Chapter 11: Leadership

课 题 Chapter 11: Leadership

通过本章学习，能够了解领导力的概念及类型，比较领导和管理
教学目标
的差异，了解不同领导方式的优缺点，以及实际运用。
1.张德，《组织行为学》，清华大学出版社，2000 年。
2.[美]罗宾斯，《组织行为学》（第 14 版），中国人民大学出
版社，2012 年。
3.周文霞等，《组织行为学教学案例精选》，复旦大学出版
社，1998 年。
参考教材
4.俞文钊，《管理心理学》（上、下册），东方出版中心，2002
参考书目、文
年。
献
5.苏东水，《管理心理学》，复旦大学出版社，2002 年。
6. [美]安杰洛 基尼奇， 《组织行为学：关键概念、技能与最
佳实践》（第四版，注释版），中国人民大学出版社，2011.
7.张岩松，王艳洁. 《组织行为学——理论、案例、实训》，清
华大学出版社，2016 年。

教学重难点 领导特质理论、领导行为理论、领导权变理论

教学方法
讲授课、讨论课
教学手段
课程类别 √理论课 □实验课 □技能课
课 时 □1 课时 √2 课时 □3 课时 □4 课时
教学设计 详见后页

Chapter 11:
Leadership

Chapter Overview

Leaders can make the difference between success and failure. In this chapter, we'll look
at the basic approaches to determining what makes an effective leader and what
differentiates leaders from non-leaders.

Chapter Objectives

145
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Define leadership and contrast leadership and management.
2. Summarize the conclusions of trait and behavioral theories.
3. Assess contingency theories of leadership by their level of support.
4. Compare and contrast charismatic leadership, transformational leadership, and
authentic leadership.
5. Identify when leadership may not be necessary.
6. Assess whether charismatic and transformational leadership generalize across
cultures.

Suggested Lecture Outline

Slide
I. INTRODUCTION #11-1

This chapter examines what it takes to be an effective leader and

what differentiates leaders from nonleaders.
Slide
II. LEADERSHIP DEFINED #11-2

A. Leadership and Management. While these two terms are

used interchangeably in the workplace, in theory, they are two
different concepts. Slide
#11-3
B. John Kotter's Definitions:

1. Management: management is about coping with

complexity. It brings order and consistency to an
organization by drawing up formal plans, designing rigid
organizational structures, and monitoring results against
plans.

2. Leadership: leadership is about coping with change.

Leaders establish direction by developing a vision of the
future; then they align people by communicating this vision
and inspiring them to overcome hurdles.

C. The Authors’ Definition of Leadership: the ability to

influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of
goals. The source of this influence may be formal, such as a
person's managerial rank in the organization, or an informal
(non-sanctioned) ability to influence that arises outside the
formal structure of the organization. Formal rank does not
automatically convey leadership effectiveness.

D. The Need for Both. Organizations need both strong

leadership and strong management for optimal effectiveness.

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 Chapter 11: Leadership

While a good leader may tell the organization where to go, it

still takes good managers to ensure they get there in one piece.

III. TRADITIONAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

Slide
A. Trait Theories #11-4
1. Background. Trait theories of leadership differentiated
leaders from nonleaders by focusing on personal qualities
and characteristics. As one of the earliest forms of
leadership study, trait theories searched for any personality,
social, physical or intellectual factors that could describe
leaders and differentiate them from nonleaders. This initial
stream of research proved to be relatively unproductive.

2. The Big Five Personality Framework and Trait Theory.

When the existing trait theory research was organized
around the Big Five personality framework (extroversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and
openness to experience - see Chapter 2), a clearer picture
began to emerge.

a. Extroversion. Two of the most common traits of

leaders, ambition and energy, are part of the definition
for extroversion. This is one of the most important
traits of effective leaders and separates them from
nonleaders. This trait is more strongly related to leader
emergence than to leader effectiveness.

b. Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience. These

two Big Five traits also showed strong and consistent
relationships to leadership, although not as strong as
extroversion.

c. Agreeableness and Emotional Stability. These last two

Big Five traits were not strongly correlated with
leadership.

d. Key Common Traits. Using the Big Five framework,

leaders do appear to have key traits in common: they
are extroverted (individuals who like being around
people and are able to assert themselves without being
too assertive), conscientious (disciplined individuals
who keep the commitments they make), and open
(individuals who are creative and flexible).

3. Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Trait Theory. While it

may be intuitively obvious that good leaders need to have

Slide
147
#11-5
 emotional intelligence, (see Chapter 7), research on this
point is sparse and inconclusive.

