Chapter Nine

RAY OPTICS
AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Nature has endowed the human eye (retina) with the sensitivity to detect
electromagnetic waves within a small range of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation belonging to this region of the
spectrum (wavelength of about 400 nm to 750 nm) is called light. It is
mainly through light and the sense of vision that we know and interpret
the world around us.
There are two things that we can intuitively mention about light from
common experience. First, that it travels with enormous speed and second,
that it travels in a straight line. It took some time for people to realise that
the speed of light is finite and measurable. Its presently accepted value
in vacuum is c = 2.99792458 × 108 m s–1. For many purposes, it suffices
to take c = 3 × 108 m s–1. The speed of light in vacuum is the highest
speed attainable in nature.
The intuitive notion that light travels in a straight line seems to
contradict what we have learnt in Chapter 8, that light is an
electromagnetic wave of wavelength belonging to the visible part of the
spectrum. How to reconcile the two facts? The answer is that the
wavelength of light is very small compared to the size of ordinary objects
that we encounter commonly (generally of the order of a few cm or larger).
In this situation, as you will learn in Chapter 10, a light wave can be
considered to travel from one point to another, along a straight line joining
2022-23
 Physics
them. The path is called a ray of light, and a bundle of such rays
constitutes a beam of light.
In this chapter, we consider the phenomena of reflection, refraction
and dispersion of light, using the ray picture of light. Using the basic
laws of reflection and refraction, we shall study the image formation by
plane and spherical reflecting and refracting surfaces. We then go on to
describe the construction and working of some important optical
instruments, including the human eye.

PARTICLE MODEL OF LIGHT

Newton’s fundamental contributions to mathematics, mechanics, and gravitation often blind

us to his deep experimental and theoretical study of light. He made pioneering contributions
in the field of optics. He further developed the corpuscular model of light proposed by
Descartes. It presumes that light energy is concentrated in tiny particles called corpuscles.
He further assumed that corpuscles of light were massless elastic particles. With his
understanding of mechanics, he could come up with a simple model of reflection and
refraction. It is a common observation that a ball bouncing from a smooth plane surface
obeys the laws of reflection. When this is an elastic collision, the magnitude of the velocity
remains the same. As the surface is smooth, there is no force acting parallel to the surface,
so the component of momentum in this direction also remains the same. Only the component
perpendicular to the surface, i.e., the normal component of the momentum, gets reversed
in reflection. Newton argued that smooth surfaces like mirrors reflect the corpuscles in a
similar manner.
In order to explain the phenomena of refraction, Newton postulated that the speed of
the corpuscles was greater in water or glass than in air. However, later on it was discovered
that the speed of light is less in water or glass than in air.
In the field of optics, Newton – the experimenter, was greater than Newton – the theorist.
He himself observed many phenomena, which were difficult to understand in terms of
particle nature of light. For example, the colours observed due to a thin film of oil on water.
Property of partial reflection of light is yet another such example. Everyone who has looked
into the water in a pond sees image of the face in it, but also sees the bottom of the pond.
Newton argued that some of the corpuscles, which fall on the water, get reflected and some
get transmitted. But what property could distinguish these two kinds of corpuscles? Newton
had to postulate some kind of unpredictable, chance phenomenon, which decided whether
an individual corpuscle would be reflected or not. In explaining other phenomena, however,
the corpuscles were presumed to behave as if they are identical. Such a dilemma does not
occur in the wave picture of light. An incoming wave can be divided into two weaker waves
at the boundary between air and water.

9.2 REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS

We are familiar with the laws of reflection. The angle of reflection (i.e., the
angle between reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface or
the mirror) equals the angle of incidence (angle between incident ray and
the normal). Also that the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to
the reflecting surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane
(Fig. 9.1). These laws are valid at each point on any reflecting surface
whether plane or curved. However, we shall restrict our discussion to the
310 special case of curved surfaces, that is, spherical surfaces. The normal in
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
this case is to be taken as normal to the tangent
to surface at the point of incidence. That is, the
normal is along the radius, the line joining the
centre of curvature of the mirror to the point of
incidence.
We have already studied that the geometric
centre of a spherical mirror is called its pole while
that of a spherical lens is called its optical centre.
The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature
of the spherical mirror is known as the principal
axis. In the case of spherical lenses, the principal FIGURE 9.1 The incident ray, reflected ray
axis is the line joining the optical centre with its and the normal to the reflecting surface lie
principal focus as you will see later. in the same plane.

