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Physics Chapter:12 Current Electricity 2nd Year Notes

Notes of 2nd year of Chapter 12 Current Electricity.

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511 views38 pages

Physics Chapter:12 Current Electricity 2nd Year Notes

Notes of 2nd year of Chapter 12 Current Electricity.

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richyou678
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1 2 CURRENT E LECTRICTY Qu: Ans. The rate of flow of charges either positive or negative through a conducting medium is known as clectrie current. Usually, it is represented by + =| ee et 1(b) Electronic current due to flow of electrons. Fig (0 Curent due to flow of posi ‘Negative ions in electrolyte, i ad these media is due to both negatively and positively charged ions as shown in Fig. 1(c) and its resultant current (1) is given by WWW.USMANWEB.COM Whew oui L pul Determine the direction of current through a metallic conductor. ‘Ans. The direction of current can be” determine by an example of a conductor say copper has free clectrons which are moving randomly in the absence of electric field and their speed depends upon temperature. Now when it is connected across the source (cell) than an electric field is produced across the fefive ean of te tery wal the copper and it is directed from positive ion of current. from positive to towards the negative plate of the cell as ™evetemina shown in Fig.1. The free electrons of the copper experience attractive force (F = gE) due to the anode and repulsive force due to the cathode. As a result, the free electrons of the copper start drifting in one direction-from —ve terminal towards the +ve terminal of the cell as shown in Fig.1. Hence, this result has confirmed that the current is actually due to the flow of negative charges in a metallic conductor but its direction is taken as in its opposite direction. Example 1: If 1x 10! electrons flow ‘through ayconductor in Ims, calculate the current in Ampere through the conductor. Solution: n= 1x 10% electrons 6x 10C Number of electrons = Charge on an electron Time taken =t= Ims= 1 x 107s So, Charge on 110"? electrons = Q=en = 1.6 x 107 Cx 1 x 10" Q=1.6* 10°C ‘Thus, the flow of current through the conductor is given by Q _ 1.6x10*C t — 1xl0s 151.6% 103A 1=1.6mA Q3: Describe the various sources of steady current, ‘Ans. For steady flow of current in an electric circuit, Italian scientist Volta discovered a source in 1800 called voltaic cell. It consists of two metallic plates which are immersed in a dilute sulfuric acid (HaSO.) as shown in Fig.1 known as electrolyte. One plate is made of copper called anode and the other plate is made of zinc called cathode, Now due to the chemical action within the source, the, WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if be eA IEr uel Ream Clectrons are released by the copper plate and collected at the zine plate, ‘Thus, under this process, the copper plate becomes positively charged while the zine plate becomes negatively charged. In this way, Volta was succeeded in the development of potential difference, When these two plates (clectrodes) are connected externally by a wire, then there will be flow of electrons from the cathode towards the anode and its uniform flow depends upon the continuous chemical reaction. Fig.t A schematic diagrant for source of a current. Afier voltaic cells, other cells were also disedvered by using different materials and different electrolytes; such as Daniell cell Laclanche cell etc. All these cells are not rechargeable and called/ primary cells. Later on, the rechargeable cells, such as nickel cadmium cell;.lead acid cell have also been constructed, These are called a secondary cells», There are number of other sources of current which are summarized as; Dynamo; It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generators: It also converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Thermo-couple: It converts the heat energy into electrical energy. Solar or photo cell: It conyerts:solar energy into electrical energy. State and explain Ohm’s law Ans. A German scientist_G.S-Ohm studied the relation among the following three parameters, i.c., the voltage applied across the conductor, the current through the conductor and the;résistance of the conductor and formulated a law in 1826, known as Ohm's Law which is stated as; the applied voltage across the conductor is directly proportional to the steady current, if the temperature and other physicalconditions of the conductor remain constant. Mathematically, Ohm's law can be expressed as 4 Vel 04 VEIR) a where’ 'R’ is the resistance of the 9 conductor. The value of resistance depends. upon temperature and other physical states at of the conductor. Its SI unit is ohm and it is denoted by ‘2’, A conductor has a 123 resistance of one ohm, if a current of one Ofc stistlie betweca'v 1 aXe to a WWW.USMANWEB.COM @/¥ he wA IIE pip — Unit 12: Current Electricity ends. The materials which have constant resistance are known an Ohmic materials. When voltage V is applied across A the ohmic materials then the graph of 4, voltage versus current is a straight line as 7 shown in Fig.1. Such straight line graph is known as ohmic characteristics, os Those materials having resistance that varies with current or voltage are known os as non-ohmic materials. The graph of voltage versus current due to non-ohmic ; v te. 48 Fig.2 A cured ine between V & I due toa ve Ff nen ue materials is a curved line as shown in Fig.2. Fit? Aswvedsin Such curved line is known as non-ohmic characteristics of a non-ohmic device. Example 2 What is the current through a résistor of 16Q when the potential difference of 240 volts is applied across it Solution: Current =1= 7 Resistance of the resistor = R = 160. Applied voltage’ According to Ohm's law Q5: Define and explain resistivity. Ans, The resistance of a material or conductor in its one cubic metre is known as its specific