Algebra III-Unit-3

Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale

Department of Mathematics
University of Mumbai.

November 9, 2020

Lecture-1: Definition and Examples

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
Let R be a ring (not necessarily commutative nor with 1). A left
R-module or a left module over R is a set M together with
1 a binary operation + on M with (M, +) is an abelian group,
and
2 an action of R on M (that is, a map R × M → M) denoted
by rm ∈ M, for all r ∈ R and for all m ∈ M, which satisfies
1 (r + s)m = rm + sm, for all r , s ∈ R, m ∈ M.
2 (rs)m = r (sm), for all r , s ∈ R, m ∈ M.
3 r (m + n) = rm + rn, for all r ∈ R, m, n ∈ M.

If the ring R has a 1 then we have

4 1m = m, for all m ∈ M.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Remark
The “left” in the above definition indicates that the ring
elements appear on the left.
The right module can defined similarly.
If the R is commutative and M is a left R-module then by
defining mr = rm for all r ∈ R, m ∈ M, we can make M into
right R-module.
Unless explicitly mentioned otherwise the term “module” will
always means “left module”.
Module over a field F and vector space over F are the same.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Problem
Let be a ring with 1 and M is a left R-module. Then show that
0m = 0 and (−1)m = −m for all m ∈ M.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition (Submodule)
Let R be a ring and M-be an R-module.
An R-submodule of M is a subgroup N of M which is closed under
the action of ring elements, i.e.
rn ∈ N, for all r ∈ R, n ∈ N.

Every R-module M has the two submodules M and {0}.

{0} is called the trivial submodule.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Examples

1 Let R be a ring. Then M = R is a left R-module.

2 Let R be a ring with 1 and n ∈ Z+ .

R n = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )/ai ∈ R for all i}.

Then R n is an R module.
3 The module R n is called the free module of rank n over R.
4 If M is an R-module (two sided) and I is an ideal of R, such
that am = 0 for all a ∈ I and for all m ∈ M. In this situation
we say that M is annihilated by I and M is an (R/I )-module
under the operation:
For each m ∈ M and r + I ∈ R/I let

(r + I )m = rm.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Let A be an abelian group. Then A is a Z-module. As

a + a + · · · + a
 (n times) if n > 0
na = 0 if n = 0

−a − a − · · · − a (n times) if n < 0


Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Let F be a field and R = F [x]. Then R is an integral domain
with 1.
Let V be a vector space over F and T be a linear
transformation from V to V .
Define T 0 = I and T n = T ◦ T ◦ · · · ◦ T (n times). I is an
identity map.
If A, B are linear transformations from V to V , then define

(αA + βB)(v ) = α(A(v )) + β(B(v )).

Let p(x) ∈ R, p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

where an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 ∈ F .
For each v ∈ V define

p(x)v = (an T n + an−1 T n−1 + · · · + a1 T + a0 )(v )

= an T n (v ) + an−1 T n−1 (v ) + · · · + a1 T (v ) + a0 v

This makes V into an F [x]-module.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Proposition (The submodule criteria)
Let R be a ring and let M be an R-module. A subset N of M is a
submodule of M if and only if
1 N 6= ∅.
2 x + ry ∈ N for all r ∈ R and for all x, y ∈ N.

Proof.
If N is a submodule, then N is a subgroup of M, 0 ∈ N.
Hence N 6= ∅.
As N is a module over R, (2) follows.
Suppose (1) and (2) hold.
Let r = −1, then (2) implies N is a subgroup of M.
Let x = 0, then by (2) ry ∈ N for all r ∈ R and for all y ∈ N.
This defines action of R on N, which satisfies all module
criteria. So N is module over R.
N is a submodule of M.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Proposition
Let N1 ⊆ N2 ⊆ · · · be an ascending chain of submodules of M.
Then ∪∞i=1 Ni is a submodule of M.

Proof.
As Ni 6= ∅ for each i, ∪∞
i=1 Ni 6= ∅.
Let r ∈ R and x, y ∈ ∪∞
i=1 Ni .
x, y ∈ Nk for some k.
As Nk is a sub-module, x + ry ∈ Nk
x + ry ∈ Nk ⊆ ∪∞
i=1 Ni .

