PHY 152: ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM I

1.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetism is the generation of electricity from the use of magnet and

magnetic field. The arrangement below consist of two coils of insulated wire A
and B wound on a wooden core, one coil was connected to a Galvanometer and
the other to a battery.
�

Fig. 1.1: Demonstration of electromagnetic induction

If the key is closed no current flow through the galvanometer but when key is
opened the galvanometer needle gives a deflection and when the key is closed
again the galvanometer gives a deflection in the opposite direction. This
deflection of the needle is caused by an induced e.m.f. from the coil A. The
induced e.m.f. also causes current to flow temporarily through the
galvanometer. This current is known as the induced current.

Faraday performed experiments to explain the concept of electromagnetic

induction as follow: a bar magnet was moved close to a loop of wire which had
been connected to an ammeter, it was found that there was current flow in the
wire with the magnet in motion. The current stops when the motion of the
magnet towards or away from the loop stops. In another experiment, he brought
two loops of wires very close to each other; one of the loops is connected to an
ammeter while the other was connected to a source of e.m.f. When current
flowed in the loop connected to the battery, it was found that the ammeter
showed some current flowing in the other loop. The two loops did not touch
each other. This is electromagnetic induction and the current produced in the
loop, not connected to source of e.m.f. is called induced current. The work
done per unit charge to produce the current is called induced e.m.f.
(a) (b)

MAGNET

A A

Fig. 1.2: Faraday’s experiments on electromagnetic induction

For the generation of this induced current, the following conditions causes it to
occur:

i) Induced current can only be produced by a change in the magnetic

field causing it.
ii) The induced e.m.f. can be generated by the relative motion between
the magnet and a coil.
iii) The induced e.m.f. is a function of its relative velocity of the magnet.
iv) The induced e.m.f. is a function of the material used as the core.

The magnitude of induced e.m.f. increase with

i) The speed with which the coil is moving,

ii) The strength of the magnetic field,
iii) The number of turns in the coil,
iv) The area of the coil.

The result of the experiments put together is expressed as a law known as

Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction.

1.1.1 FARADAY’S LAW OF ELCTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

It states that the magnitude of the e.m.f. � induced in a conducting loop is equal
to the rate at which the magnetic flux Φ� through that loop changes with time.
�Φ�
That is, � =− �
��

where N is the number of turns of the loop

The magnetic flux Φ� through the loop may be changed by any of the
following means:

i) Changing the magnitude of the magnetic field within the loop,

 ii) Changing the total area enclosed by the loop,
iii) Changing the angle between the magnetic field and the plane of the loop.

If � is the area of the coil, � the magnetic flux density and � the angle between
the normal of the coil and the uniform magnetic field. The magnetic flux ϕ� =
�� cos �, where � cos � is the component of the field at right angle to the plane
of the coil.

For a coil with more than one turn, the flux through the whole coil is the sum of
the fluxes through the individual turns. This is known as the Flux Linkage. If
the coil has N turns, the flux linkage is � = ��� cos �.

1.1.2 LENZ’S LAW

The direction of the induced e.m.f. was generalized by Lenz and it state that
“an induced electric current is directed such that the magnetic field due to the
current opposes the change in the magnetic flux causing the induction”. This
law is an example of the conservation of energy. The induced current sets up a
force on the magnet which the mover of the magnet must overcome. The work
done in overcoming this force provides the electrical energy of the current and
this is dissipated as heat in the coil. If the induced current flow in the opposite
direction to that which it actually takes it speeds up the motion of the magnet,
so both mechanical and electrical energies will be produced without any agent
having to do work. The system will be a perpetual motion machine and this is
impossible. So the induced current always flow in the direction to oppose the
motion and the electrical energy comes from mechanical energy required to
overcome the opposition of the motion. Relating Lenz’s law to Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction, the induced current is expressed as
� �Φ�
� =−
� ��

where negative sign indicates Lenz’s law, it means that the induced e.m.f. is in
such a direction that the current is closed to the induced current which opposes
the change of flux and, � is the resistance of the coil.