9.2.1 Sign convention

To derive the relevant formulae for reflection by spherical mirrors and
refraction by spherical lenses, we must first adopt a sign convention for
measuring distances. In this book, we shall follow the Cartesian sign
convention. According to this
convention, all distances are measured
from the pole of the mirror or the optical
centre of the lens. The distances
measured in the same direction as the
incident light are taken as positive and
those measured in the direction
opposite to the direction of incident
light are taken as negative (Fig. 9.2).
The heights measured upwards with
respect to x-axis and normal to the
principal axis (x-axis) of the mirror/
lens are taken as positive (Fig. 9.2). The
heights measured downwards are FIGURE 9.2 The Cartesian Sign Convention.
taken as negative.
With a common accepted convention, it turns out that a single formula
for spherical mirrors and a single formula for spherical lenses can handle
all different cases.

9.2.2 Focal length of spherical mirrors

Figure 9.3 shows what happens when a parallel beam of light is incident
on (a) a concave mirror, and (b) a convex mirror. We assume that the rays
are paraxial, i.e., they are incident at points close to the pole P of the mirror
and make small angles with the principal axis. The reflected rays converge
at a point F on the principal axis of a concave mirror [Fig. 9.3(a)].
For a convex mirror, the reflected rays appear to diverge from a point F
on its principal axis [Fig. 9.3(b)]. The point F is called the principal focus
of the mirror. If the parallel paraxial beam of light were incident, making
some angle with the principal axis, the reflected rays would converge (or
appear to diverge) from a point in a plane through F normal to the principal
axis. This is called the focal plane of the mirror [Fig. 9.3(c)]. 311
2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 9.3 Focus of a concave and convex mirror.

The distance between the focus F and the pole P of the mirror is called
the focal length of the mirror, denoted by f. We now show that f = R/2,
where R is the radius of curvature of the mirror. The geometry
of reflection of an incident ray is shown in Fig. 9.4.
Let C be the centre of curvature of the mirror. Consider a
ray parallel to the principal axis striking the mirror at M. Then
CM will be perpendicular to the mirror at M. Let θ be the angle
of incidence, and MD be the perpendicular from M on the
principal axis. Then,
∠MCP = θ and ∠MFP = 2θ
Now,
MD MD
tanθ = and tan 2θ = (9.1)
CD FD
For small θ, which is true for paraxial rays, tanθ ≈ θ,
tan 2θ ≈ 2θ. Therefore, Eq. (9.1) gives
MD MD
=2
FD CD
CD
or, FD = (9.2)
2
FIGURE 9.4 Geometry of
Now, for small θ, the point D is very close to the point P.
reflection of an incident ray on
(a) concave spherical mirror,
Therefore, FD = f and CD = R. Equation (9.2) then gives
and (b) convex spherical mirror. f = R/2 (9.3)