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
An element m of the R-module M is called a torsion element if
rm = 0 for some non-zero element r ∈ R. The set of torsion
elements is denoted

Tor(M) = {m ∈ M/rm = 0 for some non-zero r ∈ R}.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Proposition
Prove that if R is an integral domain then Tor(M) is a submodule
of M. (Tor(M) is called the torsion submodule of M).

Proof.
For any r ∈ R − {0} and 0 ∈ M, r 0 = 0. Hence 0 ∈ Tor(M),
implies Tor(M) 6= ∅.
Let r ∈ R and x, y ∈ Tor(M). Then r1 , r2 ∈ R − {0} such
that r1 x = 0, r2 y = 0.
(r1 r2 )(x + ry ) = (r1 r2 )x + (r1 r2 )ry = r2 (r1 x) + r1 r (r2 y ) = 0.
As R is an integral domain r1 r2 ∈ R − {0}, implies
x + ry ∈ Tor(M).
Hence Tor(M) is a submodule of M.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
Let M be an R-module and N is a submodule of M. The
annihilator of N in R is defined as
Ann(N) = {r ∈ R/rn = 0 for all n ∈ N}.

Proposition
The Ann(N) is a 2-sided ideal of R.

Problem
Let M = Z24 × Z15 × Z50 be a Z-module. Find the annihilator of
M in Z.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

 Algebra III-Unit-3
Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale

Department of Mathematics
University of Mumbai.

November 9, 2020

Lecture-2: Quotient Modules and Modules Homomorphisms

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Let A, B be submodules of the R-module M. The sum of A and B
is the set
A + B = {a + b|a ∈ A, and b ∈ B}.

Problem
Show that A + B is a submodule of M and is the smallest
submodule which contains both A and B.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition (Let R be a ring and let M and N be R-modules.)
A map ϕ : M → N is an R-module homomorphism if
1 ϕ(x + y ) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ), for all x, y ∈ M. and
2 ϕ(rx) = r ϕ(x), for all r ∈ R, x ∈ M.
An R-module homomorphism is an isomorphism if it is both
injective and surjective.
The modules M and N are said to be isomorphic, and denoted
by M ∼
= N, if there is some R-module isomorphism
ϕ : M → N.
If ϕ : M → N is an R-module homomorphism, let
ker ϕ = {m ∈ M|ϕ(m) = 0} (kernel of ϕ) and let
ϕ(M) = {n ∈ N|n = ϕ(m) for some m ∈ M} (the image of
ϕ).
If R is a field then, R-module homomorphisms are called
linear transformations.
Define HomR (M, N) to be set of all R-module
homomorphisms from M into N.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Remark
The condition ϕ(x + y ) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ), for all x, y ∈ M implies ϕ
is a group homomorphism. Hence for all x, y ∈ M we have the
following:
1 ϕ(0) = 0.
2 ϕ(−x) = −ϕ(x).
3 ϕ(x − y ) = ϕ(x) − ϕ(y ).

Exercises.
1 Show that ker ϕ and ϕ(M) are submodules of M and N

respectively.
2 Let R be a ring with unity and let M and N be R-modules.
Show that, a map ϕ : M → N is an R-module homomorphism
if and only if ϕ(rx + y ) = r ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ) for all x, y ∈ M and
for all r ∈ R.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

If R is a ring and M = R is a module over itself, then R-module
homomorphisms need not be ring homomorphisms and ring
homomorphisms need not be R-module homomorphisms.
Example
1 Consider R = Z the Z-module homomorphism ϕ : R → R
defined as ϕ(x) = 2x is not a ring homomorphism as
ϕ(1) 6= 1. But ϕ is a R-module homomorphism as

ϕ(rx + y ) = 2(rx + y )
= r (2x) + 2y )
= r ϕ(x) + ϕ(y )

for all x, y , r ∈ R.
2 Let R = F [x], where F is a field, then R is a ring. ϕ : R → R
defined as ϕ(f (x)) = f (x 2 ), for every f (x) ∈ R. is a ring
homomorphism but it is not F [x]-module homomorphism as
x 2 = ϕ(x) = ϕ(x · 1) = xϕ(1) = x, not true.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Example
Let R be a ring, let n ∈ Z+ and let M = R n . Then M is a
R-module. Then for each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} the projection map
πi : R n → R defined as πi (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = xi
is a surjective R-module homomorphism with ker π equal to the
submodule of n-tuples over R which have a zero in ith position.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Example
M and N be Z-modules and ϕ : M → N be a group
homomorphism. Then ϕ is a Z-module homomorphism.