resistance or resistivity. Its value can be calculated as, since the resistance of a conductor is due to the collision between the free moving electrons with the atoms or ions of the conductor when a potential difference is applied across it. So the resistance of the conductor depends upon its length and WWW.USMANWEB.COM Uf beet oui IE rut Current Blectrlelty cross-sectional area. L.c., the resi ‘of a conductor is directly proportional to its length ¢ and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A. Rae Ra + a Combing these two relations where ‘p’ is known as specific resistance or resistivity of the material and it depends upon the nature of the material. Mathematically the value of ‘p’ can be calculated as The unit of ‘p’ is Qn. Conductance Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. It is represented by G and is expressed as; 1 Conductance = ————_ Resistance ‘The SI unit of conductance is per ohm or ‘mho" (9) also known as Siemen. Conductivity Conductivity is also an electrical property of materials which is the reciprocal. of the resistivity of the conductor. It is denoted by ‘o’ (sigma) and it is expressed in terms of the reciprocal of resistivity ie, , 1 Conductivity = ————— onductivity ~ Resistivity 1 one p si WWW.USMANWEB.COM Uf bev oi Er uee By definition of resistance in terms of resistivity e R=p— °K But R= ond P Q ol- i a al= al> sia a i >Ig The SI unit of conductivity is Q"'m” or mho.m"\ Q.6: _ Explain the variation of resistivity with temperature. Ans. As we know that the atoms in a solid-are always vibrating about their mean position at room temperature. When~the temperature increases, the amplitude of vibration of atoms also increases’and the free electrons undergo greater number of collisions. Hence the resistance of the conductor increases with increase in temperature. Let a metallic conductor having resistivity R, at temperature 0°C, when its temperature is increased to t°C-then its resistance becomes R, . Thus, change in resistivity = AR > R, -R,, change in tempefaturé= AT = t-0 =t Here change in fesistance of the conductor is directly proportional to both initial resistance of the conductor and raise in temperature. That is, AR & Ry AR « AT By combining tliese two relations AR & R,AT AR = aR, AT ...... (1) ivity. Its unit is K" where ‘a.’ is known as the temperature co-efficient of resis and its value can be calculated as, AR fee, R,AT WWW.USMANWEB.COMSY M34 be eA IE rue Physics XIV Example 3 The resistance of a conductor Akan area Imm? is 0.4Q. Determine the res stivity 0! iform length 20m and cross-section f the conducting material. Solution: Resistance of. the optpetor R= 042 Resistivity ofthe conductor p =? Resistivity of the @onductor can be calculated by using the following equation pe R=p5 a é (0.49) x (1x10 m? oo 20m p =0.02 x 10° Qm p= 2xl0%Qm WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/ftewt ai E rue Unit 12: Current Electrielty A tungsten filament of a bulb has a resistance of 50 at 20°C and 4670 at 2000°C. Determine the value of temperature co-efficient of resistance of the tungsten, Solution: Ry = 50 Ri = 4670. t= 20°C t2 =2000°C Change in temperature AT = 2000 — 20 = 1980°C Now, by using the following equation, R, =R, (lat) R= R, (t+aAT) 4672-502 (502)(1980°C) .0042°C! Q.7: Describe thermistor and its function in daily life activates. Ans. Thermistor is (a temperature dependent resistor, its-resistance changes —=—-amm very fast even with small’ change of ‘~™=M temperature. The term’ thermistor is combination of thermal and. resistor. <-> Majority of the thermistors are working under the negative temperature co- trams efficient of resistance, however the Fit Dieentyps of hemisor Positive temperature coefficient of a thermistors are also available. Thermistors are made from the semiconductor oxides of nickel, cobalt, copper, iron etc. They are constructed in different shapes such as beads, discs or rods etc. under different conditions as shown in Fig.1. Thermistors have several applications which are summarized as: i, A negative temperature coefficient thermistor is being used to safeguard against current surge in a circuit. FE oes spas aba WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/ifbe eA oui E rel aT hermistors are being used for voltage stabilization. It is being used as a temperature sensor. iv. Thermistors are used to measure very low temperatures of the order of 10K. Q.8: What do you know about electromotive force and potential difference? Under what conditions their values are-same in an electric circuit? Ans, When a resistor R is connected R across the source (battery), an electric field is produced in the circuit directed from the high potential to the low potential as shown in Fig.l. The electrons from the negative terminal are forced by the source of e.m.f. to move against the direction of the field. Thus, dk the energy supplied or work done by the source per unit charge to move the charge in circuit from the low potential to the’ Fit! An electric high potential is called its electromotive force. it consists of a resistor and a source of e.m.f. €). () The SI unit of e.m.f. is volt. On the other hand; when the source delivers the electrical energy into the circuit, then work done per unit charge between two points (A and B) as shown in Fig.2, is +{'||-—+ +@- known as the potential difference. It is Fig2'The clectic potential SGereen point represented by V and itis expressed as; ‘And point B in an electric citeuit, W=qv (2) An ideal-source of e.m.f. is one which maintains difference between the two points in the circuit, Thus, constant potential by comparing Eq.1 and Eq.2 we get; qk =qVv E=V (As V=1R) BIR 58 WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if beet Erie rent Electricity Each real source of e.m.f, always has some internal resistance ‘r’ as show in Fig3, and this resistance is due to the electrolyte present inside the source and some energy is dissipated through it. Now, the potential difference ‘V’ between the terminals of the source is given by V=E-V, Vv Fig.3 A source of cm, which has an IR=E-Ir internal resistance . =1(R+r) E a 4 Rae This equation gives us few important results, 1. If r#0 thenE>V. 2. If the switch is opened then E = V. 3. Ifr=OthenE=V. Q9: What is electrical power? How does the maximum power transfer by source in an electrical circuit? Ans, The rate of transfer of electrical energy generated by electric source is termed as electrical power Awhich is dissipated in resistor R in terms of voltage *V’ and current ‘I’. Now if we neglect the internal resistance of the source, then according to law of conservation of energy, the power delivered by source is equal to power dissipation in load resistor R i.e., Power delivered to R = Power generation Pog = emery transferred ™ time vaQ Poa = YAQ At as AQ. at Pou = V1 and V=IR 59 WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if beet IE rut Current Electricity A real source has some internal resistance. Substitute the value of current in terms of resistance ‘1’ is given as, I= Ree Put it in Eq. (1) Pout = (R+ry Se BR (R-r)' +4rR E © (Rar) +4 R 2 Poot = ——=—" . Bo ae If R =r then the denominator of Eq.2 is minimum and then the power Pou will be maximum. Thus, eq. 2 becomes. E? Prag = —— 4r Example 5 The potential difference of a cell in an open circuit is 6V which falls to AV when currentof 2A is drawn from the cell. Find the internal resistance of the cell. Solution: Electromotive force of a cell = E=6V Potential difference = V =4V Current drawn from source = = 2A Internal resistance = r =? As we know V=E-Ir ee 60 WWW.USMANWEB.COM UW/i¥ be wAoui IL rue Unit 12: Current Electriclty Q.10: What do you know about the thermocouple and its function? Ans. A thermocouple produces a Voltmeter temperature dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be used to measure temperature. It consists of two wires of different metallic conductors forming an electrical junction as shown in Fig.1, such that one junction is cold and the other junction is hot. If the temperature difference between these two junctions exists, then an emf. of a few Hot Cold millivolt can be obtained. Junction Junction Fig A schematic diagram of a For example, let one wire is’ of~ “thermocouple, bismuth and the other one is the antimony. If the one junction is placed in melting ice of temperature 0°C and the other one is at temperature 100°C then an e.m.f. of-about 10mV is produced for a temperature difference of 100°C. The total e.m:fof a thermocouple does not only depends upon the nature of the metal of the-wires but also the temperature difference between two junctions. Thermocouple are widely used in science and industry. Their applications include temperature measurement for furnaces, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. They are also used in homes, offices and markets as the temperature sensors in thermostats and as flame sensors in safety devices. a it A ee eT ns Q.11; State and-explain Kirchhoff's two rules. ‘Ans. An.electric circuit consists of a source ofe.m.f) and a number of resistors. When the-circuit is simple, i.e. it consists of a single source and a single resistor, then we can apply Ohm's law for its analysis. However, when the circuit is complex, which contains more than one source and a ° number of resistors then we cannot use el Me ee eet soem Ohm’s law directly.for its analysis. For this, current away from the node. WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if beet IEr uel we use Kirchhoff's two rules or Kirchhoff's laws. Which are explained as: urrentlaw: The Kirchhoff's first law is also known as Kirehhof?'s current law (KCL). This law is based upon law of conservation of charges and it is stated as “the algebraic sum of current at node point in an electric circuit is zero”, that is, Y= 0...) Consider five resistors which meet at a node point ‘O’.as-shown in Fig.1. The currents hy, Ie and Is are flowing towards the node and the current I; and Is are flowing away from the node, If we take the current flowing towards the node as positive and the current flowing away from the node as negative, then by applying Kirchhoff's current law at the node point ‘O’, we haye; 1, +1, +1, +(-1,)+(-1) = 0 L+h4l, = 1,41, ...Q) I1Kirchhoff’s voltage law: The Kirchhof’$ second law is also known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). This law is based upon the law of conservation of energy and it is stated as “the algebrai¢ sum of the potential difference in a closed loop is equal to zero”, that is; In order to. explain ‘Kirchhof?'s voltage law, we consider an electrical circuit which consist of two loops.ABEF and BCDE with two sources of em,f. Ei and Ez as shown in Fig. 2. The voltage drop across D resistors Ri, Ro and Ry afe-taken as Vi, V2 Fit? ot tie and V3 respectively. While applying KVL, it feehion'” M0 Sous of =m. and three is very important to assign: proper signs to voltage drop and e.m-f.\in the given closed circuit. In this regard, the flow of the current in each Joop is taken as clockwise. That is, when current Passes through a resistor ‘R’ in‘clockwise direction than there is fall in potential because current flows a higher to\a lower potential. So the term IR is taken as negative. For anticlockwise direction, there is rise in potential because current flows a lower to a higher“potential, Hence the term IR is taken as Positive. Similarly, if the direction-of-the current is from negative terminal to Positive terminal of the battery then there is rise in potential and E is taken as positive. When the direction of current is from positive terminal to negative terminal of the tate then there is fall in potential and E is taken as negative, Hence under th a conditions, we apply KVL on the given two loops: : eayeret tee Loop ABEF ae WWW.USMANWEB.COM UA Bo eA cai I£ wp E An electrical circuit consist | Example 6 | b Phystes XM etait cease vse vere ltl 12: Current Blectrletty B,- LR, (I, -1,)Ry =O Loop BCDE -E, -V,-V, =0 -Ey=(I,-1)Rp-1Ry 20 oes (4) State and explain node and loop analysis by using Kirchhoff's laws. ‘Ans. [Node Analysis: Node analysis is based upon KCL and it can be explained under the following assumptions i. Label all the nodes. i.e., the points in a circuit where two or more elements are met. + Mark the potential of the nodes such as: Vi, V2, V3 etc. 4. Identify the node at which potential is zero.