B. Behavioral Theories

1. Background. As a result of the presumed failures of early

trait studies, researchers from the 1940s through the 1960s
began studying behaviors exhibited by leaders as a means
to separate leaders from nonleaders.

2. Behavioral Versus Trait Studies. The primary difference

between studying leadership behaviors and traits is that
behaviors could be taught. So behavioral studies attempted
to find the correct actions leaders take. By teaching these
behaviors, anyone could be trained to be a better leader.

3. The Ohio State Studies. These studies, started in the late Slide
1940s, attempted to find what behaviors substantially #11-6
accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by
employees. Beginning with over a thousand dimensions,
researchers narrowed the list to two:

a. Initiating Structure. This dimension refers to the extent

to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or
her role and those of employees in the search for goal
attainment. It includes behavior that attempts to
organize work, work relationships, and goals.

b. Consideration. This dimension is the extent to which a

person is likely to have job relationships that are
characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’
ideas, and regard for their feelings.

c. Ohio State Summary. Both factors were found to be

associated with effective leadership. Followers of
leaders who are high in consideration were more
satisfied with their jobs; more motivated, and had more
respect for their leader. Leaders who were high in
initiating structure typically had higher levels of group
and organization productivity along with more positive
performance evaluations.
Slide
4. The University Of Michigan Studies. Roughly #11-7
contemporary to the Ohio State studies, this set of studies
had similar research objectives: to locate behavioral
characteristics of leaders that appeared to be related to
measures of performance effectiveness. They also came up

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 Chapter 11: Leadership

with two dimensions of leadership behavior that were

critical:

a. Employee Oriented. Leaders who were employee-

oriented were described as emphasizing interpersonal
relations. They took a personal interest in the needs of
their employees and accepted individual differences
among members.

b. Production Oriented. These leaders tended to

emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job.
Their main concern was in accomplishing their group’s
tasks and the group members were seen as a means to
that end.

c. University of Michigan Summary. The results of these

studies were closely related to those from Ohio State.
Employee-oriented leadership is similar to
consideration and production-oriented leadership is
similar to initiating structure. The Michigan
researchers strongly favored leaders who were
employee-oriented in their behavior. Such leaders were
associated with higher group productivity and higher
job satisfaction.

5. Blake and Mouton's Managerial/Leadership Grid®.

Building from the results of both the Ohio State and Slide
Michigan studies, Blake and Mouton created a leadership #11-8
assessment instrument that was based on the styles of
“concern for people” and “concern for production.” This
grid recommended increasing both concern for people and
concern for production.

C. Summary of Trait Theories and Behavioral Theories. Both

theories add to our understanding of leadership effectiveness
and perhaps they can be combined into an integrated system.
Unfortunately, such a connection cannot be established without
further research.

IV. CONTINGENCY THEORIES

Slide
A. Background. While trait and behavioral theories contributed #11-9
to our understanding of leadership, predicting leadership
success proved to be more complex than thought so researchers
began to focus on situational influences. The goal of such
contingency theories was to match leadership style with work
conditions in order to achieve leadership effectiveness.
Slide
#11-10
149
1. The Fiedler Contingency Model. One of the first models of
this type was developed by Fred Fiedler. It proposes that
effective group performance depends on the proper match
between the leader’s style and the degree to which the
situation gives control to the leader.

a. Identifying Leadership Style. Fiedler created the Least

Preferred Coworker (LPC) questionnaire, which
purports to measure whether a person is task or
relationship oriented. High LPC scores indicate a
relationship-oriented leader; low LPC scores indicate a
task-oriented one. Middle scorers (about 16% of the
population) fall outside the scope of this theory. Fiedler
assumed that an individual’s leadership style is fixed.
If the situation and style are not optimal, then the
situation needs to be modified or the leader needs to be
replaced.

b. Defining the Situation. Fiedler identified three

contingency dimensions that defined the key situational
factors that will determine the appropriate leadership
style.

1) Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence,

trust, and respect members have in their leader.
Measured as good or poor.

2) Task structure: the degree to which the job

assignments are structured or unstructured.
Measured as high or low.

3) Position power: the degree of influence a leader has

over hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and
salary increases. Measured as strong or weak. Slide
#11-11
c. Eight Potential Situations. The combination of the
measurements of these three dimensions creates eight
potential situations (“octets”) that a leader might face.

d. Matching Leaders and Situations. Exhibit

Exhibit
#11-1
#11-1
1) Task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in
situations that are either very favorable to them or
which are very unfavorable (category I, II, III, VII,
or VIII).