1.2 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic induction is applied in the pick-up of vibrations from an

electric guitar, in sensing coils of ground fault interrupter, a safety device for
prevention of electric shock, in APNEA monitors used to alert care-givers of
sudden cessation of breathing in infants. An everyday application is in the
electric generators.
Detail explanation of these and more applications of electromagnetic induction
is hereby enumerated as follows:

1.2.1 STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR MOVING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

A straight conductor of a uniform length � moving with a velocity � which is

normal to the magnetic field � as illustrated in the diagram below:

X X X X X

X X X X X
� � � (acts into paper)
X X X X X

X X X X X
Fig. 1.3: A Straight Conductor moving in magnetic field

The change in magnetic flux ∆� for the moving conductor with a time change
Δ� is given by this expression

∆� = �Δ�

where Δ� is the change in area caused by the magnetic lines of force expressed
as � = ���. Therefore, the induced e.m.f. is obtained as
∆�
�= = ���
Δ�
1.2.2 A ROTATING COIL IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

If the rectangular coil KLMN of a dynamo has an area � and it normal makes
an angle � with the magnetic field of flux density �.
�

�
� �
�
�
� Normal

Fig. 1.4: A Rotating coil in a Magnetic field of flux density �

��
As the coil rotates with angular frequency � = ��
in the magnetic field, the flux
through the coil will be ϕ� = �� cos � and the flux linkage with the coil if it
has � turns is � = ��� cos �, where � = �� = 2��� is the angle through
which the coil has turned about the vertical in time � and � is the frequency of
rotating coil. This show that Φ� varies with � starting from � = 0 when the
coil is vertical to � = 90� when the coil is horizontal. When the coil is
horizontal, no flux links the coil and when the coil is vertical, maximum flux
links the coil.

Since � is also the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the
normal to the plane of the rotating coil, the induced e.m.f. of the rotating coil is
expressed as

� = ���� sin �

Or, � = �� sin 2���

where �� is amplitude or peak value of the induced e.m.f. of the rotating coil.

Example 1: A rectangular coil, enclosing an area 100 ��2 , is made of 300 turns of
copper wire. The wire making up the coil has resistance of 6.0 Ω, and the ends of the
wire are connected to form a closed circuit. Initially, a 1.2 � uniform magnetic field
points perpendicularly upward through the plane of the coil. The direction of the field
then reverses so that the final magnetic field has a magnitude of 1.2 � and points
downward through the coil. If the time required for the field to reverse direction is
0.10 �, what average current flows through the coil during this time?

Solution:

From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the e.m.f. induced in the loop is
given by:
�Φ�
� =− �
��

ΔΦ�
Or � =� Δ�

The initial magnetic flux through the coil is: Φ� = �� cos � = 1.2 × 0.01 × cos 0 =
0.012 ��

The final magnetic flux is:Φ� = �� cos � = 1.2 × 0.01 × cos 180 =− 0.012 ��

(The magnetic field turned through 1800 ).

The change in the magnetic flux is: ΔΦ� = 0.012— −0.012 = 0.024 �
0.024
Thus, � = 200 × 0.1
= 80 �

Since the resistance of the wire is 6.0 Ω, the current through the wire by Ohm’s law is:
� 80
�=�= 6
= 13.33 �
2.0 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS.
There are two types of moving coil instruments namely, permanent magnet
moving coil (PMMC) type which can only be used for direct current, voltage
measurements and the ballistic type which can be used on either direct or
alternating current, voltage measurements. The PMMCs uses permanent
magnets while the ballistic galvanometer uses a temporary magnet (i.e., the
temporary magnetization of a soft iron core when current flows through it).

2.1 MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER (PMMC)

The moving coil galvanometer is a device that is primarily used for the
measuring the current flowing through a circuit. The instrument can also be
modified to measure the voltage across any component in the circuit. The
PMMC instruments are the most accurate type for measuring direct current
(D.C.).

