Sample Concepts: CALCULUS

Given a graph or equation, (a) identify where the function is continuous/discontinuous (b) describe the
types of discontinuities (c) identify where the function is differentiable/non-differentiable.
Jump, Removable, Asymptotic, infinite, oscillating
This graph is continues from x<-1 and from x>-1. This graph is
discontinuos at –1, The discontinuity present is jump
discontinuity. The function is differentiable at all numbers
excluding –1.
How do limits help determine if a function is continuous?
Limits help us identify continuity because if both the left and
right side limit do not equal the same value then we can determine that a discontinuity has occurred.
Furthermore in this specific case the limit of the left is equal to y=1 and from the right the limit equals
y=2. Thus we can observe a jump discontinuity
Given a scenario for 𝑃(𝑥), explain the meaning of 𝑃(𝑎) = 𝑏 and 𝑃!(𝑎) = 𝑐. P(a )
P(a)=b indicates that when looking at a designated functional value of x we have a value given to us in
the y-plane. Similarily, P1(a) indicates another function which uses the appropriate equation to give us a
value of c on the y-plane when a value of a was inputed for our x.
Given a function, describe methods to differentiate (use appropriate derivative vocab) Be prepared to
describe more than 1 method.
Differentiating a function involves finding its derivative, which represents the rate at which the function
changes with respect to its variable.
Power Rule: Description: The power rule is applicable when
the function is in the form f(x)=x^n, where n is a constant.
The second method of differentiation is the chain rule. The
chain rule is used when the function is a composition of two
or more functions.
These methods are just a few examples, and there are
additional rules and techniques such as the Product Rule,
Quotient Rule, and more advanced methods like implicit
differentiation and logarithmic differentiation.

Given a graph of 𝑓(𝑥), describe it using curve sketching

vocabulary (increasing, decreasing, concave up, concave down,
intercepts, asymptotes, local max/min, points of inflection).
Increasing and Decreasing: Increasing: The function is rising as x
increases. Decreasing: The function is falling as x increases.
Concave Up and Concave Down: Concave Up: The graph is
shaped like a cup, indicating the function is bending upward.
Concave Down: The graph is shaped like an upside-down cup,
indicating the function is bending downward.
Intercepts: x-intercept: The point(s) where the graph crosses the x-axis (where f(x)=0). y-intercept: The
point where the graph crosses the y-axis (where x=0).
Asymptotes: Vertical Asymptote: A vertical line x=a where the function approaches infinity as x
approaches a from one side or the other.
Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y=b which the function approaches as x goes to positive or
negative infinity.
Local Maxima and Minima: Local Maximum: A point where the function reaches a peak in a small
neighborhood, higher than nearby points.
Local Minimum: A point where the function reaches a valley in a small neighborhood, lower than nearby
points.
Points of Inflection:Point of Inflection: A point on the graph where the concavity changes, often marked
by a change from concave up to concave down or vice versa.

Given a graph of 𝑓!(𝑥), describe 𝑓(𝑥), using curve sketching vocabulary.

Here's how you might describe f(x) using curve sketching vocabulary based
on the graph of f′(x):
Increasing and Decreasing of f(x):
If f′(x)>0, then f(x) is increasing on the corresponding interval.
If f′(x)<0, then f(x) is decreasing on the corresponding interval.
Critical Points:
Critical points of f(x) occur where f′(x)=0 or f′(x) is undefined. These are
potential locations of local maxima, minima, or points of inflection.
Local Maxima and Minima:
If f′(x) changes from positive to negative at a point, f(x) may have a local maximum at that point.
If f′(x) changes from negative to positive at a point, f(x) may have a local minimum at that point.
Points of Inflection:
Points where f′(x) crosses the x-axis (changes sign) may indicate points of inflection for f(x).
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes:
If f′(x) has vertical asymptotes, they may correspond to vertical asymptotes or cusps in f(x).
Asymptotic Behavior:
Consider the behavior of f′(x) as x approaches positive or negative infinity. This can give insights into
horizontal asymptotes or unbounded growth.
Intercepts:
Identify points where f′(x)=0 to find potential x-intercepts for f(x).