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 Chapter 11: Leadership

2) Relationship-oriented leaders perform better in

moderately favorable situations (categories IV
through VI).

3) Recently Fiedler has condensed these eight

situations down to three based on the degree of
control: task-oriented leaders perform best in
situations of high and low control while
relationship-oriented leaders perform best in
moderate control situations.

e. Using the Model to Improve Leadership Effectiveness .

Because Fiedler believes an individual’s leadership
style is fixed, there are really only two ways to improve
leader effectiveness:

1) Change the leader to fit the situation.

2) Change the situation to fit the leader. This can be

done by restructuring tasks or increasing/decreasing
the power the leader has to control factors such as
salary increases, promotions, and disciplinary
actions.

f. Fiedler Contingency Model Summary. Considerable

evidence supports substantial parts of Fiedler's model.
In the more recent and simplified version of the model,
there is even stronger evidence to support its
conclusions. However, the LPC questionnaire is
problematic and the contingency variables are complex
and difficult for practitioners to assess, making this a
difficult model to use on a practical basis.

2. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory. Unlike the other

leadership theories mentioned thus far, the LMX theory Slide
does not assume that managers treat all workers the same #11-12
way. The contingency in this theory is not the leader’s
environment, but instead the leader’s unique relationship
with each of his or her followers.

a. Grouping. Because of time pressures, leaders establish

a special relationship with a small group of their
followers: the in-group. These individuals receive a
disproportionate amount of the leader’s attention and
are more likely to receive special privileges. Out-group
members get less of the leader’s time, fewer of the

Slide
#11-13
151
 preferred rewards and have leader-follower relations
based on formal authority interactions.

b. Group Selection. While the selection process is

unclear, leaders tend to choose in-group members (high
LMX) early in the relationship. This selection may be
due to the in-group employees having a similar attitude Exhibit
and personality characteristics to that of the leader or a Exhibit
#11-2
higher level of competence than do the out-group #11-2
members (low LMX). While the leader does the
choosing, it is the followers’ characteristics the drive
the leader’s categorizing decision. The selections
appear to be relatively stable over time.

c. LMX Theory Summary. Research has been generally

supportive and may be tied to the concept of the self-
fulfilling prophecy: when leaders expect the best from a
set of employees, they tend to get it. In general,
research has shown the following:

1) Leaders do differentiate among followers.

2) The in-group and out-group disparities are not

random.

3) In-group members will have higher performance

ratings, lower turnover intentions, greater
satisfaction with their superior, and higher overall
satisfaction.

V. CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

Slide
Traditional approaches to leadership ignore the importance of the #11-14
leader as a communicator. Framing is a way of communicating to
shape meaning: a means to influence how others see and
understand events. Framing allows leaders to inspire others to act
beyond their immediate self-interests.

These contemporary leadership theories view leaders as

individuals who inspire followers through their words, ideas, and
behaviors.

A. Charismatic Leadership. Charisma, as defined by Max Slide

Weber, is “a certain quality of an individual personality, by #11-15
virtue of which he or she is set apart from ordinary people and
treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least
specifically exceptional powers or qualities.”

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 Chapter 11: Leadership

1. House’s Charismatic Leadership Theory. In this theory,

and H. followers are believed to make attributions of heroic
or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe
certain behaviors. The charismatic characteristics Exhibit
identified by the research so far are: (1) vision, (2) a Exhibit
#11-3
willingness to take personal risks to achieve that vision, (3) #11-3
sensitivity to followers’ needs, and (4) exhibiting behaviors
that are out of the ordinary.

2. Are Charismatic Leaders Born or Made? Charisma may Slide

be innate, but charismatic behaviors can be learned and #11-16
exhibited giving leaders the benefit of charisma. Charisma
can be developed by:

a. Developing an Aura of Charisma. Do this by

maintaining an optimistic view; being passionately
enthusiastic; and communicating with the whole body,
not just words.

b. Drawing Others In. Create a bond that inspires others

to follow.

c. Tapping Into Followers’ Emotions. Helps to bring out

the potential of the followers.