Justification:
As ϕ is a group homomorphism we have
ϕ(x + y ) = ϕ(x) + ϕ(y ), for all x, y ∈ M.
Let x ∈ M and n ∈ Z.
Suppose n = 0, then ϕ(nx) = ϕ(0) = 0 = 0ϕ(x) = nϕ(x).
Suppose n > 0, then

ϕ(nx) = ϕ(x + x + · · · + x) (n times )

= ϕ(x) + ϕ(x) + · · · + ϕ(x) (n times )
= nϕ(x)

Suppose n < 0, then ϕ(nx) = ϕ((−n)(−x)) =

(−n)ϕ(−x) = (−n)(−ϕ(x)) = nϕ(x), since ϕ(−x) = −ϕ(x).
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Let R be a ring and let M, N and L be R-modules. Let ϕ, ψ be
elements of HomR (M, N). Define ϕ + ψ : M → N by

(ϕ + ψ)(m) = ϕ(m) + ψ(n) for all m ∈ M.

Exercise.
Show that
1 ϕ + ψ ∈ HomR (M, N).
2 With this operation HomR (M, N) is an abelian group.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

If R is commutative ring then for r ∈ R define r ϕ by

(r ϕ)(m) = r (ϕ(m)) for all m ∈ M.

Exercise.
Show that
1 r ϕ ∈ HomR (M, N).
2 With this action of the ring R the abelian group HomR (M, N)
is an R-module.

Exercise.
If ϕ ∈ HomR (L, M) and ψ ∈ HomR (M, N) then Show that ψ ◦ ϕ ∈
HomR (L, N).

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Proposition
Let R be a ring, let M be an R-module and N be a submodule of
M.The additive, abelian quotient group M/N can be made into
and R-module by defining an action of elements of R by
r (x + N) = (rx) + N, for all r ∈ R, x + N ∈ M/N.
The natural projection map π : M → M/N defined by
π(x) = x + N is an R-module homomorphism with krenel N.

Since M is an abelian group under + the quotient group

M/N is defined and is an abelian group.
We show that the action of the ring element r on the coset
x + N is well defined.
Suppose x + N = y + N, i.e., x − y ∈ N.
Since N is a (left) R-submodule, r (x − y ) ∈ N.
Thus rx − ry ∈ N and rx + N = ry + N.
The axioms for an R-module are easily checked in the same
way as was done for quotient groups.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
For all r1 , r2 ∈ R and x + N ∈ M/N.

(r1 r2 )(x + N) = (r1 r2 x) + N

= r1 (r2 x + N)
= r1 (r2 (x + N)).

The other axioms are similarly checked. It remains only to show π

is a module homomorphism. Let r ∈ R and m, m0 ∈ M.

π(rm + m0 ) = (rm + m0 ) + N
= (rm + N) + (m0 + N)
= r (m + N) + (m0 + N)
= r π(m) + π(m0 )

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem: The submodules of the quotient module M/N are of the form
U/N, where U is a submodule of M containing N.
Proof: Let f : M → M/N be the mapping defined as
f (x) = x + N, ∀x ∈ M.
Let X be an R-submodule of M/N.
Consider U = {x ∈ M|f (x) = x + N ∈ X }.
We prove that U is an R-submodule of M.
If x, y ∈ U and r ∈ R, then x + N, y + N ∈ X and
f (rx + y ) = (rx + y ) + N = r (x + N) + (y + N) ∈ X , which
shows that U is an R-submodule of M.
Also, N ⊂ U, because for all x ∈ N, f (x) = x + N = N ∈ X .
Thus, N is an R-submodule of U. Also, if x 0 ∈ X , then there
exists y ∈ M such that f (y ) = x 0 , because f is an onto
mapping. So by definition of U, y ∈ U.
Hence, X ⊂ f (U). Clearly, f (U) ⊂ X . Thus, X = f (U). But
f (U) = U/N. Thus, X = U/N.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Theorem (The First Isomorphism Theorem for Modules)
Let M, N be R-modules and let ϕ : M → N be an R-module
homomorphism. Then ker ϕ is a submodule of M and
M/ ker ϕ ∼
= ϕ(M).