2.1.1 Principle of operation

Moving coil galvanometer works on the principle that a current carrying coil
placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque. When a current carrying
conductor (coil) is placed in the magnetic field produced by permanent
magnets, the coil experiences a force and moves, this principle is known as the
D’Arsonval principle. The amount of force experience by the coil is
proportional to the current flowing through the coil.

Torque equation

The equation for the developed torque can be obtained from the basic law of
electromagnetic torque, the deflecting torque is giving by:

�� = ���� 2.1

where �� = the deflecting torque in ��

B = flux density in air gap, ��/�2
N = number of turn of the coil
A = effective area of the coil �2
I = current in the moving coil in A
Since N, B and A are constant, (2.1) can be rewritten as:

�� = �� 2.2
where G = NBA

The controlling torque is provided by the springs and is proportional to the

angular deflection of the pointer.

�� = �� 2.3

where �� = controlling torque

K = spring constant in Nm/rad

� = angular deflection.

When the pointer is in a final steady position, then

�� = �� 2.4

�� = ��
�
�= � 2.5
�

2.1.2 Construction of PMMC instruments

The moving coil is either rectangular or circular in shape. It has a number of

turns of fine wire wound around it. The coil is suspended so that it is free to
turn about its vertical axis. The coil is the placed in a uniform, horizontal and
radial magnetic field of a permanent horse-shoe magnet. The iron core is
spherical if the coil is circular and cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. As a
result of the iron core, the deflecting torque increases and therefore increasing
the sensitivity of the instrument. Figure 3.1 shows a PMMC instrument.

Fig. 2.1: The moving coil galvanometer

The controlling torque is provided by two Phosphorus bronze hair springs, the
damping torque is provided by the Eddy-Current damping and is obtained by
the movement of the aluminium former moving in the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet.

The pointer is carried by a spindle and it moves over a graduated scale. The
pointer has a light weight so that it can deflect rapidly.A small plane mirror is
attached to the suspension wire is used along with a lamp and scale
arrangement to measure the deflection of the coil. The mirror is placed below
the pointer to get accurate reading by removing the parallax. The weight of the
instrument is normally counter balanced by two weights situated diametrically
opposite and rigidly connected to it.

PMMC instruments are usually linearly spaced as the deflecting torque and
hence the pointer deflection are proportional to the current flowing through the
coil. In a practical PMMC instrument, a Y shaped member if attached to the
fixed end of the front controlling spring; an eccentric pin through the
instrument case engages the Y shaped member so that the zero position of the
pointer can be adjusted from outside.

2.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC instruments

Advantages

1. It has a uniform scale.

2. The operating current is small since the torque is very high as a result of
the permanent magnet.
3. The sensitivity is high.
4. The eddy current provide an effective damping.
5. It consumes low power of the order 25� to 200��.
6. It had a high accuracy.
7. The instrument is free from hysteresis error.
8. Extension of the instrument range is possible.
9. The instrument is not affected by external magnetic fields.
Disadvantages

1. The instrument is only suitable for D.C. measurements.

2. The weakening of the magnet and the aging of the control springs
introduces error into the instrument.
3. High cost of production.

2.2 Factors affecting the sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer

Generally for the instrument to have high sensitivity,

 i. N should be large.
ii. B should be large.
iii. A should be large and
iv. K should be small.
Other factors affecting the current sensitivity of the instrument are as follows:

1. Increasing the number of turns.

2. Increasing the magnetic induction.
3. Increasing the area of the coil.
4. Decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire. This
explains why phosphor-bronze wire is used as the suspension wire
which has small couple per unit twist.
2.3 Using the moving coil galvanometer as an ammeter

An ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer used for measuring the current in

a circuit and is always connected in series to the circuit. An ideal ammeter has
a zero (0) resistance.

Fig. 2.2: Moving coil galvanometer as an ammeter

A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low

resistance into its parallel.If G is the resistance of a galvanometer and it give
full scale deflection for current, �� then the required low resistance S, connected
in its parallel for converting it into an ammeter of range �is given by:

�� × � = �� × � 2.6

where �� is the current flowing through the shunt.