3. How Charismatic Leaders Influence Followers. This Slide

appears to be a four-step process. #11-17
a. Vision. The leader must articulate an appealing vision:
a long-term strategy on how to attain a goal or goals.
The vision provides a sense of continuity for followers
by linking the present with a better future.

b. Communicate Values. The leader must communicate a

new set of values.

c. Model Behavior. The leader must convey that new set

of values through his or her behavior and set an
example for followers to imitate.

d. Express Dramatic Behavior. The charismatic leader

must engage in emotion-inducing and often
unconventional behavior to demonstrate courage and
convictions about the vision. There is an emotional
contagion in charismatic leadership in which followers
“catch” the emotions their leader is conveying.

Slide
#11-18
153
 4. Does Effective Charismatic Leadership Depend on the
Situation? There are strong correlations between
charismatic leadership and high performance and
satisfaction among followers, but such results may be
situationally dependent. Charisma appears to be most
successful when the environment involves a high degree of
stress and uncertainty or when the follower’s task has an
ideological component. Additionally, charisma, given its
need for a vision, is most often associated with high-level
executives than with low-level managers. Finally,
charisma affects some followers more than it does others.

5. The Dark Side of Charismatic Leadership. So long as the

focus of the charismatic leader is toward organizational Slide
goals and those goals are aligned with the good of society, #11-19
charismatic leadership appears very powerful and positive.
However, when the charismatic leadership becomes ego-
driven, there can be great dangers for the organization and
society. The line between personal benefit and corporate
benefits becomes blurred. Opposition to the leader is
minimized and communication from below shuts down,
increasing the likelihood of catastrophic consequences.

6. Charismatic Leadership Summary. The effectiveness of

charismatic leadership is well supported in the literature.
But its success is dependent upon the personal goals of the
leader, the situation, and the leader’s vision.

B. Transformational Leadership. While transformational

leadership does divide leadership into two categories, these are
Slide
not opposites but complements. Transformational leadership
#11-20
builds on top of transactional leadership and produces levels of
follower effort and performance that go beyond what would
occur with a transactional approach alone. But the reverse is
not true.

1. Leadership Types. This theory of leadership divides

leaders into two types, based on their methods and
outcomes:

a. Transactional Leaders: those who guide or motivate

their followers in the direction of establish goals by
clarifying role and task requirements. These leaders
were described the Ohio State studies and Fiedler's
model.

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 Chapter 11: Leadership

b. Transformational Leaders: those who inspire followers

Exhibit
to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the Exhibit
#11-4
organization and are capable of having a profound or #11-4
extraordinary effect on their followers.

2. Transformational Leader Behaviors:

a. Pay Attention to Followers. Transformational leaders

pay attention to the concerns and developmental needs
of individual followers.

b. Change Awareness. Transformational leaders change

followers’ awareness of issues by helping them to look
at old problems in new ways.

c. Inspire. Transformational leaders are able to excite,

arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to
achieve goals.
Slide
3. Full Range of Leadership Model. This model lists seven #11-21
different leadership styles ranging from laissez-faire
through idealized influence. These styles move from
ineffective and passive transactional styles to highly active
and effective transformational styles. Generally, when Exhibit
leaders use transformational leadership styles, the results Exhibit
#11-5
are extra effort from workers, higher productivity, higher #11-5
morale and satisfaction, greater organizational
effectiveness, lower turnover, lower absenteeism, and
greater organizational adaptability.

4. Why Transformational Leadership Works. There are a Slide

number of reasons why transformational leadership works: #11-22
a. Creativity. Transformational leaders are more creative,
and they are more effective because they encourage
their followers to be creative too.

b. Goals. Followers of transformational leaders are more

likely to pursue ambitious goals, be familiar with and
agree on the strategic goals of the organization, and
believe that the goals they are pursuing are personally
important.

c. Vision. As with charismatic leadership, vision is

important in explaining how transformational
leadership works: the leader must provide an attractive
view of the future.

Slide
#11-23
155
 5. Evaluation of Transformational Leadership. The evidence
of the superiority of transformational leadership is
impressive. Transformational leadership is positively
related to motivation, satisfaction, higher performance,
perceived effectiveness, and profitability. However, there
are concerns about whether contingent rewards
(transactional) leadership is sometimes more effective than
transformational leadership.

6. Transformational Leadership versus Charismatic

Leadership. The difference (if any) between these two
concepts is highly debated. In general, transformational
leadership is a broader concept than is charismatic
leadership: being a charismatic leader is a basic
requirement for transformational leadership. Testing has
shown that leaders who score high on transformational
leadership are also likely to score high in charisma, making
the measures roughly equivalent.

VI. AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP: ARE ETHICS THE

FOUNDATION OF LEADERSHIP?