9.2.3 The mirror equation

If rays emanating from a point actually meet at another point after
reflection and/or refraction, that point is called the image of the first
312 point. The image is real if the rays actually converge to the point; it is
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
virtual if the rays do not actually meet but appear
to diverge from the point when produced
backwards. An image is thus a point-to-point
correspondence with the object established
through reflection and/or refraction.
In principle, we can take any two rays
emanating from a point on an object, trace their
paths, find their point of intersection and thus,
obtain the image of the point due to reflection at a
spherical mirror. In practice, however, it is
convenient to choose any two of the following rays:
(i) The ray from the point which is parallel to the
principal axis. The reflected ray goes through
FIGURE 9.5 Ray diagram for image
the focus of the mirror.
formation by a concave mirror.
(ii) The ray passing through the centre of
curvature of a concave mirror or appearing to pass through it for a
convex mirror. The reflected ray simply retraces the path.
(iii) The ray passing through (or directed towards) the focus of the concave
mirror or appearing to pass through (or directed towards) the focus
of a convex mirror. The reflected ray is parallel to the principal axis.
(iv) The ray incident at any angle at the pole. The reflected ray follows
laws of reflection.
Figure 9.5 shows the ray diagram considering three rays. It shows
the image A′B′ (in this case, real) of an object A B formed by a concave
mirror. It does not mean that only three rays emanate from the point A.
An infinite number of rays emanate from any source, in all directions.
Thus, point A′ is image point of A if every ray originating at point A and
falling on the concave mirror after reflection passes through the point A′.
We now derive the mirror equation or the relation between the object
distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length ( f ).
From Fig. 9.5, the two right-angled triangles A′B′F and MPF are
similar. (For paraxial rays, MP can be considered to be a straight line
perpendicular to CP.) Therefore,
B ′A ′ B ′F
=
PM FP
B ′A ′ B ′F
or = (  PM = AB) (9.4)
BA FP
Since ∠ APB = ∠ A′PB′, the right angled triangles A′B′P and ABP are
also similar. Therefore,
B ′A ′ B ′ P
= (9.5)
B A BP
Comparing Eqs. (9.4) and (9.5), we get
B ′F B ′P – FP B ′P
= = (9.6)
FP FP BP
Equation (9.6) is a relation involving magnitude of distances. We now
apply the sign convention. We note that light travels from the object to
the mirror MPN. Hence this is taken as the positive direction. To reach 313
2022-23
 Physics
the object AB, image A′B′ as well as the focus F from the pole P, we have
to travel opposite to the direction of incident light. Hence, all the three
will have negative signs. Thus,
B′ P = –v, FP = –f, BP = –u
Using these in Eq. (9.6), we get
–v + f –v
=
–f –u
v– f v
or =
f u
v v
= 1+
f u
Dividing it by v, we get
1 1 1
+ =
v u f (9.7)
This relation is known as the mirror equation.
The size of the image relative to the size of the object is another
important quantity to consider. We define linear magnification (m) as the
ratio of the height of the image (h′) to the height of the object (h):
h′
m= (9.8)
h
h and h′ will be taken positive or negative in accordance with the accepted
sign convention. In triangles A′B′P and ABP, we have,
B ′A ′ B ′P
=
BA BP
With the sign convention, this becomes
– h′ –v
=
h –u
so that
h′ v
m= = – (9.9)
h u
We have derived here the mirror equation, Eq. (9.7), and the
magnification formula, Eq. (9.9), for the case of real, inverted image formed
by a concave mirror. With the proper use of sign convention, these are,
in fact, valid for all the cases of reflection by a spherical mirror (concave
or convex) whether the image formed is real or virtual. Figure 9.6 shows
the ray diagrams for virtual image formed by a concave and convex mirror.
You should verify that Eqs. (9.7) and (9.9) are valid for these cases as
well.

FIGURE 9.6 Image formation by (a) a concave mirror with object between
314
P and F, and (b) a convex mirror.
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

Example 9.1 Suppose that the lower half of the concave mirror’s
reflecting surface in Fig. 9.5 is covered with an opaque (non-reflective)
material. What effect will this have on the image of an object placed
in front of the mirror?

EXAMPLE 9.1
Solution You may think that the image will now show only half of the
object, but taking the laws of reflection to be true for all points of the
remaining part of the mirror, the image will be that of the whole object.
However, as the area of the reflecting surface has been reduced, the
intensity of the image will be low (in this case, half).

Example 9.2 A mobile phone lies along the principal axis of a concave
mirror, as shown in Fig. 9.7. Show by suitable diagram, the formation
of its image. Explain why the magnification is not uniform. Will the
distortion of image depend on the location of the phone with respect
to the mirror?

FIGURE 9.7
EXAMPLE 9.2
Solution
The ray diagram for the formation of the image of the phone is shown
in Fig. 9.7. The image of the part which is on the plane perpendicular
to principal axis will be on the same plane. It will be of the same size,
i.e., B′C = BC. You can yourself realise why the image is distorted.

Example 9.3 An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a

concave mirror of radius of curvature 15 cm. Find the position, nature,
and magnification of the image in each case.
Solution
The focal length f = –15/2 cm = –7.5 cm
(i) The object distance u = –10 cm. Then Eq. (9.7) gives
1 1 1
+ =
v – 10 – 7 .5

10 × 7.5
or v= = – 30 cm
−2.5
EXAMPLE 9.3

The image is 30 cm from the mirror on the same side as the object.
v ( −30)
Also, magnification m = – =– =–3
u ( −10)
The image is magnified, real and inverted.
315
2022-23
 Physics
(ii) The object distance u = –5 cm. Then from Eq. (9.7),
1 1 1
+ =
v −5 −7.5
5 × 7 .5
or v = = 15 cm
(7.5 – 5 )
EXAMPLE 9.3

This image is formed at 15 cm behind the mirror. It is a virtual image.

v 15
Magnification m = – =– =3
u ( −5)
The image is magnified, virtual and erect.