From (2.6), we have:

��
�=
�− ��
� 2.7
2.4 Extension of the ammeter range

The range of measurement for an ammeter can easily be broadened by varying

the resistance connected across it, i.e. since the shunt and the galvanometer are
connected in parallel, the same voltage drops across them. Then (2.7) is then
used.

2.5 Using the moving coil galvanometer as a voltmeter

For the moving coil galvanometer to be used to take voltage reading in a circuit,
a high resistance called the multiplier is connected to it in series as shown in
figure 2.3 below.

Fig. 2.3: Moving coil galvanometer as a voltmeter

The series resistance should be much larger than the impedance of the circuit
being measured, and they are usually much larger than the internal resistance of
the galvanometer. An ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance so that no
current will flow through it.

Since the multiplier and the galvanometer are in series, the total voltage drop in
the circuit is the sum of the voltage drop across each component, i.e.

� = �� + �� 2.8

where V is the range voltage (total voltage in the circuit)

�� is the voltage drop across the galvanometer

�� is the voltage drop across the multiplier

From (2.8), we have

� = (�� × �) + �� × � 2.9

where M is the resistance of the multiplier

But �� = �� since they are both in series, the same current flow through them
and is equal to the total current, I in the circuit. Therefore, (2.9) becomes

�= � �+� 2.10
From (2.10), we see that
�
�= −� 2.11
�

2.6 Extension of voltmeter range

It is possible to broaden the range of reading that can be taken when using the
voltmeter by using (2.11).

3.1 MULTI-METER

A multimeter or a multitester is a test tool for measuring resistance, voltage,

current and other electrical parameters. Digital multimeter (DMM) is most
common multimeter these days although the older analog meter called the volt-
ohm-milliammeter (VOM) is still used in some applications but has largely
been replaced by the DMM. Figure 3.1 shows the picture of a typical
multimeter available now in market. By switching to the desired parameter to
be measured (see switches S1 and S2 in Figure 3.2), the device can serve as a
Digital Voltmeter (DVM), Digital Ammeter (DAM) or Digital Ohmmeter
(DOM).

3.1.1 Working Principle

All measurements are analogue through the basic electricity theory. However,
an analog to digital converter is used to allow a digitally displayed number. The
basic switching circuit diagram for voltage, current and resistance measurement
is shown in Figure 3.2.

As indicated in Figure 3.2, the meter measure voltage in this setting since both
switches S1 and S2 are connected to V which allows the device to function as a
Digital Voltmeter (DVM). The device will serve as Digital Ammeter (DAM)
when S1 and S2 are connected to A and as Digital Ohmeter (DOM) when S1
and S2 are connected to O
 Fig. 3.1 Picture of a Digital Multimeter.

The selector is on AC voltage and the two probes connected to common ground
and voltage terminals.

Fig. 3.2: Circuit diagram of a Multimeter comprises of Digital Voltmeter

(DVM), Digital Ammeter (DAM) and Digital Ohmmeter (DOM)
How Voltage is measured

Voltage is the potential difference between two points in a circuit. Voltage is

measured in Volts (V), which is Joules per Coulomb. This is amount of energy
(Joules) that is required to move some charge (Coulomb) between the two
points. To measure voltage drop across a resistor, for example, voltmeter (i.e.
multi-meter appropriate switched to measure voltage) is connected in parallel
with the resistor. Most multimeters directly measure voltage. This is done by
applying the voltage to be measured to a shunt resistor thereby causing current
to pass through the resistor. The voltage drop across t shunt resistance,
measuring the voltage developed across the shunt resistor is the measured
directly.

How resistance is measured

Resistance is the ratio of voltage to current for a circuit element. Resistance is

measured in Ohms ( ), which is Volts per Ampere. This is the amount of
voltage across the element that is required to pass some current (amps) through
the element (V = I R). To measure the resistance of a resistor, a constant
current is passed through the resistor (i.e. the resistance under test) and the
�
resultant voltage is measured. The resistance is then estimated using = � .