One area left out of charismatic and transformational leadership

theories is the role of ethics and trust in leadership effectiveness.
Authentic leadership theorists argue that leadership is not value-
free: when assessing a leader’s effectiveness, consideration must
be given to the means and ends taken to achieve the leader’s goals. Slide
#11-24
A. What Is Authentic Leadership? Authentic leaders know who
they are, what they believe in and value, and act on those
values and beliefs openly and candidly. They are considered
ethical and trustworthy by their followers. Authentic leaders
share information, encourage open communication, and stick to
their ideals.

B. Ethics and Leadership. While this topic has not received a lot
of study in the past, ethics do touch on leadership in a number
of junctures.

1. Transformational and charismatic leaders both need to

pursue socially constructive ends in order to be considered
ethical. Both the means and the ends of leadership
effectiveness should be addressed in an ethical light.

2. Socialized Charismatic Leadership. Leadership that

conveys values that are other-centered versus self-centered
by leaders who model ethical conduct.

Slide
#11-25 156
 Chapter 11: Leadership

VII. CHALLENGES TO THE LEADERSHIP CONSTRUCT

While leadership is important, leaders cannot do everything. What

follows are two perspectives that challenge the widely accepted
belief in the importance of leadership.

A. Leadership as an Attribution. As discussed in Chapter 3,

attribution theory deals with the ways in which people try to
make sense out of cause-and-effect relationships.

1. Premise. The attribution theory of leadership says that

leadership is merely an attribution that people make about
other individuals. In effect, the theory states that
appearance has more to do with leadership than reality.
When organization has extremely negative or extremely
positive performance, people are prone to attribute (praise
or blame) that performance to the actions of the leaders.

2. Findings.

a. Charisma follows Performance. Leaders whose firms

performed well were considered charismatic, but
leaders who were considered charismatic did not
necessarily create better performing firms.

b. Appearance. Leaders who desire to be perceived as

effective should focus on protecting the appearance of
being a leader (being smart, personable, verbally adept,
aggressive, hard working, and consistent) rather than
focusing on actual accomplishments.

B. Substitutes and Neutralizers to Leadership. This theory

holds that leadership actions are often irrelevant when trying to
explain organizational outcomes.

1. Types of Environmental Variables. Certain individual, job,

and organizational variables can act as substitutes for
leadership or neutralize the leader’s influence on his or her
followers.

a. Neutralizers. These are variables that make it

impossible for leader behavior to make a difference in
follower outcomes. They negate the leader’s influence.

b. Substitutes. These variables make a leader’s influence

not only impossible, but also unnecessary. They act as
a replacement for the leader’s influence.

157
 2. Examples of Environmental Variables. Some of the
variables that can either neutralize or substitute for
leadership include:

a. Characteristics of the Employees. Employees with

greater experience, training, professional orientation, or
indifference toward organizational rewards can
substitute or neutralize the effect of leadership.

b. Characteristics of the Job. Jobs that are inherently

unambiguous and routine or that are intrinsically
satisfying may place fewer demands on leaders.

c. Characteristics of the Organization. Organizations with

explicit, formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, Exhibit
Exhibit
and cohesive workgroups, may also replace formal #11-6
#11-6
leadership.

3. Substitutes and Neutralizers Summary. It would be

simplistic to assume that the leader is the only variable that
affects organizational outcomes. Supporters of the
leadership concept often place an undue burden on this
single variable for explaining and predicting organizational
behavior. It is important therefore to recognize explicitly
that leadership is merely another independent variable in
the overall OB model. In some situations, the leadership
variable may have a great impact and on others, a minimal
one. This theory is controversial and difficult to study
because of its complexity and the blurring of the line
between neutralizers and substitutes.

VIII. FINDING AND CREATING EFFECTIVE LEADERS

Slide
A. Selection. Filling a management position often entails trying #11-26
to identify a potential leader.

1. Testing. Personality and other OB tests can be helpful in

the selection process when used to look for traits and
behaviors associated with leadership.

2. Interviews. Situation-specific experience is relevant when

selecting leaders: interviews can be used to determine if the
candidate’s prior experience fits well with the job
vacancy’s situation. Interviews also allow for the
identification of leadership traits such as extroversion, self-
confidence, verbal skills, or a charismatic physical
presence.

