaryotic cells that are in and on the human body is often said to be ten times
as great as the number of human cells in a body, but recent improved estimates indicate that the
number of prokaryotic and human cells is roughly equal; e.g., a typical man has roughly 30
trillion human cells and 40 trillion prokaryotic cells
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867416000532). Approximately 80% of human
cells are red blood cells; many of the prokaryotes are in the contents of the colon. The
relationship between humans and our microbiome is an example of mutualism, a mutually
beneficial symbiosis. (A symbiosis occurs when two different species live together in direct and
intimate contact.) You may want to contrast this mutualism with parasitism in the case of
disease-causing bacteria.
Prokaryotes are diverse, numerous, and nearly ubiquitous on earth. Scientists believe that there
are millions of different species of prokaryotes alive today, although only about 5000 species
have been formally named and described thus far. The remarkable metabolic diversity of
prokaryotes includes the ability to obtain energy from sunlight, from organic molecules like
sugars, or from inorganic molecules like ammonia or methane. A teaspoon of good quality soil
contains billions of prokaryotes, and a milliliter of ocean water typically contains roughly 10,000
prokaryotes. Scientists estimate that the total number of individual bacteria and Archaea alive
today is over 5x 1030. They estimate that, despite their tiny size, there are so many prokaryotes
that they weigh roughly as much as all the eukaryotes. Research has shown that various
prokaryotes can survive in a broad range of environments, e.g. at temperatures that range from
0°C to ~120°C and at high pressures in water-filled cracks in the earth’s crust 2.5 km below the
ocean floor (https://www.quantamagazine.org/inside-deep-undersea-rocks-life-thrives-without-the-sun-
20200513/).
To answer question 7, students should remember or refer back to the paragraphs about the role of the
bacteria that live in and on the human body and the information on the chemical diversity of
prokaryotes. Plants obtain NH4+ not only from prokaryotes that convert N2 to NH4+, but also from
prokaryotes that decompose dead organic matter and release minerals in ions that plants can use. The
figure below shows the important roles of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle.

5
 (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/21/e3/66/21e36612329d77271bdcfae88d8232f7.gif)

As explained in the Student Handout, there are two fundamentally different types of prokaryotes –
bacteria and archaea. Most of the differences are difficult for beginning biology students to
understand. Some of the key differences between bacteria and archaea are summarized in the last six
rows of the table below. In some ways, archaea are more similar to eukaryotic cells.
Feature Bacteria Archaea Eukaryotes
Cell size Usually 0.5-4 µm Usually 0.5-4 µm Greater than 5 µm
DNA enclosed by No No Yes
a nuclear
membrane
Membrane-bound Absent Absent Present
organelles
Ribosome size 70S 70S 80S
Rotating flagella Present Present Absent (flagella and
cilia undulate)
Membrane lipid Have ester-linked Have ether-linked Have ester-linked,
straight chain fatty branched aliphatic straight chain fatty
acids chains acids
RNA polymerase One type Several types Three types
Rifampicin Sensitive Insensitive Insensitive
sensitivity of RNA
polymerase
Translation No (initiated with N- Yes Yes
initiated with formylmethionine)
methionine
Histones associated Absent Present Present
with DNA
Cell wall If present, almost always No muramic acid in No muramic acid in
have peptidoglycan cell walls cell walls
containing muramic acid

6
 (Sources: Biological Science, Fifth Edition, by Freeman et al.; https://www.easybiologyclass.com/compare-archaebacteria-bacteria-and-
eukaryotes-similarities-and-differences-table/)

Scientists who argue against the use of the term, “prokaryotes” suggest that this term could be
interpreted to mean that bacteria and archaea are more closely related evolutionarily than archaea
and eukaryotes. Contrary to this interpretation, contemporary molecular research indicates that
archaea and eukaryotes are more closely related evolutionarily, and some archaea may even have
been the evolutionary ancestors of eukaryotes
(https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01896/full#:~:text=A%20Briefly%20Argued
%20Case%20That%20Asgard%20Archaea%20Are%20Part%20of%20the%20Eukaryote%20Tree,-
Gregory%20P.&text=The%20recent%20discovery%20of%20the,origin%20of%20the%20eukaryote
%20cell.). In this activity, I have taken the point of view that the term “prokaryotes” is a
convenient shorthand for cells without nuclei and suitable for use in this introductory activity.