How Current is measured

Current is the rate of movement of electrical charge through a branch in a

circuit. Current is measured in Amperes or just Amps (A), which is Coulombs
per Second. To measure current (i.e. using multi-meter as an ammeter by
switching the connector to the appropriate range of current to be measured)
multi-meter is connected in series. To measure current, current to be measured
is passed through a known resistor and the voltage that developed is measured.
�
Current is then estimated using Ohm’s law � = .
�

4.1 AC AND DC GENERATORS/DYNAMOS

A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A

generator is basically a moving (rotating) coil of wire in a magnetic field. A
mechanical force supplies a turning effect or force (torque) on the coil. Using
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

Torque + Magnetic Field = Current 4.1

The induced ��� or ��� generated as a result of relative motion between the
radial magnetic field and the coil of wire according to Faraday’s law is
 ��
� = − � �� 4.2

where � = ������, � is the angle between � and ��. Also, � =

������� �������� × ���� = ��

� = ����� ��

Therefore,
�
�= −� ����� �� 4.3
��

� = ��� = + ������� �� 4.4

where N is the number of turns, B is the radial magnetic field in Tesla, A is the
area of the coil in square meter and � is in radian per second,

Figure 4.3 shows the diagram of DC and AD generator. The turning effect (i.e.
what brings about the rotation of the coil of wire) is normal from turbine e.g.
wind turbine. The rotation of the coil inside a radial magnetic field created by
the two magnets shown in the figure will generate induced ��� in the circuit
according to equation 4.3. The only difference between DC and AC generator
is the use of commutator of slit ring for DC generator and slip rings in the case
of AC generator. According to electromagnetic induction, equation 4.4, the
induced ��� is not a constant value but changes from maximum (i.e., when the
plate of the coil is perpendicular to the field lines and the maximum flux is
falling on it) to minimum (i.e., when the plate of the coil is parallel to the field
lines). The use of commutator in DC generator will ensure output that is
positive at all times, i.e., DC output while AC generator produces AC output
due to slip rings used.

In A.C. dynamo, the output varies with time and its direction is completely
reversed periodically compared to a D.C. dynamo where the output is constant
with time and the direction is unit.

A.C. dynamos can be transmitted over long distances and is more convenient to
generate than D.C. dynamo which cannot be transmitted over long distances
and is not convenient to generate.
 Fig.4.3: DC and AC generators

Example 2: Calculate the maximum ��� that could be generated using an AC

generator with 500 turns coil of diameter 60 cm which rotates at an angular velocity
of 1250 rpm if the radial magnetic field is 1.5 mT.

Solution:

Using equation 4.4, i.e. � = ��� = + ���������, maximum ��� is obtained

when ����� = 1,

Therefore,

������ = + ���� = 500 × 1.5 × 10−3 × 0.2827 × 130.9 = 27.75 �

5.1 AC AND DC MOTORS

A motor is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. The

arrangement of a motor is similar to that of a generator, electrical energy is
supplied into the device and this creates a turning effect or force (i.e. torque).

Using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

Current + Magnetic Field = Torque 5.1

Current is passed through a coil of wire placed in a magnetic field and the force
on the coil will cause the coil to rotate i.e. torque on the coil will cause the coil
to rotate. The torque (�) on each of the opposite sides of the coil parallel to the
axis of rotation is
1
� = �� cos � 5.2
2

and the total torque is

���� = ���� cos � 5.3

Since magnetic force � = ���, and for N turns

���� = ����� cos � 5.4

The product xL is the area (A) of the coil, so equation 5.4 becomes

���� = ���� cos � 5.5

Fig. 5.1: DC Motors

For a motor, the back e.m.f. is the induced e.m.f. in the circuit caused by a change in
the current through the circuit. When the armature of a motor rotates, an e.m.f. is
induced in its windings. By lenz’s law, this e.m.f. opposes the current which is
making the coil to turn. This e.m.f. is referred to as the back e.m.f. If the magnitude of
the back e.m.f. is � and the potential difference applied to the armature is �, the
armature current is

�− �
�� =
��

where �� is the resistance of the armature.