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 Chapter 11: Leadership

B. Training. Training effort should be focused on individuals

who are the highest self-motivators, as these individuals have
the greatest flexibility when it comes to changing their
behavior. Training should focus on general leadership skills
development, but emphasis should be placed on both
charismatic leadership behaviors and transformational
leadership skills as these seem to have the most impact on an
organization's outcomes.
Slide
IX. GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS #11-27
Most of the research on the leadership theories has been conducted
in English-speaking countries. Little is known about how culture
might influence their validity. A recent GLOBE (Global
Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) project
produced some useful preliminary insights on the type of team
leaders who would be most effective in a given country

A. Brazil. Such leaders would need to be team oriented,

productive, and humane. They would be high in consideration,
emphasized participative decision-making, and have high LPC
scores. Charismatic leadership, especially its use of vision,
was considered important.

B. France. Leaders are viewed more bureaucratically and are not

expected to be humane or considerate. Leaders who are task
oriented will do best, and they may act autocratically. While
visions are of limited importance, leaders are expected to be
able to articulate strategies.

C. Egypt. Prefer team-oriented and participative leadership,

while the leader maintains a high level of status. Leaders ask
for opinions, but make decisions. Charisma and vision are
important.

D. China. Both initiating structure and consideration are

important. There are status differences between leaders and
employees but participation is valued. Once again, charisma
and vision are effective.

It appears charisma and transformational leadership do generalize

well across cultures but more traditional leadership concepts are
more variable.
Slide
X. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS #11-28

A. Leadership and Groups. Since leaders normally provide

direction toward goal attainment for groups, focusing on the

159
 leader’s predictive ability may be valuable in improving
performance.

B. “The Right Stuff.” Individuals who possess the correct traits

and behaviors for effective managers are likely to be perceived
as such.

C. Leadership and the Situation. The proper match of leader to

situation is critical for effectiveness.

D. Transformational Leadership. Organizations are looking for

leaders with vision and the charisma to carry that vision out in
an ethical and authentic manner. Transformational leadership
skills can be taught and have a direct impact on leadership
effectiveness.

E. Leadership Selection. Individuals with correct traits and

behavioral tendencies should be selected as should those with
charisma and inspirational qualities.

F. Keep in Mind... Slide

#11-29
1. Leadership has the ability to influence a group toward the
achievement of a vision or goals.

2. In addition to charisma, the best leaders must also be

ethical and authentic.

3. While there is some variance among cultures, charismatic Slide

or visionary leadership matters in most countries -- even if #11-30
its expression differs.

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 Chapter 11: Leadership

Discussion Questions
1. What are the differences between leadership and management?

Answer: Based on John Kotter's definitions, management is about coping with

complexity. It brings order and consistency to an organization by drawing up
formal plans, designing rigid organizational structures, and monitoring results
against the plans. Leadership is about coping with change. Leaders establish
direction by developing a vision of the future; then they align people by
communicating this vision and inspiring them to overcome hurdles. Both must
exist in order to achieve organizational outcomes effectively.

2. List and describe the traits of effective leaders.

Answer: Using the Big Five framework, effective leaders do appear to have some
key traits in common: they are extroverted (individuals who like being around
people and are able to assert themselves), conscientious (disciplined individuals
who keep the commitments they make), and open (individuals who are creative
and flexible).

3. Define and give examples of the Ohio State leadership dimensions.

Answer: There are two leadership dimensions; initiating structure and

consideration. Initiating Structure: refers to the extent to which a leader is likely
to define and structure his or her role and those of employees in the search for
goal attainment. It includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work
relationships, and goals. Consideration: is the extent to which a person is likely
to have job relationships that are characterized by mutual trust, respect for
employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings. People high in consideration
show concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction.

4. Compare and contrast trait and behavioral theories.

Answer: The primary difference between leadership behavior theories and trait
theories is that traits cannot be taught. Thus, trait studies attempted to identify
people who had the natural characteristics necessary to be good leaders: the
focus was on selection. Behaviors on the other hand, can be learned. So
behavioral studies attempt to find the correct actions leaders take. By teaching
these behaviors, anyone could be trained to be a better leader: the focus is on
what should be trained. Both sets of theories attempted to help organizations find
(or develop) better leaders, it is their methodology that differs.