Proof.
Consider the mapping g : M/ ker ϕ → ϕ(M) given by
g (m + ker ϕ) = ϕ(m).
Along exactly the same lines as the proof of the fundamental
theorems of homomorphisms for groups or rings, we can show
that g is an R-isomorphism of M/ ker ϕ onto ϕ(M).

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem (The Second Isomorphism Theorem)
Let A, B be submodules of the R-module M. Then
(A + B)/B ∼= A/(A ∩ B).

Proof.
Define ϕ : A → (A + B)/B as ϕ(a) = a + B for all a ∈ A.
Let a, a0 ∈ A and r ∈ R.
ϕ(ra+a0 ) = (ra+a0 )+B = r (a+B)+(a0 +B) = r ϕ(a)+ϕ(a0 ).
ϕ is an R-module homomorphism.
Let a ∈ A

a ∈ ker ϕ ⇔ ϕ(a) = B ⇔ a + B = B
⇔ a ∈ B ⇔ ker ϕ = A ∩ B

Observe that (a + b) + B = a + B for a ∈ A and b ∈ B, and

ϕ(a) = a + B = (a + b) + B, which implies ϕ is surjective.
Hence A/(A ∩ B) ∼= (A + B)/B.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
 Theorem (The Third Isomorphism Theorem)
Let M be an R-module, and let A and B be submodules of M with
A ⊆ B. Then (M/A)/(B/A) ∼ = M/B.

Proof: Define ϕ : M/A → M/B as ϕ(m + A) = m + B for all m ∈ M.

Let m + A, m0 + A ∈ M/A and r ∈ R.
ϕ(r (m + A) + (m0 + A)) = ϕ((rm + m0 ) + A)
= (rm + m0 ) + B
= r (m + B) + (m0 + B)
= r ϕ(m + A) + ϕ(m0 + A).
ϕ is an R-module homomorphism.
For m + A ∈ M/A, m + A ∈ ker ϕ ⇔ ϕ(m + A) = B
⇔ m + B = B ⇔ m ∈ B ⇔ m + A ∈ B/A. So we get
ker ϕ = B/A.
If m + B ∈ M/B for m ∈ M then ϕ(m + A) = m + B, which
implies ϕ is surjective.
Hence (M/A)/(B/A) ∼ = M/B.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Problem
1 Let A and B be R-submodules of R-modules M and N,

respectively. Then show that

M ×N ∼ M N
= × .
A×B A B
2 Let R be a ring with 1. Show that an R-module
M = Rx = {rx|r ∈ R} for some x ∈ M, if and only if
M∼ = R/I for some left ideal I of R.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

 Algebra III-Unit-3
Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale

Department of Mathematics
University of Mumbai.

November 9, 2020

Lecture-3: Generation of Modules, Direct Sums, and Free Modules

Date 02/11/202 Time 11.30 am to 12.30 pm

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Let R be a ring with 1.
Definition: Let M be an R-module and let N1 , . . . , Nn be
submodules of M.
1. The sum of N1 , . . . , Nn is the set of all finite sums of elements
from the sets Ni : {a1 + a2 + · · · + an |ai ∈ Ni for all i}. We
denote this sum by N1 + · · · + Nn .
2. For any subset A of M let

RA = {r1 a1 +r2 a2 +· · ·+rm am |r1 , . . . , rm ∈ R, a1 , . . . , am ∈ A, m ∈ Z+ }

(where by convention RA = {0} if A = 0). lf A is the finite

set {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } we shall write Ra1 + Ra2 + · · · + Ran for
RA. Call RA the submodule of M generated by A. If N is a
submodule of M (possibly N = M) and N = RA, for some
subset A of M, we call A a set of generators or generating set
for N, and we say N is generated by A.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

 3. A submodule N of M (possibly N = M) is finitely generated if
there is some finite subset A of M such that N = RA, that is,
if N is generated by some finite subset.
4. A submodule N of M (possibly N = M) is cyclic if there
exists an element a ∈ M such that N = Ra, that is, if N is
generated by one element
N = Ra = {ra|r ∈ R}.