Good sources for more information on prokaryotes are:

 https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_Concepts_in_Biology_(OpenStax)/13%3A_Diversity_of_Microbes%2C_Fungi
%2C_and_Protists/13.1%3A_Prokaryotic_Diversity
 https://www.coursehero.com/sg/introduction-to-biology/prokaryotes-bacteria-and-
archaea/ (including a 6.5-minute video)

Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells

You may want to start the recommended video, Introduction to Cells
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8IlzKri08kk), at 1 minute and 10 seconds with the section
on Cell Theory. The video’s estimate of billions of cells in a human body has been superseded by
the more recent estimate of approximately 30 trillion cells in a man’s body, with about 20 trillion
cells in a woman’s body, due to women’s lower number of red blood cells. In the video, the
diagram of mitochondrial function is misleading since it omits the ADP + P inputs for cellular
respiration which seems to imply that glucose and oxygen somehow become ATP. (For a more
accurate presentation of cellular respiration, see
https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/energy.) You may prefer the 7-minute video,
Biology: Cell Structure (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8). One inaccuracy
in this latter video is that it implies that proteins are folded in the Golgi apparatus, instead of
stating that proteins are folded in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

This section explains how different organelles cooperate to produce proteins. The nucleus,
ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and vesicles each play a role in
synthesizing and secreting proteins such as insulin or antibodies. (The Golgi apparatus is also
known as the Golgi body or Golgi complex.) Proteins that will be secreted or become part of the
cell membranes are processed in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus (e.g.,
by adding sugar sidechains). These proteins are moved from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to
the Golgi apparatus in vesicles carried by motor proteins moving along microtubules that are part
of the cytoskeleton.

Questions 9 and 10 reinforce student understanding that different cell organelles work together to
accomplish specific functions. To help students understand the figure in question 9a, you will
probably want to explain that mitochondrion is the singular of mitochondria. Mitochondria are
shown as oval organelles, but in real cells they are highly dynamic, changing shape and
sometimes fusing with each other. Students can learn more about the structure and function of
7
mitochondria in “Using Models to Understand Cellular Respiration”
(https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/modelCR).

As shown in the figure below, lysosomes fuse with membrane-bound vacuoles so lysosomal
enzymes can digest worn out organelles and molecules.

(https://animalcellbiology.wordpress.com/2011/08/15/chapter-4-intracellular-compartments-transport-secretory-pathways-lysosomes/)

The differences between plant and animal cells are best understood in the context of differences
in how plants and animals obtain food. Obviously, plant cells need chloroplasts to
photosynthesize. (Students can learn more about the structure and function of chloroplasts in
“Using Models to Understand Photosynthesis”
(https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/modelphoto).) Plants’ ability to
photosynthesize means that plants do not require the mobility that many animals need to obtain
food, so the rigidity of cell walls and the weight of the water in the central vacuole are not
significant disadvantages for plant cells. (The turgor pressure in the central vacuole of plant cells
works together with the cell wall to maintain plant structure.) These observations illustrate that
the adaptive value of a given characteristic varies, depending on the other characteristics of an
organism.

Question 12 can be used for formative assessment. I recommend that, after students develop their
individual answers to question 12, each pair or small group of students should develop a
consensus answer on their whiteboard.8 A class discussion of each group’s whiteboard will
provide the opportunity to reinforce student understanding and clarify any misunderstandings.
8
For this purpose, you will want one whiteboard per student group in your largest class. For information about how
to make inexpensive whiteboards and use them in your teaching, see "The $2 interactive whiteboard" and
"Resources for whiteboarding" in https://fnoschese.wordpress.com/2010/08/06/the-2-interactive-whiteboard/.

8
Students can learn more about cell organelles in:
– “Structure and Function of Cells, Organs and Organ Systems”
(https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/SFCellOrgan) or questions adapted from that
activity, shown on pages 11-13 of these Teacher Notes
– “Eukaryotic Cells” (https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/3-3-eukaryotic-cells).

You may want to add the following Challenge Question, which provides an additional example
of the diversity of eukaryotic cell structure.

13. A paramecium is a single cell organism. The

structure of this eukaryotic cell differs from the animal
and plant cells shown above. Use a reliable source such
as a textbook to learn about the functions of the
structures shown in this diagram. Explain how these
structures support the paramecium’s activities of life
(e.g. homeostasis, responding to the environment, and
getting and using energy).

This question challenges students to develop their skills in obtaining and evaluating information.
A useful resource for students to learn about Paramecia is available at
http://labs.7bscience.com/lab-2---paramecium.html. This webpage includes an excellent video
that shows the motion of cilia, contraction of the contractile vacuoles, and food being swept into
the oral groove; seeing this video will help students understand how dynamic cells are, with
constant activity of their organelles. (The figure in the question is modified from
https://www.pngitem.com/pimgs/m/374-3745167_nutrition-in-paramecium-diagram-hd-png-
download.png.)

Recommended Follow-Up Activity

To obtain whiteboards, you can go to Home Depot or Lowe's and ask them to cut a 8' x 4' whiteboard (e.g.
EUCATILE Hardboard Thrifty White Tile Board) into six pieces with the dimension 32" x 24". They should have a
power saw rig that allows their employees to cut the pieces very easily. They should not charge to cut them and the
product cost is reasonable.

