PHYP211 NOTES REVIEWER

WEEK 1: BIOPSYCHOLOGY

BIOPSYCHOLOGY

• The scientific study of the biology of behavior (psychology)”

• Psychology: the scientific study of behavior

• Biopsychology emerged as a discipline in the late 1940s

Donald Olding Hebb (1949)

• proposed that psychological phenomena might be produced by brain activity.

• discredit the notion that psychological functions were too complex to have its roots in physiology
and chemistry of the brain.

BIOPSYCHOLOGY RESEARCHES

1. Human and non-human subjects

 Non-human
o Simpler brains makes it more likely that brain-behavior interactions will be revealed
o Comparative approach – gain insight by making comparisons with other species
o Fewer ethical restrictions for nonhumans than with humans
 although nonhuman research also requires extensive ethical oversight
 Human

o They can follow instructions

o They make subjective reports

o They are often cheaper to work with

2. Experiments and non-experiments

 Experiments
o involve the manipulation of variables
o Involving living subjects require that subjects be placed in various conditions
o Between-subjects design: Different group of subjects tested under each condition
o Within-subjects design: Same group of subjects tested under each condition
o The difference between the conditions is the independent variable
o The effect of the independent variable is the dependent variable
o A confounded variable is a variable that affects the dependent variable but is not
controlled for
o The confounded variables: COOLIDGE EFFECT A female hamster may be more
receptive to a new partner due to novelty or to his vigor (compared to the fatigued former
partner)
o
 In non-experiments, the researcher does not control the variables of interest
o Quasi-experimental studies - studies of groups of subjects exposed to conditions in the
real world
 - Not real experiments as potential confounded variables have not been controlled for
o Case studies
- Usually more in-depth than other approaches, but may not be generalizable
- Often a source of a testable hypothesis
- Generalizability – the degree to which results can be applied to other cases
3. Pure and Applied research
 Pure research
o conducted for the purpose of acquiring knowledge
 Applied research
o intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind
o Often research projects have elements of both

DIVISIONS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY

(Each has a different approach, but there is much overlap)

1. Psychophysiology
- Relation between physiological activity and psychological processes

Example: visual tracking is abnormal in schizophrenics

2. Cognitive Neuroscience
- The neural bases of cognition
- Functional brain imaging is the major method of cognitive neuroscience
3. Comparative psychology
- Comparing different species to understand evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of
behavior
- Laboratory and/or ethological research
4. Physiological psychology
- Neural mechanisms of behavior
- Controlled experiments with direct manipulation of the brain
5. Psychopharmacology
- Controlled experiments of the effects of drugs on the brain and behavior
6. Neuropsychology
- Psychological effects of brain damage in humans
- Usually has a clinical emphasis

WEEK2: NEURONS AND ACTION POTENTIAL

NEURONS

The human nervous system is composed of 2 kinds of cells: neurons and glia

- Human brain contains approximately 100B neurons

(Cerebral cortex and associated areas: 12-15B) (Cerebellum: 70B) (Spinal cord: 1B)

Spaniard Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934)

 - The first to demonstrate that the individual cells comprising the nervous system remained
separate
- He showed that they did not grow into each other

Neurons contain the following structures:

1. Membrane – a structure that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment.
2. Nucleus – structure that contains the chromosomes.
3. Mitochondrion – structure that performs metabolic activities and provides energy that the cells
requires
4. Ribosomes – sites at which the cell synthesizes new protein molecules
5. Endoplasmic reticulum – network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to their
location.

Neuron cells are similar to other cells but have a distinctive shape and stained to appear dark

1. Motor neuron – has its soma in the spinal cord and receives excitation from other neurons and
conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle.
2. Sensory neuron – specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation
such as touch, light, sound.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF NEURON

1. Dendrites – branching fibers with a surface lined with synaptic receptors responsible for bringing
info into the neuron
 Dendritic spines – it further the branch out & increases the surface are of the dendrite. (the
greater the surface are, the more info it can receive)
2. Cell body/soma – contains the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes & other structures
- Also responsible for the metabolic work of neuron (soma is located on a stalk off the main trunk of
the axon)
3. Axon – thin fiber of a neuron responsible for transmitting nerve impulses towards other neurons,
organs or muscles.
 Myelin sheath – covers some neurons with an insulating material
 Nodes of Ranvier – interruptions in the sheath
4. Presynaptic terminals – refer to the end points of an axon where the release of chemicals to
communicate with other neurons occurs

Terms used to describe the neuron:

1. Afferent axon – bringing info into a structure

2. Efferent axon – carrying info away from a structure
3. Interneurons/Intrinsic neurons – those whose dendrites & axons are completely contained
within a single structure.

Neurons vary in size, shape and function

The shape of a neuron determines it connection to the other neurons and contribution to the NS.

Example:

Pukinje cells of the cerebellum branch extremely widely within a singe plane
Sensory neurons from skin to spinal cord

Pyramidal cell of the motor area of the cerebral cortex

Bipolar cell of retina of the eye

Kenyon cell from honeybee

GLIA (NEUROGLIA)

Glia – major component of the Nervous System

- Have different functions but they do not transmit info like neurons
- Smaller and more numerous than neurons

TYPES OF GLIA IN THE BRAIN

1. Astrocytes – helps synchronize the activity of the axon by wrapping around the presynaptic
terminal and taking up chemicals released by the axon
2. Microglia – remove waste material & other microorganisms that could prove harmful to the
neuron
3. Oligodendrocytes (in the brain) & Schwann cells (periphery of the body) – build the myelin
sheath that surrounds & insulates certain vertebrate axons
4. Radial glia – guide the migration of neurons and the growth of their axons and dendrites during
embryonic development

(When embryonic development finishes, most radial glia differentiate into neurons and a smaller number
differentiate into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes)

BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)

- A mechanism that surrounds the brain and blocks most chemicals from entering
- Immune system destroys damaged or infected cells throughout the body
- To block incoming viruses bacteria or other harmful material from entering
- Can pose difficulty in allowing chemicals such as chemotherapy for brain cancer to pass the
barrier

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

- The protein-mediated process that expends energy to pump chemicals from the blood into the
brain.
- Glucose, certain hormones, amino acids, and vitamins are brought to brain