Remark
1. As 1 ∈ R, we have A ⊂ RA.
2. Verify that for any subset A of M, RA is the smallest
submodule of M which contains A.
3. For submodules N1 , N2 , . . . , Nn of M, N1 + N2 + · · · + Nn is
just the submodule generated by the set N1 ∪ N2 ∪ · · · ∪ Nn
and is the smallest submodule of M containing Ni , for all i.
4. If N1 , N2 , . . . , Nn are generated by sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An
respectively, then N1 + · · · + Nn is generated by A1 ∪ · · · ∪ An .
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Remark
5. A submodule N of an R-module M may have many different
generating sets. For instance the set N itself always
generates N.
6. If N is finitely generated, then there is a smallest non-negative
integer d such that N is generated by d elements, and not
generated by less than d elements.
7. Any generating set consisting of d elements will be called a
minimal set of generators for N, and this set is not unique.
8. If N is not finitely generated, it need not have a minimal
generating set.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Example
1 Let R = Z and let M be any R-module, that is, any abelian
group. If a ∈ M, then Za is just the cyclic subgroup of M
generated by a. i.e. Za =< a >.
2 The definition of finitely generated for Z -modules is identical
to that for abelian groups.
3 Let R be a ring with 1. Consider R as left R-module.
1 Then R = R · 1. i.e. R is generated by 1.
2 The submodules of R are precisely the left ideals of R, so
saying I is a cyclic R-submodule of the left R-module R is the
same as saying I is a principal ideal of R.
3 Also, saying I is a finitely generated R-submodule of R is the
same as saying I is a finitely generated ideal.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Submodules of a finitely generated module need not be finitely
generated:
Example
Let F be a field and R = F [x1 , x2 , . . .], the polynomial ring in
infinitely many variables x1 , x2 , . . .. Consider M = R, a module
over R. Then M cyclic as M = R · 1. The submodule N of M (i.e.,
2-sided ideal) generated by x1 , x2 , . . . cannot be generated by any
finite set.

Justification:
Suppose A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } generates N.
Let nk be the largest positive integer such that each ai can be
express using x1 , x2 , . . . , xnk .
Then M is generated by x1 , x2 , . . . , xnk , a contradiction.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Example
Let R be a ring with 1 and let M be the free module of rank n
over R. For each i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} let ei = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),
where the 1 appears in i th position. M is generated by
{e1 , e2 , . . . , en }, as
n
X
(s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) = si ei .
i=1

If R is commutative then this is a minimal generating set.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Example
Let F be a field and V be a vector space over a field F and let T
be a linear transformation from V to V . Make V into F [x] module
via T .
1 Then V is a cyclic F [x]-module (with generator v ) if and only
if V = {p(x)v |p(x) ∈ F [x]}, that is, if and only if every
element of V can be written as an F -linear combination of
elements of the set {T n (v )|n ≥ 0}.
2 This in turn is equivalent to saying {v , T (v ), T 2 (v ), . . .} span
V as a vector space over F .
3 For instance if T is the identity linear transformation from V
to V or the zero linear transformation, then for every v ∈ V
and every p(x) ∈ F [x] we have p(x)v = αv for some α ∈ F .
4 Thus if V has dimension > 1, V cannot be a cyclic
F [x]-module.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
Let M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk be a collection of R-modules.
M1 × M2 × · · · × Mk = {(m1 , m2 , · · · , mk )|mi ∈ Mi }. Then
M1 × M2 × · · · × Mk is a R-module and it is called direct product
of M1 , M2 , · · · , Mk .

Remark
1 It is evident that the direct product of a collection of

R-modules is again an R module.

2 The direct product of M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk is also referred to as
the (external) direct sum of M1 , M2 , . . . , Mk and denoted
M1 ⊕ M2 ⊕ . . . ⊕ Mk .