Some important tips for using whiteboards:

– Coat the white boards with Endust (or similar product) before using. Every once in a while, wipe them clean and
reapply Endust.
– Do not use markers that are old or almost empty. The ink from these are more difficult to erase.
– Black markers are easiest to erase. To prevent stains, erase right away, especially red or green markers. Do not use
markers that are old or almost empty, since the ink from these is more difficult to erase. Recommended brands are
Expo markers and Pilot BeGreen markers. To clean up stains you can use Windex or Expo Whiteboard Cleaner.
– Teacher and/or students can take a picture of the information on the board if they want to save it.
9
Structure and Function of Cells, Organs and Organ Systems9
https://serendipstudio.org/exchange/bioactivities/SFCellOrgan
In this activity, students analyze multiple examples of the relationship between structure and
function in diverse human cells, in the small intestine, and in the digestive system. Students learn
that cells are dynamic, with constant molecular activity. Students analyze examples that illustrate
how organelles work together to accomplish cellular functions and organs and organ systems
work together to accomplish functions needed by the organism. Finally, students construct and
evaluate an argument to support the claim that structure is related to function in cells, organs and
organ systems.

Sources for Figures in Student Handout

 Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells – modified from https://sciencing.com/prokaryotic-vs-
eukaryotic-cells-similarities-differences-13717689.html
 Relative sizes of cells – from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/biology1/chapter/comparing-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-
cells/
 Animal cell (in question 9) – modified from
https://s3.thingpic.com/images/ec/nwgJCGPHG9frbEHXeXy92knq.png
 Animal and plant cells – modified from Krogh, Biology – A Guide to the Natural World,
Fifth Edition
The other figures were created by the author.

9
If you want your students to learn more about cell organelles and cell diversity without using this activity, you can
add the questions shown on pages 10-12 to the Student Handout.I
10
Possible Addition to Student Handout
To see the continual activity inside a cell, view “Inner Life of the Cell”
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzcTgrxMzZk; begin at about 3 minutes and 30 seconds and
end all at about 6 minutes and 30 seconds, preferably with a narration by your teacher).
The different parts of a cell work together to accomplish the
cell’s functions. For example, this figure shows how cell
parts cooperate to secrete proteins such as:
 protein hormones (e.g. insulin)
 protein enzymes that digest your food
 proteins that help your blood to clot.
13. A protein that will be secreted from the cell is:
 made by a __________________ on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum,
 then processed in the rough endoplasmic reticulum,
 transported in a vesicle from the ___________________
______________________to the Golgi apparatus,
 processed some more in the ______________________,
 and transported in a vesicle to the cell membrane
where the protein is secreted.
14. If you think of a cell as a factory that makes proteins and ships them out, which parts of the
cell accomplish each of the listed functions?
What part or parts of the cell
Factory Function
accomplish this function?
Management – sends out instructions
(DNA –> RNA)

Workbench – makes products (proteins)

Processing – prepares products (proteins)

to leave factory/cell

Transport – moves products (proteins)

around in factory/cell
Security Fence with Gates – controls what
comes into and leaves the factory/cell

Powerhouse – provides energy in a form

the factory/cell can use (ATP)
Cleanup crew – disposes of old and
worn out products and equipment;
prepares them for recycling
11
Diversity of Human Cells
Many cells in our bodies do not look like the "typical" animal cell shown on page 1. Different
types of cells have different shapes and contents that match their differences in function. For
example, the specialized structure of sperm cells helps them to reach and fertilize eggs.
15a. Explain how the flagellum of a sperm cell contributes
to sperm function. (Hint: View swimming sperm at
https://sites.tufts.edu/guastolab/movies/.)

15b. Why is it an advantage for a sperm cell to have very

little cytoplasm and lots of mitochondria?

The cells in your body need a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, and they need to get rid
of the carbon dioxide and other waste molecules that they produce. Your blood brings the
needed inputs and takes away the cells’ waste products. Near each cell in your body is a tiny
blood vessel called a capillary.
 Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the blood in the capillary to nearby cells.
 Carbon dioxide and other waste molecules diffuse from nearby cells into the blood.

16. Explain why it is useful for the wall of

a capillary to consist of a single layer of
thin, flattened cells.

Human red blood cells are specialized to carry lots of oxygen to the body’s cells. Each red blood
cell is full of hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen.
17a. A human red blood cell has no nucleus, ribosomes or mitochondria. Explain how this helps
red blood cells to accomplish their function.

17b. Most cells are constantly replacing damaged molecules and organelles. Explain why a
human red blood cell is unable to replace damaged proteins.

12
Phagocytes are a type of white blood cell that helps to defend the body against bacteria and
viruses. Phagocytes squeeze between the cells of the capillary wall to move from the blood to
an infected injury. Phagocytes capture the bacteria and viruses. Then, the chemicals and
enzymes in the phagocytes’ lysosomes kill and digest the bacteria and viruses.

18a. Why do phagocytes need to be able to change shape in order to accomplish their
function?

18b. Each phagocyte has many more lysosomes than a typical animal cell. Explain how the
many lysosomes help a phagocyte accomplish its function.

19. These examples illustrate the general principle that structure is related to function.
Structure includes shape, component parts, and how the parts are organized. Give examples in
this table.

Shape matches function.

Parts match function.

20. In a typical diagram of a cell, it looks as though nothing much is happening. In contrast, real
cells are highly dynamic, with lots of activity. Briefly describe 3 examples to illustrate the kinds
of activity observed in cells.
a.

b.

c.
13
14