NOURISHMENT IN VERTEBRATE NEURONS

- Depends mostly on glucose (a sugar that is one of the nutrients that can pass through the BBB)
- Neurons need a steady supply of oxygen (20% of oxygen consumed by the body mostly used by
the brain)
- The body needs vitamin, thiamine to use glucose

Korsakoff’s Syndrome – marked by severe memory impairment, prolonged thiamine deficiency leads to
death of neurons as seen in this syndrome (a result of chronic alcoholism)
NERVE IMPULSE

- Is the electrical message that is transmitted down the axon of a neuron

- The impulse does not travel directly down the axon but is regenerated at points along the axon so
that it is not weakened.
- Speed of nerve impulses: less than 1meter/second – 100m/s
- Touch on the shoulder reaches the brain more quickly than a touch on the foot

THE RESTING POTENTIAL OF THE NEURON

Electrical Gradient

- Difference in the electrical charge inside and outside of the cell also known as polarization.
- At rest, the membrane maintains an electrical polarization or a difference in the electrical charge
of two locations (The inside of the membrane is slightly negative with respect to the outside
(approximately -70 millivolts)
- The resting potential of a neuron refers to the state of the neuron prior to the sending of a nerve
impulse

The membrane is selectively permeable, allows chemicals to pass more freely than others.

Sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride pass through channels in the membrane.

When the membrane is AT REST:

sodium channels are closed

potassium channels are partially closed allowing the slow passage of potassium

Sodium Potassium Pump

- Is a protein complex that continually pumps three sodium ions out of the cells while drawing two
potassium ions into the cell.
- Helps maintain the electrical gradient
- The electrical gradient and the concentration gradient (the difference in distributions of ion) work
to pull sodium ions into the cell.
- The electrical gradient tends to pull potassium ions into the cells, but they slowly leak out,
carrying a positive charge with them

ACTION POTENTIAL

- The resting potential remains stable until the neuron is stimulated

- Is a rapid depolarization of the neuron
- The action potential threshold varies from one neuron to another
- Stimulation of the neuron past the threshold of excitation triggers a nerve impulse or action
potential
- After an action potential occurs, sodium channels are quickly closed
- The neuron is returned to its resting state by the opening of potassium channels
- Potassium ions flow out due to the concentration gradient and take with them their positive
charge
- The sodium-potassium pump later restores the original distribution of ions
- Action potentials vary from one neuron to another in terms of amplitude, velocity, and shape
 1. Hyperpolarization - refers to increasing the polarization or the difference between the electrical
charge of two places
2. Depolarization - refers to decreasing the polarization towards zero
3. Threshold of Excitement - refers to a level above which any stimulation produces a massive
depolarization
4. Voltage-activated channels - are membrane channels whose permeability depends upon the
voltage difference across the membrane

Local anesthetic drugs block sodium channels and therefore prevent action potentials from occurring

– Example: Novocain and Xylocaine

The all-or-none law states that the amplitude and velocity of an action potential are independent of the
intensity of the stimulus that initiated it

– Action potentials are equal in intensity and speed within a given neuron

1. After an action potential, a neuron has a refractory period during which time the neuron resists
the production of another action potential
2. The absolute refractory period is the first part of the period in which the membrane cannot
produce an action potential
3. The relative refractory period is the second part in which it takes a stronger than usual stimulus
to trigger an action potential

PROPAGATION OF THE ACTION POTENTIAL

- The term used to describe the transmission of the action potential down the axon (the action
potential doesn’t directly travel down the axon)
- In a motor neuron, the action potential begins at the axon hillock (a swelling where the axon
exits the soma)

MYELIN SHEATH AND SALTATORY CONDUCTION

Nodes of Ranvier

- the short unmyelinated sections that interrupts the myelin sheath of axons

Myelin

- an insulating material composed of fats and proteins

Saltatory conduction

- used to describe the “jumping” of the action potential from node to node
- provides rapid conduction of impulses
- conserves energy for the cell.

Multiple sclerosis: diseases in which the myelin sheath is destroyed and associated with poor muscle
coordination and sometimes visual impairments.

LOCAL NEURONS

- have short axons, exchange info with only close neighbors and don’t produce action potentials
- not all neurons have lengthy axons\
- A local neuron depolarizes or hyperpolarizes in proportion to the stimulation
 - when stimulated, it produce graded potentials (membrane potentials that vary in magnitude
and do not follow the all or none law.)

WEEK 3: SYNAPSES

SYNAPSES

- Used by neurons to communicate by transmitting chemicals at junctions

- Coined by Charles Scott Sherrington in 1906, he describe the specialized gap that existed
between neurons.

How it works?

- Nerve impulses activates neurotransmitters when it reaches the dendrites.

- The receptor of another neuron receives it.
- Synapses connects one neuron to another.

Sherrington investigated how neurons communicate with each other by studying reflexes.

PROPERTIES OF SYNAPSES

Reflexes (automatic muscular responses to stimuli)

Three important points of reflexes

- Slower than conduction along an axon

- Weak stimuli from different location and time produces stronger reflexes
- Muscles excitement is alternating

Example: Leg Flexion Reflex: a sensory neuron excites a second neuron, which excites the motor
neurons, which excites a muscle

In reflex arc, Sherrington observed a difference in the speed of conduction from previously measured
action potentials.

- He believed the difference must be accounted for by the time it took for communication between
neurons
- Evidence validated the idea of the synapse

(the speed of conduction along an axon is about 4m/s)

(the speed of conduction through a reflex arc is slower and more variable sometimes 15m/s or less. The
delay occurs at the synapse)

(synaptic delay: an impulse traveling through a synapse in the spinal cord is slower than one traveling a
similar distance along an uninterrupted axon)

Temporal Summation (repeated stimuli over a short period of time produced a stronger response)

- Repeated stimuli can have a cumulative effect and can produce a nerve impulse when a single
stimulus is too weak
  Presynaptic neuron - neuron that delivers the synaptic transmission
 Postsynaptic neuron - neuron that receives the message
 Excitatory postsynaptic potential (epsp) - graded potential that decays over time and space
- The cumulative effect of EPSPs are the basis for temporal and spatial summation

Spatial Summation (several small stimuli on a similar location produced a reflex when a single
stimuli did not)