-Such node is called reference or datum node. 4. Apply KCL at each node except the datum node where incoming current is taken as positive and the outgoing as negative. 5. Determine the number of equations which are equal to the number of nodes excluding the datum node.. 6. Solve all the obtained equations simultaneously and calculate the unknown required quantities, I_Loop analysis: Loop analysis is based upon KVL and has some assumptions which are summarized as . 1. Identify the number of loops in the given circuit, The current must be taken as clockwise in each loop. Label the current in-each loop such as hy, l,l etc, Apply KVL for each loop. Determine=the number of equations, Note that the number of equations is equal fo:the number of loops. 6. Solve the-equations and calculate the unknown quantities. Calculate the currents 1), Iz and by in the given electric circuit as shown in Fig. WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if beet oui Erie 1,=? Applying KCL on node ‘a’ which has potential *V’ and the potential of node ‘b’ is taken 0. 1,+1,-1, =0 But according to Ohm’s law 18-3V+72-6V—2V =0 11V=90 V=8.18V P _E,-V _ 6-818 Thus I= = = A545 A WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/f beet IEr uel Physles XZ Example 7 Determine the current in each loop of the circuit which consists of three resistors of resistance 1N, 2Q and 3Q respectively and two sources of e.m.f, as shown in Fig. The potential differences of the two sources are SV and 10V. Solution: We have By applying KVL to the loop abef, i IR, +(l-h)Ry>E, 1,()+(1 7h)@)=5 =0 41,=31, = Again by applying KVioto the loop bede (ych)Ry +R, +E, =0 (1,=1))(3) +1, (2) +10 =0 =31) +51, = “10 sa..1.Q) Multiplying eq, 1 by 5 and eq, 2 by 3 then adding them 201, -151, =28 91, +151, = 30. BR eee A aR aued WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/i¥ beet oui IE rue From eq. 2 SI, = -10+31, =-104{S Or The negative signs of 1, and 1, indicate-that these currents are in the anticlockwise direction i.e. opposite to assumed clockwise direction. Example 8 B An electrical network consists of five resistors Ri, Ro, Rs, Ra and Rs of resistance 30,52,20,6Qand 42 respectively are connected with a source of e.m.f.(E) about 2V as shown in Fig. Calculate the-current in each resistance. Solution: We have Ri=3Q R2=5Q R= 20 Ri= 62 Rs= 4 E=2V =? =? =? Applying KVL to the three loop of the given circuit, Stempawes 66 WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if bev auiE pur Unit 12: Current Electricity 31, -(1 =1,)5=(1, -15)6=0 141, +51, +61, = 0 or 141, -51, -61, #0 ..4...(1) Loop BCDB =1,Ry -(1) -1,)R -(12 1) Rs = 0 21, -5(1, -1,)-4(1,-h)=0 51,-III, +41, =0. Loop ACDA ~(Iy-1,)R,-(1,-b)R, +B=0 -6(1, +1,)—4(1,-h) +2=0 61, +41, -101, =4202.,.G) Multiplying Eq.1 by 4 and Eq.2 by 6 and adding them 561, —201, -241,=0 301, -661,.4-241;= 0 Now Eq.1 becomes 141, -51, -61,=0 91, -61,=0 31,= 21, 3 Sh snnnlS) Putting the values of I; and Is from Eq.4 and Eq.5 in Eq.3 we get 3 41+, 1031, =-2 ~51,= 2 WWW.USMANWEB.COM UW/i¥ beet E rit Unit 12: Current Electricity =04A 0.6A Rie wie ule Thus, current through Ri =I) = 0.4A current through Ra = Ih— In = 0 current through Rs = In = 0.4A current through Ry =1s—h = 0.2A current through Rs =[s ~ = 0:2A Q.13: Determine Rheostat and its working principle. Also point out that a Rheostat is being used a variable resistance as well as a potential divider, Ans. A rheostat is a variable resistance c used to control the current or as a voltage divider to control voltage in an electric circuit. It is connected in series witha load resistor to adjust the current by increasing or decreasing its resistance. A rhedstat is made by winding the nichrome (resistance) wire around an insulating ceramic core in a B cylindrical form as shown-in Fig.l. It has three terminals A, B and C such that the terminal A and terminal B are fixed at the two ends of the resistance coil while the c terminal Cis the) adjustable terminal connected with.a-slider contact. The slider contact is connected with the resistance coil ——-._Wwa-—. and it can movesalong the coil from its one 4 B end to the-other end. The resistance of the rheostat,is-varied when the slider is moved over its resistive path. The equivalent cirenit of rheosta to get-a variable resistance from rheostat, the set of cor C are used in the circuit. Fig.l A Rheostat Fig.2 Cireuit diagram of a Rheostat t is shown in Fig.2 In order nnections A and C or B and variuble resistance: ‘The resistance of rheost resistive path. For example, let we use the terminals A and C, moved towards the terminal ‘A’ and when they are close 4 rheostat offers minimum resistance and allows a, lange fat depends upon its Now if the slider is each other than the amount of current WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/i beet oui IEr uel Similarly, if the slider is mo ‘terminal ‘B’ and they are close.to each other, then the rheostat offers a maximum resistance and allows a small amount of current, This is the function of a theostat as a variable resistance. Rheostat as a potential divider: A rheostat can also be used as a potential divider. For instance, supply voltage E is applied across the fixed terminals ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown in Fig.3. The applied potential E is divided by the variable terminal ‘C’ connected with the slider in the ratio of the resistance between AC and BC. Let ‘R’ be the total resistance of the rheostat between the fixed terminal A and B then the flow of current between them can be calculated by using Ohm’s law Fig3 A Kedsta{ 3s potential divider. Similarly, let R’ be the resistance between the fixed terminal ‘B’ and the variable sliding terminal *C’ then the potential-difference V across BC is given by V= IR’ ......