5. Describe Fiedler's contingency model.

Answer: The Fiedler contingency model proposes that effective group

performance depends on the proper match between the leader’s style and the
degree to which the situation gives control to the leader. Leadership style is
identified through the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) questionnaire, which

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 purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented. High
LPC scores indicate a relationship-oriented leader; low LPC scores indicate a
task-oriented leader. Fiedler assumed that an individual’s leadership style is
fixed. The situation is defined by three contingency dimensions: (1) leader-
member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in
their leader, (2) task structure: the degree to which the job assignments
structured or unstructured. (3) position power: the degree of influence a leader
has over hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases. The
combination of the measurements of these three dimensions creates eight
potential situations that a leader might face. Task-oriented leaders tend to
perform better in situations that are either very favorable to them or which are
very unfavorable (category I, II, III, VII, or VIII). Relationship-oriented leaders
perform better in moderately favorable situations (categories IV through VI).
Recently Fiedler has condensed these eight situations down to three based on the
degree of control: task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low
control while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control
situations. In order to improve leader effectiveness an organization must either
(1) change the leader to fit the situation or (2) change the situation to fit the
leader. This second solution can be achieved by restructuring tasks or
increasing/decreasing the power of the leader has to control factors such as
salary increases, promotions, and disciplinary actions.

6. Define the characteristics of a charismatic leader.

Answer: The charismatic characteristics identified by House are: vision, a

willingness to take personal risks to achieve that vision, sensitivity to followers’
needs, and exhibiting behaviors that are out of the ordinary. Charismatic leaders
influence followers by: (1) Articulating an appealing vision: a long-term strategy
on how to attain a goal or goals. (2) Communicating values. (3) Modeling
behavior aligned with the new set of values: being an example for followers to
imitate. (4) Engaging in emotion-inducing and often unconventional behavior to
demonstrate courage and convictions about the vision.

7. Contrast transformational with transactional leaders.

Answer: Transformational leaders are those who inspire followers to transcend

their own self-interests for the good of the organization and are capable of having
a profound or extraordinary effect on their followers. Transactional leaders are
those who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of establish goals by
clarifying role and task requirements. In a sense, transformational leaders reflect
what is popularly known as “leadership,” while transactional leaders reflect
“management.”

8. Identify when leadership may not be necessary.

Answer: According to the Substitutes and Neutralizers to Leadership Theory, the

following variables can either neutralize or substitute for leadership: (1)

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employees with greater experience, training, professional orientation, or

indifference toward organizational rewards, (2) jobs that are inherently
unambiguous and routine or that are intrinsically satisfying, and/or (3)
organizations with explicit, formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, and
cohesive workgroups.

9. Does charismatic/transformational leadership generalize across cultures?

Answer: In general, yes, it does, but its expression may vary depending on the
culture. A recent GLOBE project indicated that the desire for charismatic
leadership appears to be universal.

Exercises
1. Self-analysis. Based on your Big Five personality profile, what leadership traits
do you possess? Do you think you would be a good leader? Why or why not? (If
you have not already completed this personality test in an earlier chapter, search
the Internet for a free version of the Big Five personality test and take it.)

2. Web Crawling. Search the Internet to find three sources that believe that
leadership is necessary for organizations to be effective and three sources that do
not. Concisely summarize the two arguments and then provide your opinion on
the matter.

3. Teamwork. Split the class into small groups of four. Half of these teams will
elect a leader who will act as a transactional leader. The other half will select
leaders who will act as transformational leaders. Give each team three decks of
cards that have been shuffled together and randomly stacked. Call the leaders
together and inform them of their team’s task. The task of each group is to sort
and sequence the pile into the original three separate decks of cards (ordered by
suit and rank: A♠-K♠, A♣-K♣, A♥-K♥, and A♦-K♦). This activity is a race
between teams. The winning team will be the one that completes the task the
fastest and the most accurately. Every card that is found to be out of place is a
thirty-second penalty. Review with the leaders the differences between
transactional and transformational leadership before allowing them to start the
exercise. Allow the leaders to act in the way they see fit, based on their style of
leadership. Time each team. At the end of the activity, have the competing teams
check each other's results for accuracy. Average the time taken by each type of
leader’s teams. Was there a difference? Why or why not? Address these
questions to the team members: not the team leaders. Ask the team members of
each type of leader how they felt during activity. Ask the team leaders how they
felt about their team members and the activity. Hold a discussion on the effects of
these two types of leadership on the results of this activity.

4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project) . Analyze the leadership in

your organization using the theories discussed in this chapter as a framework.
Pick one or more theories that you think applies most to your organization, and

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 actually write a case study on it. For example, if you think that the Fiedler model
is what is driving the leadership in your organization, write a paper discussing
why this is the case. For example, you may have a strong task-oriented leader
who is very effective because the situational variables are either very high or very
low.