- Synaptic input from several locations can have a cumulative effect and trigger a nerve impulse.
- Critical to brain functioning
 Temporal and spatial summation ordinarily occur together

During the reflex that occurred, the leg of a dog that was pinched retracted while the other three legs were
extended (an interneuron in the spinal cord sent an excitatory message to the flexor muscles of one leg
and an inhibitory message was sent to the other three legs)

- 3 legs (extensor muscle contract – move an extremity away from the body)
- 1 leg (flexor muscle contract – draw an extremity toward the trunk of the body)

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (the temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane)

- Occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the gates for positively charged potassium ions to
leave the cell or negatively charged chloride ions to enter the cells
- Serves as an active “brake” that suppresses excitation

RELATIONSHIP AMONG EPSP, IPSP AND ACTION POTENTIAL

- Assumed that synapses produce on and off responses

- Synapses vary enormously in their duration of effects.
- The effect of two synapses at the same time can be more than double the effect of either one, or
less than double

Spontaneous Firing Rate

- Refers to the periodic production of action potentials despite synaptic input

- EPSPs increase the number of action potentials above the spontaneous firing rate
- IPSPs decrease the number of action potentials below the spontaneous firing rate

THE DISCOVERY OF CHEMICAL TRANSMISSION AT SYNAPSES

German Physiologist Otto Loewi

- The first to convincingly demonstrate that the communication across the synapses occurs via
chemical means

Neurotransmitter

- Chemicals that travel across the synapse & allow communication between neurons
- Chemical transmission predominates throughout the nervous system
THE SEQUENCE OF CHEMICAL EVENTS AT THE SYNAPSE

The major sequence of events allowing communication between neurons across the synapse:

- The neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as neurotransmitters

- Action potentials travel down the axon
- Released molecules diffuse across the cleft, attach to receptors, and alter the activity of the
postsynaptic neuron

Sequence of events:

- The neurotransmitter molecules separate from their receptors

 Neurotransmitter are taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or diffuse away
- The postsynaptic cell may send reverse messages to slow the release of further
neurotransmitters by presynaptic cells

Major categories of neurotransmitters include the following:

1. Amino acids – glutamate, GABA, glycine, aspartate, maybe others

 A modified amino acid - acetylcholine
2. Monoamines (modified from amino acids)
 indoleamines: serotonin
 catecholamines: dopamine
 norepinephrine: epinephrine
 Peptides (chains of amino acids) – endorphins, substance P, neuropeptide Y
3. Acetylcholine
4. Neuropeptides
5. Purines – ATP, adenosine
6. Gases - Nitric oxide (NO)

Neurons synthesize neurotransmitters and other chemicals from substances provided by the diet

- Acetylcholine synthesized from choline found in milk, eggs, and nuts

- Tryptophan serves as a precursor for serotonin

Catecholamines - contain a catechol group and an amine group (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and
dopamine)

Vesicles: tiny spherical packets located in the presynaptic terminal where neurotransmitters are held for
release

MAO (monoamine oxidase): a chemical that breaks down excess levels of some neurotransmitters

Exocytosis: refers to the excretion of the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic terminal into the synaptic
cleft

–Triggered by an action potential arriving from the axon

- Transmission across the synaptic cleft by a neurotransmitter takes fewer than .01 microseconds
- Most individual neurons release at least two or more different kinds of neurotransmitters
- Neurons may also respond to more types of neurotransmitters than they release

The effect of a neurotransmitter depends on its receptor on the postsynaptic cell

Ionotropic effect - refers to when a neurotransmitter attaches to receptors and\ immediately opens ion
channels

Transmitter-gated or ligand-gated channels - are channels controlled by a neurotransmitter

- Most effects occur very quickly (sometimes less than a millisecond after attaching) and are very
short lasting
- Most ionotropic effects rely on glutamate or GABA

Metabotropic effects

- occur when neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and initiates a sequence of slower and longer
lasting metabolic reactions
- Metabotropic synapses use many neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine,
serotonin, and sometimes glutamate and GABA

When neurotransmitters attach to a metabotropic receptor, it bends the receptor protein that goes through
the membrane of the cell

- Bending allows a portion of the protein inside the neuron to react with other molecules

Metabotropic events include such behaviors as taste, smell, and pain

The portion inside the neuron activates a G- protein: one that is coupled to guanosine triphosphate
(GTP), an energy storing molecule

• G-protein increases the concentration of a “second-messenger (communicates to areas within the

cell)”

- May open or close ion channels, alter production of activating proteins, or activate chromosomes

Neuropeptides are often called neuromodulators

– Release requires repeated stimulation

– Released peptides trigger other neurons to release same neuropeptide

– Diffuse widely and affect many neurons via metabotropic receptors

General rule: a neuron delivers neuropeptides that diffuse to receptors throughout a wide area, but
delivers other transmitters in small amounts directly adjacent to their receptors

Exception: Neuroglia form cell: a neuron shaped like a glia cell that releases huge amounts of GABA all
at once

Hormone

- A chemical secreted by a gland or other cells that is transported to other organs by blood where it
alters activity
- It is important for triggering long-lasting changes in multiple parts of the body
- It secreted by the brain to control the release of other hormones
Endocrine Glands

- Responsible for the production of hormones

Protein hormones & Peptide hormones

- Composed of chains of amino acids and attach to membrane receptors where they activate
second messenger system

Pituitary gland

- Is attached to the hypothalamus and consists of two distinct glands that each release a different
set of hormones
1. Anterior pituitary: composed of glandular tissue and synthesizes six hormones
2. Posterior pituitary: composed of neural tissue and can be considered an extension of the
hypothalamus

Neurons in the hypothalamus synthesize the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, which migrate down
axons to the posterior pituitary (also known as antidiuretic hormones)

Hypothalamus secretes releasing hormones, flow through the blood and stimulate the anterior pituitary
to release a number of other hormones

- It maintains a fairly constant circulating level of hormones through a negative-feedback system

Example: TSH-releasing hormone

Neurotransmitters released into the synapse do not remain and are subject to either

inactivation or reuptake (refers to when the presynaptic neuron takes up most of the
neurotransmitter molecules intact and reuses them)

Transporters - are special membrane proteins that facilitate reuptake

Example: serotonin is taken back up into the presynaptic terminal

Examples of inactivation and reuptake include:

Acetylcholine is broken down by acetylcholinesterase into acetate and choline

Excess dopamine is converted into inactive chemicals:

COMT: enzymes that convert the excess into inactive chemicals

Negative feedback in the brain is accomplished in two ways:

1. Auto receptors: receptors that detect the amount of transmitter released and inhibit further
synthesis and release
2. Postsynaptic neurons: respond to stimulation by releasing chemicals that travel back to the
presynaptic terminal where they inhibit further release

Gap junction: the direct contact of the membrane of one neuron with the membrane of another

Depolarization - occurs in both cells, resulting in the two neurons acting as if they were one

SYNAPSES, DRUGS, AND ADDICTION

Drugs work by mimicking our own neurochemistry

Example: receptors in the brain respond to LSD and cocaine

Drugs alter various stages of synaptic processing:

1. Antagonist: a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter

2. Agonist: a drug that increases a neurotransmitter’s effects

Drugs can alter any stage of synaptic processing, from synthesis of the neurotransmitter through release
and reuptake

A SURVEY OF ABUSED DRUGS

- Addictive substances affect dopamine and norepinephrine synapses

Olds and Milner (1954)

- They placed rats in a Skinner box that allowed self-stimulation of the brain by pressing of a
lever
- Rats sometimes pressed the lever 2,000 timer per hours to stimulate the release of dopamine in
the nucleus accumbens

Other behaviors that release dopamine includes:

1. Sexual excitement
2. Gambling
3. Video games
People with major depression show a less than normal response in the nucleus accumbens

Berridge and Robinson (1998)

- Suggests an important distinction be made between liking and wanting.

Liking: small parts of the nucleus accumbens respond to pleasure

Wanting: larger parts respond to motivation

- People addicted to drugs are highly motivated to get them even if they no longer provide pleasure

- Drugs are categorized according to their predominant action or effect upon behavior

Stimulant drugs

- increase excitement, alertness, motor activity, and elevate mood

Examples: amphetamines, cocaine, methylphenidate (Ritalin), MDMA (Ecstasy), and nicotine

 Amphetamine and cocaine

- inhibit the dopamine transporter
- stimulate dopamine synapses by increasing the release of dopamine from the presynaptic
terminal

Methylphenidate (Ritalin) also blocks the reuptake of dopamine but in a more gradual and more
controlled rate

- Often prescribed for people with ADD

- Research has found inconclusive results on whether Ritalin use in childhood makes one more
likely to abuse drugs as an adult

Nicotine

- is the active ingredient in tobacco

- Stimulates one type of acetylcholine receptor known as the nicotinic receptor
- Nicotinic receptors are abundant in the nucleus accumbens and facilitate dopamine release
- Repeated exposure to nicotine makes the drug more rewarding, but it makes every other stimulus
less rewarding

Opiate drugs

- are those that are derived from (or similar to those derived from) the opium poppy
- Opiates decrease sensitivity to pain and increase relaxation by attaching to endorphin receptors
in the brain

Examples: morphine, heroin, methadone.

Endorphins

- A peptide that produced by the brain

- Endorphin synapses may contribute to certain kinds of reinforcement by inhibiting the release of
GABA indirectly
- Inhibiting GABA indirectly releases dopamine
- Endorphins also have reinforcing effects independent of dopamine
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

- is the active ingredient in marijuana

- THC attaches to cannabinoid receptors throughout the brain but especially the cerebral cortex,
cerebellum, basal ganglia, and hippocampus.
 Anandamide and 2-AG are the endogenous chemicals that attach to these receptors

The location of the receptors in the brain may account for the subjective effects of loss of time, an
intensification of sensory experience, and possibly memory impairment

– The cannabinoid receptors are located on the presynaptic neuron and inhibit the release of glutamate
and GABA

– Research with rats has shown the phenomenon of “time passing more slowly”

Hallucinogenic drugs

- cause distorted perception

- Many hallucinogenic drugs resemble serotonin in their molecular shape
- Hallucinogenic drugs stimulate serotonin type 2A receptors (5-HT2A) at inappropriate times or for
longer duration than usual thus causing their subjective effect

Types of hallucinogens:

1. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

2. Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or “ecstasy”): a stimulant at small dosages but a
hallucinogen at larger dosages
– Indication that long-term use of hallucinogenic drugs is associated with impaired memory and
learning, and loss of serotonin receptors

DRUGS MAIN BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS MAIN SYNAPTIC EFFECTS

AMPHETAMINE Excitement, alertness, elevated Increase release of dopamine
mood, decreased fatigue and several other transmitters
COCAINE Excitement, alertness, elevated Blocks reuptake of dopamine
mood, decreased fatigue and several others transmitters
METHYLPHENIDATE (ritalin) Increased concentration Blocks reuptake of dopamine
and others but gradually
MDMA (ecstasy) Low dose: stimulant LD: Release dopamine
Higher dose: sensory distortions HD: release serotonin, damages
axon containing serotonin
NICOTINE Mostly stimulant effects Stimulates nicotinic-type
acetylcholine receptor, which
(among other effects) increases
dopamine release in nucleus
accumbens
OPIATES (e.g., heroin, Relaxation, withdrawal, Stimulates endorphin receptors
morphine) decreased pain
CANNABINOIDS (marijuana) Altered sensory experiences, Excites negative-feedback
decreased pain and nausea, receptors on presynaptic cells;
increased appetite those receptors ordinarily
respond to anandamide and
2AG
HALLUCINOGENS (e.g., LSD) Distorted sensations Stimulates serotonin type 2A
receptors (5-HT2A)
ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLISM

Alcohol

- is a drug that has a long historical use and is used widely throughout the world
- In moderate amounts, alcohol is associated with relaxation
- In greater amounts it impairs judgment and damages the liver and other organs, and ultimately
can ruin lives

Alcoholism/alcohol dependence

- is the habitual use of alcohol despite medical or social harm

Diverse physiological effects of alcohol, including:

- Enhanced response by the GABAA receptor

- Blockage of glutamate receptors
- Increased dopamine activity

Strong influence of genetics on alcoholism

- The genetic basis for early-onset alcoholism is stronger than for later-onset, especially in men

TWO TYPES OF ALCOHOLISM

1. Type I/Type A

Characteristics include:

- Later onset usually after 25

- Gradual onset
- Fewer genetic relatives w/ alcoholism
- Equal quantity between men & women
2. Type II/Type B

Characteristics include:

- Earlier onset before 25

- More rapid onset
- More genetic relatives w/ alcoholism
- Men outnumber women

Genes influence the likelihood of alcoholism in many ways, such as:

- Long form type 4 receptor are more sensitive and need more alcohol to provide reinforcement
- More active COMT decreases reinforcement and is linked to impulsivity
- Responses to stress and anxiety-inducing experiences
- Prenatal exposure to alcohol

Research on sons of alcoholic fathers shows:

- Less average intoxication after one drink

- Stress decreases more than for the average person
- Smaller than normal amygdala
ADDICTION

Various factors contribute to continued substance abuse:

- Tolerance develops
- Cravings in response to cues
- Brain reorganization (nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex)

MEDICATIONS TO COMBAT SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Medications used to combat alcoholism include:

1. Antabuse
- Works by antagonizing the effects of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase
 Acetaldehyde
- A poisonous substance that metabolize by an enzyme in the liver after alcohol consumption
- It is converted by the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase into acetic acid (a chemical that the
body can use as a source of energy)
- Accumulation of acetaldehyde results in sickness

Most studies suggest that Antabuse has been only moderately effective

- When effective, it supplements the alcoholic’s own commitment to quit

- Daily routine of pill ingestion may reaffirm commitment not to drink
- Many quit taking the pill and continue to drink

2. Revia (naloxone)
 Many do not respond to other treatments so medications have been used to reduce
cravings

Methadone

- is an opiate similar to heroin and morphine but is absorbed and metabolized slowly
- Perceived to be less harmful than other drugs
- Assumed to satisfy cravings associated with previous drug use

Levomethadyl acetate (LAAM)

- is similar to morphine but can be taken three times a week rather than daily

WEEK 4: THE NERVOUS SYTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM

- is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all
mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. It is also responsible for regulating and
maintaining homeostasis

FUNCTIONS OF THE NS

1. Sensory Input - Monitoring changes that are occurring inside and outside the body.
2. Integration - Processing and interpreting sensory input to decide if action is needed.
3. Motor output - a response to integrated stimuli wherein it activates muscles or glands.
 4. Maintaining Homeostasis - Provides monitoring, response, and regulation of all systems in the
human body and other organisms.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental health - Includes thought, learning and memory

DIVISION OF THE NS

A. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Brain - responsible for receiving and processing sensory information; initiating responses
2. Spinal Cord - carries nerve signals from your brain to your body and vice versa.
B. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Sensory Neurons (afferent) – nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system.
2. Motor Neurons (efferent) – nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous
system

TWO SUBDIVISIONS:

1. Somatic nervous system = voluntary

2. Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
 Sympathetic division – the emergency system. It prepares the body to put out energy
and protect it from the effects of the injury.
 Parasympathetic division – the "housekeeping" division. It acts to replace and recover
from the activities of living. Its action is (almost always) the opposite of the sympathetic
division.
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. BRAIN
- is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing,
temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body.

DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN

A. Brainstem
- Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain - Controls several nuclei involved in vital
body functions like heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing

CONSIST OF:

1. Medulla Oblongata
- Involved in heart rate regulation, control of blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance, coordination, and conscious control of skeletal muscles
2. Pons
- Involved in information relay between cerebellum and cerebrum, breathing, swallowing, balance,
chewing and salivation.
3. Midbrain
- Involved with relaying auditory signals, visual reflexes, touch, eye movements, pupil diameter,
lens shape and regulation of body movement (substancia nigra)

B. Cerebellum
- Attached to the brainstem (Pons) by large connections called cerebellar peduncles. - Involved in
maintaining balance, and muscle tone, coordinating fine motor movement and learning motor
skills (in partnership with the cerebrum).

C. Diencephalon
- Part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum
- Acts as a primary relay and processing center for sensory information and autonomic control.
1. Thalamus
- The thalamus influences mood and registers an unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain.
- The thalamus is composed of different nuclei that each serve a unique role, ranging from relaying
sensory and motor signals, as well as regulation of consciousness and alertness.
2. Epithalamus
- Small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- Consists of a few small nuclei involved in an emotional and visceral response to odors.
 PINEAL GLAND
- Influences the onset of puberty.
- Located on the back portion of the third cerebral ventricle of the brain
- Major site for melatonin production
- Known as the "third eye"
3. Hypothalamus
- Regulates thirst, appetite and sleep patterns - Regulates the release of hormones from pituitary
gland
 PITUITARY GLAND
- Regulates thirst, appetite and sleep patterns - Regulates the release of hormones from pituitary
gland
 D. Cerebrum
- The largest part of the brain
- Has two hemispheres
- Controls voluntary movement, speech, intelligence, memory, emotion, and sensory processing

LOBES OF CEREBRUM

1. Frontal lobe – important in the control of voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression,
mood, and olfactory (smell) perception
2. Parietal lobe – principal center for receiving and consciously perceiving most sensory
information
3. Occipital lobe – functions in receiving and perceiving visual input
4. Temporal lobe – involved in olfactory and auditory sensations, plays an important role in memory
and involved in abstract thought and judgment

Insula – “hidden” deep within the lateral fissure (involved with the sense of taste)

SPEECH AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

 Sensory speech area in the parietal lobe (Wernicke area) - functions in understanding and
formulating coherent speech
 Motor speech area in the frontal lobe (Broca area) – controls the movement necessary for
speech

HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION
SENSORY FUNCTIONS

- Sensory input to the brainstem and diencephalon helps maintain homeostasis while sensory input
to the cerebrum and cerebellum keeps us informed about our environment.
1. Ascending Tracts
- typically cross from one other side of the body to the other in the spinal cord or brainstem
 Spinothalamic tract – pain and temperature sensing
 Dorsal column – touch, position, pressure sense
 Spinocerebellar tract – body position sense

2. Descending Tracts- are the pathways by which motor signals are sent from the brain to the
spinal cord.
Direct:

Lateral Corticospinal tract – skilled movements

Anterior Corticospinal tract – trunk muscle movement

Indirect:

Rubrospinal – coordination of movement

Reticulospinal – Posture adjustment

Vestibulospinal – Posture and balance

Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes

PLANTAR REFLEX/ BABINSKI TEST

1. Flexor: the toes curve down and inwards, and the foot inverts; this is the response seen in
healthy adults.
2. Indifferent: there is no response.
3. Extensor: the hallux dorsiflexes, and the other toes fan out; this is Babinski's sign, which
indicates damage to the central nervous system if elicited in an adult, but normal reflex if elicited
in infants

THE 12 CRANIAL NERVES

- The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that may be seen on the brain's inferior surface.
- Some of these cranial nerves transport sensory data from the organs to the brain.
- The voluntary muscles of the face, head, and neck are controlled by other cranial nerves.
- Other cranial nerves are linked to smooth muscles, glands, or internal organs like the heart and
lungs

NAME NERVE TYPE FUCNTION

I. Olfactory Sensory Smell
II. Optic Sensory Vision
III. Oculomotor Motor Most eye movement
IV. Trochlear Motor Moves to eye to look nose
V. Trigeminal Both Face sensation, mastication
VI. Abducens Motor Abducts the eye
VII. Facial Both Facial expression, taste
VIII. Vestibulocochlear Sensory Hearing, balance
IX. Glossopharyngeal Both Taste, gag reflex
X. Vagus Both Gag reflex, parasympathetic
innervation
XI. Accessory Motor Shoulder shrug
XII. Hypoglossal Motor Swallowing speech
ANATOMICAL TERMS FOR DIRECTION

Anatomical body planes and directional terms

 Transverse Plane

Superior  Inferior (divides the upper and lower part of the body, hati like manananggal)

 Frontal/Coronal Plane

Medial  Lateral (divides the front and back of the body)

 Sagittal/Lateral Plane

Anterior  Posterior (divides the left and right of the body)

dorsal/superior

caudal/ posterior rostral/anterior

ventral/inferior

2. SPINAL CORD

- Carries signals from the brain Carries information to the brain Reflex response.

DIVIDED INTO 4 REGIONS

1. Cervical
- C1-C3 Neck Muscles
- C4 Diaphragm
 - C5 Deltoid (shoulder)
- C6 Wrist
- C7 Triceps
- C7-C8 Fingers
2. Thoracic
- T1 Hand
- T2-T12 Intercostals (trunk)
- T7-L1 Abdominals
- T11-L2 Ejaculation
3. Lumbar
- L2 Hips
- L3 Quadriceps
- L4-L5 Hamstrings-Knee
- L4-S1 Foot
4. Sacral
- S2 Penile Erection
- S2-S3 Bowel and Bladder

MENINGES

Connective tissues that surround and protect the spinal cord and the brain

- Dura mater
- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater
- Epidural space – between vertebrae and dura mater
- Subdural space – between dura mater and arachnoid mater
- Subarachnoid space – between arachnoid mater and pia mater

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS

Neurons = nerve cells

- Functional unit of the nervous system

- Cells specialized to transmit messages

ANATOMY OF NEURON

1. Cell body – center of the neuron and contains the organelles

2. Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body

3. Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body

4. Myelin sheath – covers the axon and helps speed neural impulses

5. Node of ranvier – makes the transfer of information faster

6. Axon terminal – form junctions with other cells

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NEURONS

a. Bipolar 1 axon, 1 dendrite

b. Unipolar 2 axons, no dendrite

c. Multipolar 1 axon, several dendrites

NERVOUS TISSUE: SUPPORT CELLS (NEUROGLIA/GLIA)

1. Ependymal Cells (CNS)

 Non-Ciliated – produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 Ciliated – responsible for transport/circulation of CSF
2. Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
- Produce myelin sheath in the CNS
3. Satellite cells (PNS)
- Protect neuron cell bodies
4. Astrocytes (CNS)
- Star-shaped that encircles blood vessels and nerves thus provides BBB
5. Microglia (CNS) - spider-like phagocytes. Absorbs and engulf bacteria and other small cells
particles.
6. Schwann cells(PNS) – form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

MYELIN SHEATH

- Myelin is an insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and
spinal cord

MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS

- the most common demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. In this disorder, your
immune system attacks the myelin sheath or the cells that produce and maintain it. This causes
inflammation and injury to the sheath and ultimately to the nerve fibers that it surrounds.

4 FEATURES OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

1. Bone - brain (cranium), spinal cord (vertebrae)
2. Cerebrospinal fluid – protects brain and spinal cord from trauma, supplies nutrients to nervous
system tissue.
3. Astrocytes – blood-brain barrier, supplying nutrients to nerve tissue and aiding in post-traumatic
repair and scanning processes
4. Tissues
 Gray matter - contains the cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals of neurons
 White matter - made of axons connecting different parts of grey matter to each other
NEUROTRANSMITTER

1. Adrenaline (fight or flight) - produced in stressful situations.

Increases heart rate, blood flow leading to physical boost and

heightened awareness.

2. Gaba (calming) - calms firing nerves in the central nervous system.

High levels improve focus. Low levels cause anxiety. Also contributes

to motor control and vision.

3. Noradrenaline (concentration) - affects attention and responding

actions in the brain. Contracts blood vessels, increasing blood flow.

4. Acetylcholine (learning) - involved in thought, learning, and

memory. Activates muscle action in the body. Also associated with

attention and awakening.

5. Dopamine (pleasure) - feelings of pleasure, also addiction, movement

and motivation.

6. Glutamate (memory) - most common neurotransmitter. Involved in

learning and memory, regulates development and creation of nerve

contact.

7. Serotonin (mood) - contributes to wellbeing and happiness. Helps

sleep cycle and digestive system regulation. Affected by light exposure

and exercise.

8. Endorphins (euphoria) - released during exercise, excitement and sex.

PLEXUS

A plexus is a bundle of intersecting nerves, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels in the human body.