(2) Putting the value of I from eq. 1 in eq. 2 This is the/ basic\ principle of theostat as a potential divider. Q.14: What “do. you know about Wheatstone bridge circuit diagram and its working principle? Ans, A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical Network which is used to measure the nny resistance. It consists of four resistances ‘P’, ‘Q’, ‘R’ and ‘X’, such that the value of resistances P and Q are known. Whetstone Brrcge value of the resistance R is also known © Fig.l A.Wheatstone bridge circuit consists but it is variable, and the value of the —(™rsston wihasoure ofemt WWW.USMANWEB.COM UW/if beet oui Er uel resistance X is unknown, which is to be determined. The source of c.m.f, is connected across the junctions A and C and the galvanometer is connected across the junctions B and D. This electrical network is called a bridge, because, the galvanometer bridges the two circuit branches by a third branch B and D. When the key (K) is closed then there is flow of current through galvanometer. Now by varying the value of variable resistance ‘R’ until galvanometer shows no deflection that is, there is no flow of current through the galvanometer then the bridge is said to be balanced and this is the working principle of the Wheatstone bridge. Fig.1 shows that there are three loops ABDA; BCDB ahd ADCA having current I, ly & Is respectively. If we take all the current clockwise then by applying KVL to we get first two loops. For loop ABDA 1P+(1, -1,)G+(I, -L,)R= 04.00 (1). For loop BCDB 1,Q+(1, -1,)X +(1, =, )G=0s..0.. (2) As the flow of current through galvanomieter is zero, so i ie, h=h Thus Eq.1 and Eq.2 become P= -(1,-1,)R . 1,Q= -(1,-1,)X 2 (4) Dividing Eq.3-by Eq.4 Thus, to determine the value of the unknown resistance we can use Eq.5- Q.15: State and explain potentiometer, its function and its applications. Ans. A potentiometer is a device used to measure the unknown potential difference or to compare the e.m.f. of sources. WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/ beet oui IEr uel with uniform area of cross-section. Usually its length is 4m to Sm which is stretched on a wooden board as shown in Fig.l. A potentiometer contains three terminals A, B and C. The terminal ‘A’ and the terminal ‘B’ are at the two opposite ends of the potentiometer, The terminal ‘C’ through galvanometer is connected with the Jockey, ¢7——-—— : ; . ind A schematic diagram of 9 and it can slide over the wire AB, A cell fuentiomeer which is known as the divider cell is used across the ends of the wire. With the help of rheostat, a constant potential difference can be maintained across the ends of the wire. An ammeter is also used in order to observe the current in the given circuit. As the wire is of uniform cross-section thetefore the potential difference “V." across the two fixed terminals ‘A’ and ‘B*\is uniformly distributed over the entire length AB of the wire. However, the potential difference ‘V’ between the terminal ‘A’ and the sliding contact point “C’-is proportional to the length of wire between them. If £ be the length between terminals ‘A’ and ‘C’. Then Vel V=ke ke 2 Where ‘k’ is constant known as potential gradient. Determination of potential difference by potentiometer: A potentiometér,can be used to measure the potential-difference between two points in an electric circuit. Fig.2 shows how the potentiometer can be used to determine the-e.m.f, (E1) of a cell. The positive terminal of the given cell is ,| connected with\the positive terminal of the Tialvoseanter © driver cell-and the negative terminal of E is connected-with the jockey through the AS galvanometer, Now the sliding contact — Fig.2 Measurement of ¢.m.f. of a cell by Jockey is tapped along the slide wire AB "!#Poteniometer, until the galvanometer shows no deflection, i.e, the current through the galvanometer is zero. Then tho e.m,f. of the given cell (B) is equal to the potential difference across the points A and C of length ¢. WWW.USMANWEB.COM "U/if bee Anoui Er url Unit 12: Current Electricity Comparison of eam-f, of two cells by potentiometer: A potentiometer can also be used to compare the emf. of two cells. The arrangement for comparing the e.m.f. of two cells as shown in Fig.3 which consists of two cells Ej, and E>. The em.f. of cell Ey is known and it is called standard cell, while, the eam.f, of cell E2 is unknown. It is called a test cell and its e.m.f, is to be compared : with the standard cell. The positive — Fig-3 Comparison of em.f’s of cells by terminals of the cells are connected with the PUntom=it positive terminal of the driver cell, Th8 negative terminals of the cells are connected to the two terminals of two way key. The third common terminals of the two way key is connected to jockey through the galvanometer. An ammeter is also used for the measurement of current flowing in the circuit. Let ©; be the balanced length from the terminal A to the terminal C, for standard cell (E:), then emf, of cell (E1) = P.D-acrogs the length £,. Erecke, ......(1) Similarly, let ‘€,’ be the balanced length between A and ‘C’ for test cell (E2), then Ex = key .....