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Prop: Let N1 , N2 , . . . , Nk be submodules of the R-module following
are equivalent:
1 The map π : N1 × N2 × . . . × Nk → N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk
defined by π(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) = a1 + a2 + · · · + ak is an
isomorphism of R-modules.
2 Nj ∩ (N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk ) = {0} for all
j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k}.
3 Every x ∈ N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk can be written uniquely in the
form a1 + a2 + · · · + ak with ai ∈ Ni .
Proof: (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose (1) holds and (2) fails.
Let aj ∈ Nj ∩ (N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk ), with
aj 6= 0.
Then aj = a1 + · · · + aj−1 + aj+1 + · · · + ak for some aj ∈ Nj ,
and 0 6= (a1 , · · · , aj−1 , −aj , aj+1 , · · · , ak ) ∈ ker π.
A contradiction.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Proof: (2) ⇒ (3). Suppose (2) holds.
If for some module elements ai , bi ∈ Ni we have

a1 + a2 + · · · + ak = b1 + b2 + · · · + bk

then for each j we have

aj −bj = (b1 −a1 )+· · ·+(bj−1 −aj−1 )+(bj+1 −aj+1 )+· · ·+(bk −ak ).

The left hand side is in Nj and the right side belongs to

N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk .
Thus
aj − bj ∈ Nj ∩ (N1 + N2 + · · · + Nj−1 + Nj+1 + · · · + Nk ) = {0}.
This shows aj = bj for all j, and so (2) implies (3).
Proof: (3) ⇒ (1). Observe that the map π is a surjective R-module
homomorphism.
Then (3) simply implies π is injective, hence is an
isomorphism, implying (1).
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Definition
If an R-module M = N1 + N2 + · · · + Nk is the sum of submodules
N1 , N2 , . . . , Nk of M satisfying the equivalent conditions of the
proposition above, then M is said to be the (internal) direct sum
of N1 , N2 , . . . , Nk , written

M = N1 ⊕ N2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ N k .

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

 Definition
An R-module F is said to be free on the subset A of F if for
every nonzero element x of F , there exist unique nonzero
elements r1 , r2 , . . . , rn of R and unique a1 , a2 , . . . , an in A such
that x = r1 a1 + r2 a2 + · · · + rn an , for some n ∈ Z+ .
In this situation we say A is a basis or set of free generators
for F .
If R is a commutative ring then the cardinality of A is called
the rank of F .
Free modules over noncommutative rings need not have a
unique rank (See Problem 27, page 358, ABSTRACT
ALGEBRA, by Dummit, Foote).

Note: 1. In the direct sum of two modules, say N1 ⊕ N2 , each element

can be written uniquely as n1 + n2 ; here the uniqueness refers
to the module elements n1 and n2 .
2. In the case of free modules, the uniqueness is on the ring
elements as well as the module elements.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Example
If R = Z and N1 = N2 = Z/2Z = Z2 , then each element of
N1 ⊕ N2 has a unique representation in the form n1 + n2
where each ni ∈ Ni , however n1 (for instance) can be
expressed as n1 or 3n1 or 5n1 . . . etc., so each element does
not have a unique representation in the form r1 a1 + r2 a2 ,
where r1 , r2 ∈ R, a1 ∈ N1 and a2 ∈ N2 .
Thus Z/2Z is not a free Z-module on the set {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.
Similarly, it is not free on any set.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
1 A finite sequence a , a , . . . , a of elements of an R-module M
1 2 n
is
Pn called linearly independent if for any r1 , r2 , . . . , rn ∈ R,
i=1 ri ai = 0 implies r1 = r2 = · · · = rn = 0
2 A finite sequence is called linearly dependent if it is not
linearly independent.
3 A subset B of an R-module M is called a basis if
1 M is generated by B.
2 B is a linearly independent set.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem: For any set A there is a free R-module F (A) on the set A and
F (A) satisfies the following universal property: if M is any
R-module and ϕ : A → M is any map of sets, then there is a
unique R-module homomorphism Φ : F (A) → M such that
Φ(a) = ϕ(a), for all a ∈ A, that is, the following diagram
commutes.