Example 9.4 Suppose while sitting in a parked car, you notice a

jogger approaching towards you in the side view mirror of R = 2 m. If
the jogger is running at a speed of 5 m s –1, how fast the image of the
jogger appear to move when the jogger is (a) 39 m, (b) 29 m, (c) 19 m,
and (d) 9 m away.
Solution
From the mirror equation, Eq. (9.7), we get
fu
v=
u− f
For convex mirror, since R = 2 m, f = 1 m. Then
( −39) × 1 39
for u = –39 m, v = = m
−39 − 1 40
Since the jogger moves at a constant speed of 5 m s–1, after 1 s the
position of the image v (for u = –39 + 5 = –34) is (34/35 )m.
The shift in the position of image in 1 s is
39 34 1365 − 1360 5 1
− = = = m
40 35 1400 1400 280
Therefore, the average speed of the image when the jogger is between
39 m and 34 m from the mirror, is (1/280) m s–1
Similarly, it can be seen that for u = –29 m, –19 m and –9 m, the
speed with which the image appears to move is
1 1 1
m s –1 , m s –1 and m s –1 , respectively.
150 60 10
Although the jogger has been moving with a constant speed, the speed
EXAMPLE 9.4

of his/her image appears to increase substantially as he/she moves

closer to the mirror. This phenomenon can be noticed by any person
sitting in a stationary car or a bus. In case of moving vehicles, a
similar phenomenon could be observed if the vehicle in the rear is
moving closer with a constant speed.

9.3 REFRACTION
When a beam of light encounters another transparent medium, a part of
light gets reflected back into the first medium while the rest enters the
other. A ray of light represents a beam. The direction of propagation of an
316 obliquely incident (0°< i < 90°) ray of light that enters the other medium,
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
changes at the interface of the two media. This
phenomenon is called refraction of light. Snell
experimentally obtained the following laws of
refraction:
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal to the interface at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence
to the sine of angle of refraction is constant.
Remember that the angles of incidence (i ) and
refraction (r ) are the angles that the incident
and its refracted ray make with the normal,
respectively. We have
sin i
= n 21 (9.10) FIGURE 9.8 Refraction and reflection of light.
sin r
where n 21 is a constant, called the refractive index of the second medium
with respect to the first medium. Equation (9.10) is the well-known Snell’s
law of refraction. We note that n 21 is a characteristic of the pair of media
(and also depends on the wavelength of light), but is independent of the
angle of incidence.
From Eq. (9.10), if n 21 > 1, r < i , i.e., the refracted ray bends towards
the normal. In such a case medium 2 is said to be optically denser (or
denser, in short) than medium 1. On the other hand, if n 21 <1, r > i, the
refracted ray bends away from the normal. This is the case when incident
ray in a denser medium refracts into a rarer medium.
Note: Optical density should not be confused with mass density,
which is mass per unit volume. It is possible that mass density of
an optically denser medium may be less than that of an optically
rarer medium (optical density is the ratio of the speed of light in
two media). For example, turpentine and water. Mass density of
turpentine is less than that of water but its optical density is higher.
If n 21 is the refractive index of medium 2
with respect to medium 1 and n12 the refractive
index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2,
then it should be clear that
1
n12 = (9.11)
n 21
It also follows that if n 32 is the refractive
index of medium 3 with respect to medium 2
then n 32 = n 31 × n 12, where n 31 is the refractive
index of medium 3 with respect to medium 1.
Some elementary results based on the laws FIGURE 9.9 Lateral shift of a ray refracted
of refraction follow immediately. For a through a parallel-sided slab.
rectangular slab, refraction takes place at two
interfaces (air-glass and glass-air). It is easily seen from Fig. 9.9 that
r2 = i1, i.e., the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray—there is no 317
2022-23
 Physics
deviation, but it does suffer lateral displacement/
shift with respect to the incident ray. Another familiar
observation is that the bottom of a tank filled with
water appears to be raised (Fig. 9.10). For viewing
near the normal direction, it can be shown that the
apparent depth (h1) is real depth (h 2) divided by
the refractive index of the medium (water).
The refraction of light through the atmosphere
is responsible for many interesting phenomena. For
example, the Sun is visible a little before the actual
sunrise and until a little after the actual sunset
due to refraction of light through the atmosphere
(Fig. 9.11). By actual sunrise we mean the actual
crossing of the horizon by the sun. Figure 9.11
shows the actual and apparent positions of the Sun
with respect to the horizon. The figure is highly
exaggerated to show the effect. The refractive index
of air with respect to vacuum is 1.00029. Due to
this, the apparent shift in the direction of the Sun
is by about half a degree and the corresponding
FIGURE 9.10 Apparent depth for time difference between actual sunset and apparent
(a) normal, and (b) oblique viewing. sunset is about 2 minutes (see Example 9.5). The
apparent flattening (oval shape) of the Sun at sunset
and sunrise is also due to the same phenomenon.