(2) Dividing Eq.1 by Eq.2 3) This result. shows that the ratio of the exm.f's is equal to the ratio of balancing lengths and this is the working principles of comparing of e.m.f. of two cells: rr WWW.USMANWEB.COM Ui bewt oi Lue ro 10, 12, 13, Choose the most appropriate option. A flow of 10” electrons per second through a conductor produces a current of ¥(a) 1.6 «107A, (b) 1.6 « 102A (©) 1.6 « 10°A (d) 1.6 * 108A One coulomb per second is termed as ¥(a) One ampere (b) One volt (©) One ohm (d) One watt The current in a metallic conductor is due to the flow of, (a) Proton ¥ (b) Electron (c)Neutron” — (4) Positron The current due to flow of positive charges from +ve to -ve terminal of the battery is called (a) Electronic circuit () Electric current ¥(c) Conventional current (@). Ohmic current Ampere into second is equal to the unit of (a) Resistance ¥(b) Charge (Current = emf The direction of the electronic current in.a metallic conductor is (a) Along the flow of protons (b) Opposite to the flow of electrons (c) Along the flow of protons ¥(d) Opposite to the conventional'current The first source of emf was discovered by (a)Ampere —-¥(b) Volta (©) Ohm (@) Coulomb Which one of the given cells is un-rechargeable (a) Laclanche _~-(b) Nickel (©) Cadmium — (d) Lead acid Which one ofthe giveh sources converts light energy into electrical energy (2) Dynamo (b) Generator ¥(c) Photocell (d) Thermocouple A source that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is known as (2) Photocell (b) Solar cell (c) Thermocouple ¥ (d) Dynamo An electrical network which converts heat energy into electrical energy is called (a) Generator (b) Photocell (c) Solar cell ¥ (d) Thermocouple : How much charges flow in one minute in a conductor contains a current of 3A, (@)3C (b) 30C (c) 60C ¥ (d) 180C h one of the following relation represents the ohm’s law i il scha chalet adibniceeein bh nhprieh oes Vee Verena WWW.USMANWEB.COM UW/if beet Er uel 18. 20. 21, 22. 23. 24, 25. 26. Physics XI (a)1= VR WR=IV ve) R=~ Which one of the following materials is ohmic (a) Germanium (b) Silicon ¥(c) Aluminum (d) Semiconductor Which one of the following materials is non-ohmic (a) Gold ¥(b) Germanium —(c) Copper (d) Silver The graph of voltage versus current for ohmic materials.is ¥(a) Straight line (b) Curved line (c) Zig-Zag ( “~(d)Parabola For non-ohmic materials, the graph between voltage and current is (a) Straight ¥ (b) Curved line (©) Zig-Zag (d) Circular line The resistance of a conductor is independent one of the followings (a) Variation of temperature (b) Length of the conductor (©) Cross-sectional area of the conductor ¥(d) Colour of the conductor A resistance of one ohm is equal to (a) Ampere per volt ¥ (b) Volt per ampere (c) Ampere per coulomb (d) Coulomb per ampere When the radius of the wire becomes half (2) by its stretching then the resistance of the wire will be. (a) x (by2R, ¥()4R (4) 16R What will be resistance of the wire when its length is doubled (a) Remain same ( (b) Half ¥(c)Double —(d) Triple The resistance of a wire of 1m length and has 1m? cross-sectional area is called (a) Reactanoe (b) Conductance (c) Conductivity Y (d) Resistivity The resistivity of a conductor in terms of its resistance R, length € and cross-section area A is £ RA R ta Nf ¥(b) p= kA eh ‘ (ayp RA (b) p z (©) p vA (dd) p= z ‘Thesunit of conductance is (ay 2 ¥(b) 2" (c) Q-m (@) Q=m" If [be the flow of current in a conductor through a potential difference V, then the conductance v Y(a) G= 3 (b) Ge> (c) G=VI ()G=IR Resistance or resistivity of a mat (a) Does not depend upon temperature WWW.USMANWEB.COM Wi be wAoui Er uel 28. 29. 30. 3. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. (b) Decreases by increasing temperatu (©) Increases by decreasing temperature ¥(d) Increases by increasing temperature If the resistivity of the conductor is 2x10~OQm then its conductivity is (a) 2x10°Q"'m" (b) 5x10°Q'm* () 5x10°Q"'m" ¥ (d) 5x10°O'm! Siemen is a unit and it is equal to (a) ohm ¥ (b) mho (c) hom.m (4) mho.m When resistance of the material increases by increasing the temperature the value of co-efficient of resistivity will be (a) Constant (b) Zero ¥(c) Positive “> (d) Negative The conductivity of a conductor in terms of its conductance G, length £ and cross sectional area A is AC G Ge A ot =2 v@oee ep Mone c= ©) oxS Mora The unit of conductivity is (a) Q-m ¥(b) "=m" ).Q=m" —@) =m The unit temperature co-efficient of resistivity is (@) °C ¥(b) °C* ()2C-m @°c'-m The SI unit of temperature co-efficient of resistivity is (aC? ¥(b) k" (9) °F" (@) k'-m When the resistance of a substance increases by increasing temperature then its temperature co-efficient of resistivity is taken as (a) Zero ¥ (b) Positive (c) Negative (A) Infinite The substance whose resistance decreases by increasing temperature, its temperature co-efficient of resistivity is (a) Zero (b) Positive V'(c) Negative (d) Infinite A thermistor is a form of ¥(a) Resistor (6)Capacitor (c) Inductor (d) Transistor The kilowatt-hour isa unit of (a) Work ¥ (b) Power (c) Energy (a) emf The power jn;terms of potential difference V and current I and resistance Ris (a) IR (b) VR (©) z Y(@)VI A flow of \current of 0.5A through a resistor of 100, the power dissipation in a resistor is (a) 0.25W (b) 2.5W () sw ¥(@)25w A resistor of 242 is connected across the battery of potential difference of 12V. The power dissipation in a resistor is (a) 0.6W ¥ (b) 6W (c) 12W (4) 24W WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/i¥ teed nor ILyiPe 41, 42, 44, 45. 46. 47. 48, 49. 50. 51. 52. 55. In the presence of internal resistan following relations between potential difference (V) and e.m.f (E) is correct, (a)E=0 (b) E=V Y@E>V @)ER A complex electrical circuit can be Solved by using (a) Ohm’s law (b) Joule’s law (c) Coulomb’s law ¥(d) Kirchhoff’s laws Kirchhoff’s 1* law is based upon law of conservation of (a) Current ¥ (b) Charges (©) Voltage _(d) Energy Kirchhoff’s 2 law is based-upon law of conservation of (@) Current (b) Charge. ¥’(c) Energy (d) Momentum Wheatstone bridge is a device that used for the measurement of (@) Current (b) Potential difference ¥(c) Resistance (d) Electromotive force When the direction of current is from negative to positive terminal of the battery then ‘E* is taken as (@) Zero (b)Normal —_¥'(c) Positive a (d) Negative If current passes through a resistor in anticlockwise direction. Then the electric potential will be (a) Zero r (b) Remain same ¥ (©) Raised (@) Fall down An electrical network for Wheatstone bridge contains (a) 2 resistance (b) 3 resistance v(c)4 neous (d) 5 resistance ‘Which one of the following instruments has