THE 3 MAJOR PLEXUSES:

1. Cervical plexus (C1 to C4)

- The cervical plexus is a network of nerve fibres that supplies innervation to some of the structures
in the neck and trunk.
- It is located in the posterior triangle of the neck, halfway up the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and
within the prevertebral layer of cervical fascia. The plexus is formed by the anterior rami
(divisions) of cervical spinal nerves C1-C4

2. Brachial plexus (C5 to T1)

- The brachial plexus is a network of nerve fibres that supplies the skin and musculature of the
upper limb. It begins in the root of the neck, passes through the axilla, and runs through the entire
upper extremity.
- The plexus is formed by the anterior rami (divisions) of cervical spinal nerves C5, C6, C7 and C8,
and the first thoracic spinal nerve, T1.
5 MAJOR NERVES OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS
a) Axillary nerve – innervates the shoulder
b) Radial nerve – innervates the posterior arm and forearm
c) Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the anterior muscles of the arm
d) Ulnar nerve – innervates 2 anterior forearm muscles and most of the intrinsic arm
muscles
e) Median nerve – innervates most of the anterior forearm muscles and some of the
intrinsic hand muscles

3. Lumbosacral plexus (L1 to L4-S1 to S4)

- The lumbar plexus is a network of nerve fibres that supplies the skin and musculature of the lower
limb. It is located in the lumbar region, within the substance of the psoas major muscle and
anterior to the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.
- The plexus is formed by the anterior rami (divisions) of the lumbar spinal nerves L1, L2, L3 and
L4.
 5 MAJOR NERVES OF THE LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS
a) Obturator nerve – innervates muscles of the medial thigh
b) Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh muscles
c) Tibial nerve – innervates posterior thigh muscles
d) Common fibular nerve – innervates muscles of the lateral thigh and leg
e) Sciatic nerve – tibial + common fibular nerve (bound together within a common connective tissue
sheath)

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously
directed, such as breathing, heart rate, digestive processes, etc.

TWO DIVISION OF ANS

1. Sympathetic NS
- “Fight or flight” response
- Preganglionic cell bodies are in the lateral horn of the spinal cord gray matter between T1 and
L2
- Activation of the physiologic changes that prepares the body for combat/escape
2. Parasympathetic NS
- “Rest and digest” response
- Preganglionic cell bodies are located either within the brainstem nuclei (CN III, VII, IX, X) or within
the lateral part of the central gray matter of the spinal cord between S2 to S4
DISEASE OF NS

A. STROKE
- Stroke is when blood flow to an organ stops either by blockage (bara) or rupture (putok) of a
blood vessel. Stroke to the brain is referred to as Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA), of which there
are 2 types
B. Hemorrhagic CVA
– due to rupture of blood vessels supplying the brain (pumutok na ugat)

C. Ischemic CVA
– due to blockage of blood vessels supplying the brain (nagbarang ugat)

D. Physical Recognition Of Stroke Warning Sign

- Some common signs and symptoms includes, difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of balance and
coordination, difficulty speaking or understanding others who are speaking, numbness or paralysis in
the face, leg, or arm, most, likely on just one side of the body, blurred or darkened vision and a
sudden headache, especially when accompanied by nausea, vomiting, or dizziness.

E. EPILEPSY

- which is sometimes called a seizure disorder, is a disorder of the brain. A person is diagnosed with
epilepsy when they have had two or more seizures. A seizure is a short change in normal brain
activity. Seizures are the main sign of epilepsy. Some seizures can look like staring spells.

F. NEUROFIBROMATOSIS

- A genetic condition characterized by the growth of neurofibromas. These are a type of tumor that is
usually benign, or non-cancerous, although in rare cases they can be cancerous. These
neurofibromas can form wherever there are nerve cells in the body.

G. PARKINSON’S DISEASE

– is a brain disorder that leads to shaking, stiffness, and difficulty with walking, balance, and
coordination. Parkinson's symptoms usually begin gradually and get worse over time. As the disease
progresses, people may have difficulty walking and talking.

H. HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE
- a rare, inherited disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the
brain. Huntington's disease has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in
movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders.

I. AMYOTROPHICLATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS)

J. ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE

RESEARCH METHOD

Describing the structure of the brain is a straightforward endeavor. Understanding how the brain
works is more difficult.

The main categories of methods for studying brain function are as follows:

1. Examine the effects of brain damage.

2. Examine the effects of stimulating a brain area.

3. Record brain activity during behavior.

4. Correlate brain anatomy with behavior.

GLASGOW COMA SCALE

Behaviour Response
Eye opening response 4. Spontaneously
3. To speech
2. To pain
1. No response
Verbal reponse 5. Oriented to time, person and place
4. Confused
3. Inappropriate words
2. Incomprehensible sounds
1. No response
Motor response 6. Obeys command
5. Moves to localised pain
4. Flex to withdraw from pain
3. Abnormal flexion
2. Abnormal extension
1. No response
 PREFRONTAL LOBOTOMY

- a surgical procedure that involves severing the nerve pathways in the prefrontal cortex. The
procedure is intended to help with psychiatric and neurological conditions but can have serious
risks and unwanted outcomes.

Week 5: BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY

MATURATION OF THE VERTEBRATE BRAIN

The human central nervous system begins to form when the embryo is about 2 weeks old. The dorsal
surface thickens and then long thin lips rise, curl, and merge, forming a neural tube that surrounds a fluid-
filled cavity.

At birth, the average human brain weighs about 350 grams. By the end of the first year, it weighs
1,000 g, close to the adult weight of 1,200 to 1,400 g

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEURONS

FIVE STEPS OF NEURON DEVELOPMENT

1. Proliferation
- is the production of new cells. Early in development, the cells lining the ventricles of the brain
divide. Some cells remain where they are as stem cells, continuing to divide, whereas others
migrate to other parts of the nervous system.
 2. Migration
- Early in development, the primitive cells, not yet identifiable as neurons or glia, begin to migrate
(move). Chemicals known as immunoglobulins and chemokines guide neuron migration.
3. Differentiation
- Neurons develop an axon and dendrites (this distinguishes neurons from other cells in the body);
the axon grows before the dendrites, while the neuron is migrating toward its destination.
4. Synaptogenesis, the formation of synapses, begins long before birth, but it continues throughout
life, as neurons form new synapses and discard old ones.
5. Myelination
- Glia cells produce myelin sheaths around axons which allow for rapid transmission. In humans,
myelin forms first in the spinal cord before forming in the brain. Myelination begins during the
prenatal period and continues into adulthood.