When A is the finite set {a1 , a2 , . . . , an },

F (A) = Ra1 ⊕ Ra2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ran ∼ = R n.
Proof: Let F (A) = {0} if A = ∅.
If A is nonempty let F (A) be the collection of all set functions
f : A → R such that f (a) = 0 for all but finitely many a ∈ A.
We make F (A) into an R-module by defining the following
operations.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
(f + g )(a) = f (a) + g (a) and (rf )(a) = r (f (a)) for all
a ∈ A, r ∈ R and f , g ∈ F (A).
Verify all that all the R-module axioms hold.
Identify A as a subset of F (A) by a map a 7→ Ia , where
(
1 if x = a
Ia (x) =
0 if x ∈ A − {a}.

For f ∈ F (A) suppose f (ai ) = ri 6= 0 for i = 1, 2, . . . , n and

f (a) = 0 for all a ∈ A − {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }.
Then f ≡ r1 Ia1 + r2 Ia2 + . . . + rn Ian .
Each f ∈ F (A) has a unique expression as above.
Suppose ϕ : A → M. Define Φ : F (A) → M by
n n
!
X X
Φ r i I ai = ri ϕ(ai ).
i=1 i=1

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

By the uniqueness of the expression for the elements of F (A)
as linear combinations of the ai we see easily that Φ is a well
defined R-module homomorphism (the details are left as an
exercise).
By definition, the restriction of Φ to A equals ϕ.
Finally, since F (A) is generated by {Ia |a ∈ A} once we know
the values of an R-module homomorphism on A its values on
every element of F (A) are uniquely determined, so Φ is the
unique extension of ϕ to all of F (A).
When A is the finite set {a1 , a2 , . . . , an },
F (A) = Ra1 ⊕ Ra2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ran .
Since R =∼ Rai for all i (under the map r 7→ rai ) the direct
sum is isomorphic to R n . i.e. F (A) ∼ = R n.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Corollary
1 If F1 and F2 are free modules on the same set A, there is a
unique isomorphism between F1 and F2 which is the identity
map on A.
2 If F is any free R-module with basis A, then F ∼
= F (A). In
particular, F enjoys the same universal property with respect
to A as F (A) does in above Theorem.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Remark
1 If F is a free R-module with basis A, we shall often

(particularly in the case of vector spaces) define R-module

homomorphisms from F into other R-modules simply by
specifying their values on the elements of A and then saying
“extend by linearity”.
2 When R = Z, the free module on a set A is called the free
abelian group on A. If |A| = n, F (A) is called the free abelian
group of rank n and is isomorphic to Z ⊕ Z ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z. (n
times).

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

 Algebra III-Unit-3
Modules

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale

Department of Mathematics
University of Mumbai.

November 9, 2020

Lecture-4: Finitely generated Free Modules

Date 09/11/202 Time 11.30 am to 12.30 pm

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
An R-module M is called simple or irreducible if M 6= {0} and {0},
M are the only R-submodules of M.

Example
A field or a division ring R regarded as a module over itself.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem Let R be a ring with 1, and let M be an R-module. Then the
following statements are equivalent:
1 M is simple.
2 M 6= {0}, and M is generated by any x ∈ M − {0}.
3 M ∼
= R/I , where I is a maximal left ideal of R.
Proof: (1) ⇒ (2)
Let x ∈ M − {0}. Then Rx is a non-zero R-submodule of M.
As M is simple M = Rx.
Proof: (2) ⇒ (1)
Let {0} =6 N an R-submodule of M. Let 0 6= x ∈ N. Then by
(2) M = Rx ⊂ N. Hence, N = M, proving that M is simple.
(For rings without 1, (2) in general, does not imply (1)).
Proof: (3) ⇒ (1).
Let f : M → R/I is an R-module isomorphism and N ⊂ M be
a submodule of M. Then f (N) is a submodule of R/I .
As R/I is simple f (N) = {0} = I or R/I .
As f is an isomorphism, N = {0} or N = M, proving M is
simple.
Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules
Proof: (1) ⇒ (3)
Because RM = M 6= {0}, there exists x ∈ M − {0} such that
Rx 6= {0}.
But Rx is an R-submodule of M. Because M is simple,
Rx = M.
Define a mapping f : R → Rx by f (a) = ax.
f is an R-homomorphism of R regarded as an R-module to
M, f is clearly surjective.
Let I = ker f . Then by the first isomorphism theorem for
modules R/I ∼ = Rx.
Because R/I is simple, it follows that the only left ideal of R
that contains I properly is R alone.
Thus, I is a maximal left ideal of R.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem: Let M be a free R-module with a basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }. Then
M∼ = R n.
Proof: Define a mapping φ : M → R n by
n n
!
X X
φ ri e i = ri fi ,
i=1 i=1