hi; measurement of emf of a cell th degree of accuracy for (a) Voltmeter ¥ (©) Potentiometer (@) Ohm: An electrical device which controls the current isk eee a (a) Thermocouple Wb) Rheostat' (c) Ther istor (d) Whe “ The electrical device which is being used to cour tee 0 cells is known as Pee Hie SE OFT (b) Ammeter Pa Loe ee WWW.USMANWEB.COM W/3 bee Ao IIE 7 UE “@) Rheostat (b) Wheatstone Bridge ¥(c) Potentiometer (d) Galvanometer Qu: Ans. Q2: Q3: Ans. Q:4. Ans. Ans, WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/i¥ beet ouri Erie “How does the conventional current differ from the electronic current? A current due to flow of positive charges from positive’ to negative terminal of the battery is called conventional current, However, the current due to flow of free electrons of the conductor from riegative to positive terminal of the battery is called electronic current. How can you point out the direction of electric current? When a conductor has free electrons is connected across a source, an electric field induces in it. The free electrons éxperience attractive force due to anode and repulsive force due to cathode. As‘a result, the electrons start drifting in one direction from a negative to. positive terminal of the source, ‘What do you know about the drift-of the free electrons in a conductor? When a conductor has free electrons isconnected across a source, an electric field induces in it. The free electrons experience attractive force due to anode and repulsive force due to cathode. As a result, the electrons start drifting in one direction from a negative to positive terminal of the source. Which kind of current you observe in electrolyte or plasma? The current in a condueting liquid called electrolyte or ionized gas called plasma is due to both-conventional and electronic current. The resultant current in the electrolyte or plasma is the sum of conventional and electronic current, i.e. ‘ tI re the funetion of copper and zinc plates in the source of Usually, there are two metallic plates used in a source of e.m.f. one palte of copper which acts as anode, While, the other plate of zinc which acts as cathode, What do you know about the ohmic characteristics of 9 ohmic device? Ans... The devices which obey Ohm’s law are known as ohmic devices. When a ~ ohmic device is connected across a battery of potential difference “V’ then the graph of voltage versus current is a straight line called ohmic characteristics. Q:7. Which type of graph will be obtained between V and I for non-ohmic. conductor? Ans. When a non-ohmic device is connected across a Source then there is flow of current in it. Now when we draw a graph between V and I then we have a curved line known as non-ohmic characteristics. Q:8. _ How does resistivity of a conductor depend upon temperature? Ans, When the temperature increases, the amplitude ‘of the vibrating atoms of the conductor also increases, where the free electrons undergo greater number of collisions and it causes of increase of resistivity. Q:9. Distinguish between positive and negative temperature coefficients of resistance? Ans. When the resistance of a substance increases by increasing temperature then the temperature co-efficient of resistance is positive. Whereas, when the resistance decreases by inéreasing temperature then the temperature co-efficient of resistance is negative. Q:10. Under what conduction, the potential difference and electromoti force give the same value? Ans. When the switch is opened (OFF) or the internal resistance of the source is zero then the electromotive force is equal to the potential difference (E=V) (Q:11._When the source delivers its maximum power? Ans. A source.can transfer its maximum power to the load resistor, when the value of internal resistance is equal to the load resistance (r= R) Q:12, What Is the working principle of a thermocouple? Ans.” “A thermocouple produces an e.m.f. only when its two dissimi wires are formed two junctions. ‘Such that, there ion mee difference between them. ie., one junction is eold while the other's het Q:13, What do you know about the circuit analysis? chad ARIA AREA asc WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/¥ bev oiE pure Unit 12: Current Electricity Usually, an electric circuit consists of three parameters, applied voltage, flow of current and resistor across the potential difference. The specification of these three parameters is known as circuit analy Qa Wi Ans. A point in an electric circuit which join two or more branches is called node. A closed path in an electrical circuit is called loop, Q:15. What are the sign of currents when it flows toward and-away from the node? do you known about node and loop in an electric elreuit? Ans, The current in an electric circuit is taken as positive when it flows toward the node and it is taken as negative when it flows away-from the node. Q:16._ What are the basic principles of Kirchhoff’s two laws? Kirchhoff’s 1" law is based upon law of conservation of charge. i.e., the charges arriving at the node, the same-amount of charges moving outwards from the node. Kirchhoff’s‘2" law is based upon law of conservation of energy. i.e., the sum of energy generates in a soruce must equal the sum of energy that consumes in resistors. Ans. Q:17._ Under what condition you use Kirchhoff’s laws for circuit analysis? ‘Ans. When the given circuit is complex, i:¢,y it has more than one battery then we can apply Kirchhoff's laws for tis analysis instead of Ohm's law. Q:18._ Which electrical device is being used as a potential divider? ‘Ans. A Rheostat can be used as~a potential divider under the following relation. This shows that V varies with R’ Q:19. What is the difference between Rheostat and Potentiometer? Ans, A rheostat is a variable resistance used to control the current or voltage. Whereas,.a potentiometer is a device used to measure the unknown potential difference or to compare the e.m.f of sources. What is the working principle of Wheatstone