The back e.m.f. is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and also to the
speed of rotation of the armature, i.e., if the speed of rotation and field increases the
back e.m.f. will increase.

Example 3: A motor has an armature resistance of 4 Ω on a 240 � supply and a light

load. If the motor speed is 200 ���/��� when the armature current is 5 �, calculate
the motor speed in full load when the armature current is 40 �.

Solution:
�− �
For a light load, �� =
��

� = � − �� ��

� = 240 − 5 × 4

� = 220 �

For full load, � = � − �� ��

� = 240 − 40 × 4

� = 80 �

At back e.m.f. of 220 �, the motor speed = 200 ���/���

200
At back e.m.f. of 80 �, the motor speed = × 80 = 72.7 ���/���
220

Summary

In this unit you have leant that:

 Understand and know to explain Electromagnetic Induction

 the term Know how to state, express and use the formula of Faraday’s
and Len’s laws of e-m induction
  The working principle of a PMMC

 The construction of the moving coil galvanometer.

 how to use the instrument as an ammeter

 how to use the instrument to measure a voltmeter;

 how to extend the range of the readings that can be taken with the
instrument.

 Multi-meter is a test tool for measuring many electrical parameters e.g.

current, voltage and resistance;

 Multi-meter works based on the basic electricity theory;

 In order to measure current, multi-meter (i.e. multi-meter appropriate

switched to measure current) is connected in series while multi-meter
(i.e. multi-meter appropriate switched to measure voltage) is connected
in parallel in order to measure voltage drop across a resistor;

 Both generator and motor work on the same principle i.e. a coil of wire
placed in a magnetic field will produce an induced emf when it rotates
about its axis (generator) and when current is passed through it - it will
rotate about its axis (motor);

 The induced ��� of a generator is � = ��� = + ���������

∅
 the total torque of a motor is ���� = ��� � = �∅�
�

EXERCISES

1. (a) circular turn of wire 4cm in radius rotates with an angular velocity of
1800rpm about a diameter which is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field
of flux density 0.5w/m2. What is the instantaneous induced ��� in the turn
when the plane of the turn makes an angle of 30° with the direction of the flux?

b) What is the angle between the plane of the turn and the flux, when the
instantaneous ��� has the same value as the average emf for a half cycle?
2� 3�
�
��� = �� cos �� ��
2�
−� 2�
 �2
1
��� = �(�)��
�2 − �1
�1

��
� = �� cos ��,
�

2. A generator with a circular coil of 100 turns of area 4.5 × 10−2 �2 is

immersed in a 0.25 T magnetic field and rotated with a frequency of 75 Hz.
Find the maximum ��� which is produced during a cycle.

3. A coil of area 15 cm2 is placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength 0.5 T.

the coil has 150 turns and a resistance of 5 . It is supplied with current from a
9 V cell. Calculative the maximum torque exerted on the coil.

4. A coil of 500 turns and area 10cm2 is placed with its plane perpendicular to a
magnetic field of 2 x 10-3 T. If the field be uniformly reduced to zero in 10-2s,
what will be the e.m.f induced in the coil? If the resistance of the coil is 50 ohm,
calculate the values of the current and the charge induced in the coil.

5. Find the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a 200-turn coil with cross
sectional area of 0.16m2 if the magnetic field through the coil changes from
0.10T to 0.50T at a uniform rate over a period of 0.02s.

6 (a) Under what circumstances is an e.m.f induced in a conductor? What

factors govern the magnitude and direction of the induced e.m.f.?

(b) A straight wire of length 50cm and resistance 10ohm moves sideways with
velocity of 15ms-1 at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density
2.0 x 10-3 T. What current would flow if it ends were connected by leads of
negligible resistance?

© Dr. E. O. EHINLAFA 2021 – University of Ilorin, Faculty of Physical

Sciences, Physics Department.