where fi = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0 . . . , 0) ∈ R n .
Pn Pn 0
i=1 ri ei = i=1 ri ei , implies, by the linear independence of
the ei0 s, ri = ri0 for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Hence φ is well defined.
It is easy to show that φ is R-module homomorphism and
bijective.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem: Let M be a finitely generated free module over a commutative
ring R. Then all bases of M are finite.
Proof: Let (ei ), i ∈ I, be a basis of M, and let {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } be a
set of generators of M. Then each xj can be written as
nj
X
xj = αij ei , αij ∈ R.
i=1

Thus, the set S of those ei ’s that occur in expressions of all

the xj ’s j = 1, 2, . . . , n, is finite.
See that S is a basis of M and I is a finite set.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem: Let M be a simple R-module. Then HomR (M, M) is a
division ring.
Proof: Let 0 6= φ ∈ HomR (M, M).
Consider the R-submodules ker φ and Im φ of M.
If ker φ = M, then φ = 0, a contradiction. Thus, ker φ = (0),
so φ is injective.
Further, if Im φ = (0), then φ = 0, a contradiction.
Therefore, Im φ = M, which implies φ is surjective.
Hence, φ is bijective, which proves that φ is invertible.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem: Let M be a finitely generated free module over a commutative
ring R. Then all bases of M have the same number of
elements.
Proof: Equivalently, we show that the if R m ∼ = R n then m = n.
Suppose R m ∼ = R n and m < n.
Let φ : R m → R n be an R-isomorphism, and let ψ = φ−1 .
Let (e1 , e2 , . . . , em ) and (f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ) be ordered bases of R m
and R n respectively.
We take φ(ei ) = nj=1 aji fj and φ(fj ) = m
P P
k=1 bkj ei .
Let A = (aji ), B = (bkj ) be an n × m and m × n matrices.
Then
m X
X n
(ψ ◦ φ)(ei ) = bkj aji ek , 1 ≤ i ≤ m.
k=1 j=1
Pm Pn
As ψ = φ−1 we have ei = k=1 j=1 bkj aji .
Hence nj=1 bkj aji = δki .
P

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

    
b11 b12 ··· b1n a11 a21 ··· a1m
 b21 b22 ··· b2n   a21 b22 ··· a2m 
B=  and A =  .
   
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
 . . . .   . . . . 
bm1 bm2 ··· bmn an1 bn2 ··· bnm
Then BA = Im and AB = In , where Im is the m × m identity
matrix.  
B
Take A0 = [A O] and B 0 = = Im , be n × n augmented
O
matrices, where each of O is a matrix of 0 of appropriate size.
 
0 0 0 0 Im O
Then A B = In and B A = .
O O
This implies det(A0 B 0 ) = 1, and det(B 0 A0 ) = 0.
As A0 and B 0 are n × n square matrices over a commutative
ring, det(A0 B 0 ) = det(B 0 A0 ), which is a contradiction.
Hence, m ≥ n. Similarly we can show that n ≥ m.
This proves m = n.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Definition
The number of elements in any basis of a finitely generated free
module M over a commutative ring R with 1 is called the rank of
M, written rank M.

Problem
Let M be a finitely generated free module over a commutative ring
R and let K be a sub module of M. Then show that M/K is a free
R-module.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

Theorem: Every finitely generated module is a homomorphic image of a
finitely generated free module.
Proof: Let M be an R-module with generators x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .
Let ei ∈ R n be the n-tuple with all entries 0 except at the ith
place, where the entry is 1.
Then {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } are linearly independent over R and
generate a free module R n . Define a mapping φ : R n → M by
n n
!
X X
φ ri ei = ri x i .
i=1 i=1

Because
Pn each element x ∈ R n has a unique representation as
i=1 ri ei , φ is well defined.
Show that φ is an R-homomorphism of R n onto M. If K is
the kernel of φ then R n /K ∼
= M.

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules

 Thank You

Dr. Rajendra M. Pawale Modules