What conditions are required for a function to have a local minimum (/local
maximum/ inflection) at 𝑥 = 𝑎?
To determine whether a function has a local minimum, local maximum, or
inflection point at a specific x=a, you can analyze the behavior of the function
and its derivatives at that point. Here are the conditions for each case:
Local Minimum at x=a:
First Derivative Test: take the first derivative
f′(a)=0
f′′(a)>0 (second derivative is positive)
At a local minimum, the first derivative is zero, and the second derivative is positive. The graph changes
from decreasing to increasing at x=a.
Local Maximum at x=a:
First Derivative Test:
f′(a)=0
f′′(a)<0 (second derivative is negative)
At a local maximum, the first derivative is zero, and the second derivative is negative. The graph changes
from increasing to decreasing at x=a.
Inflection Point at x=a:
Second Derivative Test: take the derivative of your quation again
f′′(a)=0 or f′′(a) does not exist (indeterminate)
At an inflection point, the second derivative is zero or undefined. The sign change of the second
derivative (from positive to negative or vice versa) at x=a indicates a change in concavity.
8. If a function is increasing (/decreasing / concave up / concave down) on an interval, how does this
relate to the slope of the tangent lines?
The behavior of a function being increasing, decreasing, concave up, or concave down on an interval is
closely related to the slopes of the tangent lines to the graph of the function. Let's discuss each case:
Increasing Function:
Relation to Tangent Slopes: If a function is increasing on an interval, the slopes of its tangent lines are
positive. As you move from left to right along the graph, the function values are getting larger, indicating
a positive rate of change.
Decreasing Function:
Relation to Tangent Slopes: If a function is decreasing on an interval, the slopes of its tangent lines are
negative. As you move from left to right along the graph, the function values are getting smaller,
indicating a negative rate of change.
Concave Up Function:
Relation to Tangent Slopes: If a function is concave up on an interval, the slopes of its tangent lines are
increasing. The graph is shaped like a cup, and as you move along the graph from left to right, the slopes
of tangent lines become steeper, indicating an increasing rate of change.
Concave Down Function:
Relation to Tangent Slopes: If a function is concave down on an interval, the slopes of its tangent lines
are decreasing. The graph is shaped like an upside-down cup, and as you move along the graph from left
to right, the slopes of tangent lines become less steep, indicating a decreasing rate of change.

Sample Concepts: VECTORS

Explain the difference between a true bearing and quadrant
bearing. Explain how to convert between them.

True Bearing: True bearing is measured clockwise from the north

direction, usually expressed in degrees from 0° to 360°.The
reference direction is true north, which is the direction to the
geographic North Pole.
True bearings are commonly used in navigation and mapping.
Quadrant Bearing: Quadrant bearing is measured in relation to
one of the cardinal directions (north, east, south, west) and is expressed as an angle within that
quadrant.
The reference direction is the north or south line, and the quadrant (NE, SE, SW, NW) indicates the
direction in relation to that line.
Explain the difference between geometric vector and Cartesian vector. Explain how to convert between
them. Geometric Vector: A geometric vector is often represented by an arrow in space, indicating both
magnitude (length) and direction.
It is described by its length and the angle it makes with a reference direction (often the positive x-axis).
Cartesian Vector: A Cartesian vector, also known as a rectangular or Cartesian coordinate vector, is
represented using Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) in a specific coordinate system.
It is described by its components along the coordinate axes (x, y, z) in a Cartesian coordinate system.
From Geometric to Cartesian:
If you have a geometric vector with magnitude r and angle θ in polar coordinates, the Cartesian
components can be found using:
x =r⋅cos(θ) y=r⋅sin(θ)

From Cartesian to Geometric:

If you have a Cartesian vector with components x, y, and z, the magnitude (r) and angle (θ) can be found
using:
r =(x^2+y^2+z^2)^1/2 θ =arctan(x/y)

What’s the difference (if any) between 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏,⃗ and 𝑏,⃗ ×

𝑎⃗?
The difference between (A cross B) and (B cross A) is that
the order matters. The direction will either be into the
page or out of the page
Define projection. How is the direction of the projection
related to the vectors? Use examples.
Describe the ways that 2 lines can “intersect”
Given 2 lines, how would you determine which type of
“intersection” occurs. Specific examples may be given.
For each operation below, (a) describe how you can determine it. (b) is the result a scalar or vector?
(i) vector addition/subtraction vector Result is a Vector
(ii) scalar multiplication Result is a vector
(iii) dot product A⋅B = Ax x Bx+ Ay x By The result of the dot product is a scaler
(iv) cross product If A=(Ax ,Ay ,Az ) and B=(Bx ,By ,Bz ), then the cross product A×B is calculated as a
vector with components Ay ⋅Bz −Az ⋅By , Az ⋅Bx −Ax ⋅Bz , and Ax ⋅By −Ay ⋅Bx The result of this product is a
vector.