DETERMINANTS OF NEURONAL SURVIVAL

- While working on the sympathetic ganglion, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered that muscles that
synapse with the axons from the ganglia don’t determine how many neurons are produced but
which synapses survive. She discovered that muscles produce and release nerve growth factor
(NGF), which promotes the survival and growth of axons.
- Axons that don’t receive enough NGF degenerate and their cell bodies die. All neurons are born
with this suicide program and will automatically die if the right synaptic connection is not made.
This programmed cell death is called apoptosis.

Neurotrophins

- a chemical (like NGF) that promotes the survival and activity of neurons.

THE VULNERABLE DEVELOPING BRAIN

- Compared to the mature brain, the developing brain is more vulnerable to malnutrition, toxic
chemicals, and infections.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

- Caused by alcoholic consumption during pregnancy. Symptoms include decreased alertness,

hyperactivity, facial abnormalities, mental retardation, motor problems, and heart defects.
 Infant brains are especially sensitive to alcohol because it suppressed the release of glutamate,
the brain’s main excitatory transmitter. Thus, neurons receive less excitation and undergo
apoptosis.
 Prenatal exposure to cocaine or cigarette smoking is associated with attention deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other behavioral deficits.
 Children exposed to antidepressant drugs during pregnancy have increased risk of heart
problems. Social influences also affect the developing brain.
 Children of impoverished or abused mothers have increased problems in both academic and
social functioning.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT

ADOLESCENCE

Adolescents "troublesome age" are widely regarded as impulsive and prone to seek immediate
pleasure. Research shows adolescents are able to make reasonable, mature decisions when they have
had time to consider the options carefully. However, they are impulsive when making quick decisions,
especially in the face of peer pressure.

OLD AGE

- On average, people’s memory and reasoning fade beyond age 60 because neurons alter their
synapses more slowly. The volume of the hippocampus also gradually declines. In addition, the
frontal cortex begins thinning at age However, there is great variance in the level of deterioration
in different people Higher performing older adults activate more brain areas to make up for less
efficient activity.

PLASTICITY AFTER BRAIN DAMAGE

Causes Of Brain Damage

1. BRAIN TUMORS

- A tumor, or neoplasm (literally, “new growth”), is a mass of cells that grows independently of the
rest of the body. About 20 percent of tumors found in the human brain are meningiomas— tumors that
grow between the meninges, the three membranes that cover the central nervous system.

2. CEREBROVASCULAR DISORDERS: STROKES

- Strokes are sudden-onset cerebrovascular disorders that cause brain damage. The area of dead or
dying tissue produced by a stroke is called an infarct. Surrounding the infarct is a dysfunctional
area called the penumbra. The tissue in the penumbra may recover or die in the ensuing days,
depending on a variety of factors. The primary goal of treatment following stroke is to save the penumbra.

 REDUCING THE HARM OF A STROKE

- A common cause of brain damage, especially in older people, is temporary interruption of normal
blood flow to a brain area during a stroke, also known as a cerebrovascular accident. The
more common type of stroke is ischemia, the result of a blood clot or other obstruction in an
artery. The less common type is hemorrhage, the result of a ruptured artery. Effects of strokes
vary from barely noticeable to immediately fatal.
- In ischemia, the neurons deprived of blood lose much of their oxygen and glucose supplies. In
hemorrhage, they are flooded with blood and excess oxygen, calcium, and other chemicals.

3. CLOSED-HEAD INJURIES

- Contusions are closed-head injuries that involve damage to the cerebral circulatory hemorrhaging,
which results in a hematoma. A hematoma is a localized collection of clotted blood in an organ or tissue
— in other words, a bruise.

- Brain injuries produced by blows that do not penetrate the skull are called closed-head injuries.

4. INFECTION OF THE BRAIN

- An invasion of the brain by microorganisms is a brain infection, and the resulting inflammation is called

encephalitis. There are two common types of brain infections: bacterial infections and viral infections.

5. NEUROTOXINS

- The nervous system can be damaged by exposure to any one of a variety of toxic chemicals, which
can enter general circulation from the gastrointestinal tract, from the lungs, or through the skin.
6. GENETIC FACTORS

- Some neuropsychological diseases of genetic origin are caused by abnormal recessive genes that are
passed from parent to offspring.

NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE

 Epilepsy
 Parkinson’s disease
 Huntington’s disease
 Multiple sclerosis
 Alzheimer’s disease

LATER MECHANISMS OF RECOVERY

1. Increased Brain Stimulation

- Diaschisis is a decreased activity of surviving neurons after other neurons are destroyed.
Behavioral deficits due to diaschisis can sometimes be improved with the use of stimulant drugs.
2. Regrowth of Axons
- Under certain circumstances, damaged axons can grow back. However, regeneration is minimal
in the mature mammalian central nervous system, possibly because of a large amount of scar
tissue or the secretion of growth inhibiting chemicals.
3. Axon Sprouting
- Sprouting is a normal condition, as the brain is constantly adding new branches of axons and
dendrites and withdrawing old ones. This process accelerates in response to damage.
 Collateral sprouts
- A newly formed branch from an uninjured axon. The collateral sprouts attach to a synapse
vacated when the original axon was destroyed. This process is initiated by neurotrophies
secreted by the cells that have lost their source of innervation.
4. Denervation Supersensitivity
- Neurons make adjustments to maintain a nearly constant level of arousal. After learning
strengthens one set of synapses, other synapses weaken. Conversely, if a certain set of
synapses becomes inactive—perhaps because of damage elsewhere in the brain—the remaining
synapses become more responsive, more easily stimulated. This process of enhanced response,
known as denervation supersensitivity or receptor supersensitivity, has been emonstrated
mostly with dopamine synapses (Kostrzewa, Kostrzewa, Brown, Nowak, & Brus, 2008).
Denervation supersensitivity helps compensate for decreased input.

LEARNED ADJUSTMENT IN BEHAVIOR

Similarly, someone with brain damage may have lost some ability totally or may be able to find it with
enough effort. Much recovery from brain damage depends on learning to make better use of the abilities
that were spared. For example, if you lose your peripheral vision, you learn to move your head from side
to side to compensate (Marshall, 1985).

Therapy for a person with brain damage begins with careful evaluation of a patient’s abilities and
disabilities. For example, someone who has trouble carrying out spoken instructions might be impaired in
hearing, memory, language, muscle control, or alertness. After identifying the problem, a physical
therapist or occupational therapist helps the patient practice the impaired skills.