5. What Characterizes a Leader? This exercise will show students different

leadership styles in a fun way. It requires some significant preparation on the
instructor’s part.

a. Rent one or more of the following movies:

i. Karate Kid - Good for contingency leadership.

ii. Lawrence of Arabia - Good for charismatic/visionary leadership.

iii. Hoosiers - Good for transactional leadership.

b. Preview the film(s) you will use in class and note where the following
sections are. (By previewing, you will reduce viewing time to fifteen to
twenty minutes out of each film.)

i. Karate Kid: (1) When Miagi has Daniel washing, sanding, and
painting, only to show him that he has learned karate: high
task/low relationship. (2) When they are on the inlet fishing and
Daniel is standing on the boat practicing: moderate task/moderate
relationship. And (3) the tournament at the end of the film: high
relationship/low task direction.

ii. Lawrence of Arabia: (1) The beginning of the film when Lawrence
gets his assignment and declares it is fun. (2) When he is first
riding in the desert and won’t drink his water except when his
guide does. (3) When he is talking the tribal leader into riding
across the desert to attack the port city and (4) later when he talks
the second tribal leader into joining them. The pattern shows the
development, execution, and creation commitment to a vision.

iii. Hoosiers: (1) When Gene Hackman is first coaching the players
and tells them to leave if they don’t want to work. (2) Choose one
or two scenes where he is dictating to them how to play: my way
or the highway. Be sure to close with (3) the tournament game
where the players finally have enough confidence to tell him they
want to do something different and he lets them. This last scene is
important to show that transactional leadership does work; you just
may not like the method.

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c. Lead a discussion after watching the clips from each film. As an

alternative, watch the entire movie(s), stopping the video periodically and
discussing the elements of leadership displayed to that point.

6. Name that Leader! Before even beginning the discussion of leadership, have
students name/identify who they think are or have been great leaders. This list
can include past, present, and future leaders; male and female leaders; living or
deceased leaders of the following categories: business leaders, governmental
leaders (domestic and international), ethnic leaders, and religious leaders from
any/all denominations.

Try to encourage a wide variety of leaders, even some leaders that would not be
considered socially acceptable, such as Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Osama bin
Laden, and cult leaders such as Jim Jones and Charles Manson, because they will
lead into the discussion. While they were not exactly nice people, they were able
to influence the behavior of others to act in a certain manner.

After the class has generated a relatively lengthy list (twenty or more), have the
students identify why all of the people on this list are or were leaders, and what
characteristics do they all have in common. Write the list on the board. This can
lead into an interesting discussion on trait theory.

7. Ethical Leadership. Have the class search for news stories on ethical breakdowns
by current leaders. Discuss the events in the context of why the breakdowns
occurred. Was it due to a wrong style, such as using charisma when it did not
work? Discuss the concept of traits and behaviors in the context of what makes a
great leader. For example, can one behave unethically in their personal lives, but
still be a great leader?

8. Who Said That? Make an overhead transparency from the following pages or
create a PowerPoint® slide of the following list of sayings attributed to famous
leaders. Have the students identify the speaker if they can.

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 Who Said That?
Name That Leader
1. I have a dream.
2. The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.
3. I have not yet begun to fight.
4. The buck stops here.
5. Read my lips.
6. [In response to a female heckler who claimed he was drunk.]
And you, madam, are ugly. But I shall be sober
in the morning.
7. No one can make you feel inferior without your
consent.
8. Ask not what your country can do for you, but
ask what you can do for your country.
9. Give me liberty or give me death.
10. In matters of style, swim with the current; in
matters of principle, stand like a rock.
11. If you judge people, you have no time to love
them.
12. Walk softly and carry a big stick.

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Who Said That?

Name That Leader: Answer Key
1. I have a dream. -Martin Luther King, Jr.
2. The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.
-Franklin D.
Roosevelt
3. I have not yet begun to fight. -John Paul Jones
4. The buck stops here. -Harry S. Truman
5. Read my lips. -George H.W. Bush
6. [In response to a female heckler who claimed he was drunk.]
And you, madam, are ugly. But I shall be sober in the
morning. -Winston Churchill
7. No one can make you feel inferior without your
consent. -Eleanor Roosevelt
8. Ask not what your country can do for you, but ask
what you can do for your country. -John F. Kennedy
9. Give me liberty or give me death. -Patrick Henry
10. In matters of style, swim with the current; in matters
of principle, stand like a rock. -Thomas Jefferson
11. If you judge people, you have no time to love them.
-Mother
Teresa

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12. Walk softly and carry a big stick.
-Theodore
Roosevelt

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