bridge? Ans, The working principle of a Wheatstone bridge states that when’ the bridge is balanced the products of the resistance of the opposite arms are equal. i.e., PX =QR WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if beet oui Erie 1 Electricity Unit 12: Curren Tow many electrons flow through a resistor of light bulb in each second? If the current through the resistor of bulb is 0.8A- Solution: n dati Number of electrons Time taken Flow of current Charge on an electron = ¢ By definition of current As So 0.5x10"es 5x10"es TA flow of charges of 150C through a wire in 2 hours what is the ‘amount of current in the wire. Solution: 5 Given data: Flow of charges = Q = 150C Time taken = t = 2h = (2x3600)s 7200s Flow of current =1= ‘But definition of current 1-8 t 150C 7200s T= 0.020A, T= 20mA WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/#4 beet oui IEr uel fereve seen esesien ati seetstem: Current Electeiclty ‘A metal rod is 4m long and 6mm in diameter. Compute its resistance if the resistivity of the metal is 1.76x10°%Qm. ‘Solution: Given di Length of the rod =¢ =4m Diameter of the rod = d= 6mm = 6x10?m Radius of the rod = -$ = 3x10?m Cross-sectional area of the wire = A = m1? A=3,14x(3x107m); A= 2.826107 m? Resistance of the metal rod = R=? Resistivity = p = 1.76x10%Qm By definition of resistance in terms of resistivity, rae A 4,76x10*Q—mx4m ReSSpexlom 2,826 x 10° m RE25x10°Q 4 Caleulate the potential difference across the two ends of the wire of resistance 5Q. If the charges of 720C pass through it per minute. Solution: Given data: Potential difference = V =? Resistance of the wire = R= 5Q Flow of charges Time taken By definition of current Aézcording to Ohm’s law V=60V diametre 0.2cm has a resistance 3Q. Find the 5: A 10m long wire of rial of the wire also calculate its conductivity. resistivity of the mate! WWW.USMANWEB.COM W/if beet E rut Diameter of the wir 0.2m = 2*10°m Resistance of the wire = R = 30 Resistivity of the wire = p = Conductivity of the wire = @ =? Cross-sectional area of the wire = A= nr A=3.14(2% 19m)" A= 1256x108 mm? By definition of resistivity “TY (32) (1256x107 m?) Pe 10m 76810 Q—m By definition of conductivity °* 3768x10°Q—m 6 = 2.65x10°°Q"—~m™ 6: The resistance of a coil is 1402 at 20°C. If current is passed through it, its temperature rise3;-and its resistance becomes 160Q at 40°C. Calculate the temperature co-efficient of resistance of the coil. Solution: << ven dat: The resistance of the coil at 20°C =R, = 1400 \ Initial temperature = T, = 20°C ‘The resistane@of the coil at 40°C = R, = 160Q >) Final temperature ‘Temperature co-efficient resistance = a =? Change in temperature = A’ q = 1602-1400 _ 20 (1402)(20°C) — (140)(20) @ = 0.0071°C" ——————— 82 WWW.USMANWEB.COM Ui bev oiIL rue ‘A copper wire has resistance of 60°C, The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper Is 0,0043°C, Solution: Resistance of copper wire at 0°C = Re = 30 Initial temperature = T, =0°C Resistance of the copper wire at 60°C = R, =? Final temperature = T, = 60°C Temperature co-efficient of resistance for copper =a. =0,0043°C"! Charge in temperature = AT =, -T, = 60-0 = 60°C Here, R, = R,(1+0AT) = 3(1+(0.0043°C*)(60°C)) R, = 3(1+0.258) R, = 3.772 8: A battery has an e.m.f of 12.5V and_an internal resistance of 2.4x107Q. If the load current is 204. Find the terminal voltage. Solution: Given data: emf of a battery = Internal resistance of the source Terminal voltage = V=? In the presence of internal-resistance the terminal potential is given as V=E-V, Since R and r are in seties, so there are same current I flows on it =E-Ir 12.5V -(20A)(2.4x107Q) = 125V-0.048V V=12.45V 9% Determine the current through each “resistance in the clectric circuit as shown in Fig. Where Ry is 100) Ri is 622, Rs is 100, Ey is GV and Eis 3V, Solution: Current I) = 2, Current b=? Current Is =? Ry=102 : WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if be eA eou Erie aoe. Physics XI Unit 12: Current Electric The potential at node The potential at node b =0 Applying KCL at node ‘a’, ie. L+h+l, = But V=IR and 1= Y R Eq. (1) becomes E,-V_E,-V_Vv-0 + + R, R, R, SEV. SVN og 10 6 10 Multiplying by 60 we get 36+30-10V-6V =0. Thus, 10: Find the current through each resistance in the electrical network 8 shown in Fig. Solution: Given data: i E=sv I Applying KVL to the three loops of the given circuit | “IR, -(.-4)R -(4-b)R, =0 nee ABCE sae | WWW.USMANWEB.COM UW BeeAeo IIL of0 Pe HLS vasa i canta Uae Tame rer: 2101, =(1, =1,)10=(1, —1,)20 =0 =I +1, 21, +21, =0 A bot kg ied yy Loop BCDA “LR, ~(1, -1)R, (2 -h)Ry #0 201, -(1, -1,)10-(1, -1,)10 =0 -21,-1, +1,-1, +1, =0 1-41, +1, =0 1.42) Loop ACDA ~(y-1)R.-(y -L)Rs +E -(1,-1,)20-(1, -1,)10+5 =0 41, +41, -21, +21, +1 =0 41,421; -61, = -1 Aan.) Multiply eq. (2) by ‘2° and add with equ (1) 21, -81, +21, =0. 41, -1, -21, =0 61, -91, =0 Put it in eq. (1) (5) Eq. (3) become 3 5) 4[ Sh +21 -6[ 5 Jl = -1 61, +21, -151, = -1 -1, = -1 siiei A aes 1, =0.14A 345 3 Slo == =021A Nea tg WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/if beet eoui VE viel Physics XII 11: If the emf of a battery is balanced by a length of 80cm on a potentiometer wires whlie, the em.f of 1.03V of standard cell Is balanced by a length of 55cm. Then determine the emf, of the battery. Solutio: Given data: e.m.f of the standard cell = E, = 1.03V Balanced length for standard cell = ¢, = 55cm e.m.f of the test cell =? Balanced length for test cell = ¢, = 80cm According to the basic relation for potentiometer Ey Jt EY e, t ESE my = Som 1.03V 35cm BE, =1.5V Casa ee WWW.USMANWEB.COM UAE bev oi IE rue a All Classes Chapter Wise Notes Punjab Boards | Sindh Boards | KPK Boards| Balochistan Boards AJK Boards | pain oe Notes | Past Papers Notes | Past Papers WWW USMANWEB.COM 11th Class 12th Class POC = Cae Ga ny ip ae PIa2 Vy. Leen LSet inde LLES Poa SF 0306 84 75 285 WWW.USMANWEB.COM \WWW_USMANWEB.COM WWW.USMANWEB.COM U/f be wAouIiIEr uel

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