FIGURE 9.11 Advance sunrise and delayed sunset due to

atmospheric refraction.

Example 9.5 The earth takes 24 h to rotate once about its axis. How
much time does the sun take to shift by 1° when viewed from
EXAMPLE 9.5

the earth?
Solution
Time taken for 360° shift = 24 h
Time taken for 1° shift = 24/360 h = 4 min.
318
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

THE DROWNING CHILD, LIFEGUARD AND SNELL’S LAW

Consider a rectangular swimming pool PQSR; see figure here. A lifeguard sitting at G
outside the pool notices a child drowning at a point C. The guard wants to reach the
child in the shortest possible time. Let SR be the
side of the pool between G and C. Should he/she
take a straight line path GAC between G and C or
GBC in which the path BC in water would be the
shortest, or some other path GXC? The guard knows
that his/her running speed v1 on ground is higher
than his/her swimming speed v2.
Suppose the guard enters water at X. Let GX =l1
and XC =l 2. Then the time taken to reach from G to
C would be
l1 l 2
t = +
v1 v 2
To make this time minimum, one has to
differentiate it (with respect to the coordinate of X ) and find the point X when t is a
minimum. On doing all this algebra (which we skip here), we find that the guard should
enter water at a point where Snell’s law is satisfied. To understand this, draw a
perpendicular LM to side SR at X. Let ∠GXM = i and ∠CXL = r. Then it can be seen that t
is minimum when
sin i v
= 1
sin r v 2
In the case of light v1/v2, the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to that in the
medium, is the refractive index n of the medium.
In short, whether it is a wave or a particle or a human being, whenever two mediums
and two velocities are involved, one must follow Snell’s law if one wants to take the
shortest time.

9.4 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium
at the interface, it is partly reflected back into the same medium and
partly refracted to the second medium. This reflection is called the internal
reflection.
When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a rarer medium,
it bends away from the normal, for example, the ray AO1 B in Fig. 9.12.
The incident ray AO1 is partially reflected (O1C) and partially transmitted
(O1B) or refracted, the angle of refraction (r ) being larger than the angle of
incidence (i ). As the angle of incidence increases, so does the angle of
refraction, till for the ray AO3, the angle of refraction is π/2. The refracted
ray is bent so much away from the normal that it grazes the surface at
the interface between the two media. This is shown by the ray AO3 D in
Fig. 9.12. If the angle of incidence is increased still further (e.g., the ray
AO4), refraction is not possible, and the incident ray is totally reflected. 319
2022-23
 Physics
This is called total internal reflection. When
light gets reflected by a surface, normally
some fraction of it gets transmitted. The
reflected ray, therefore, is always less intense
than the incident ray, howsoever smooth the
reflecting surface may be. In total internal
reflection, on the other hand, no
transmission of light takes place.
The angle of incidence corresponding to
an angle of refraction 90°, say ∠AO3N, is
called the critical angle (ic ) for the given pair
FIGURE 9.12 Refraction and internal reflection of media. We see from Snell’s law [Eq. (9.10)]
of rays from a point A in the denser medium that if the relative refractive index of the
(water) incident at different angles at the interface refracting medium is less than one then,
with a rarer medium (air). since the maximum value of sin r is unity,
there is an upper limit to the value of sin i for which the law can be
satisfied, that is, i = ic such that
sin ic = n 21 (9.12)
For values of i larger than ic , Snell’s law of refraction cannot be
satisfied, and hence no refraction is possible.
The refractive index of denser medium 1 with respect to rarer medium
2 will be n 12 = 1/sin ic. Some typical critical angles are listed in Table 9.1.

TABLE 9.1 CRITICAL ANGLE OF SOME TRANSPARENT MEDIA WITH RESPECT TO AIR
Substance medium Refractive index Critical angle

fut ↓
Water 1.33 48.75
Crown glass 1.52 41.14 ic↓
Dense flint glass 1.62 37.31
Diamond 2.42 24.41

A demonstration for total internal reflection

All optical phenomena can be demonstrated very easily with the use of a
laser torch or pointer, which is easily available nowadays. Take a glass
beaker with clear water in it. Add a few drops of milk or any other
suspension to water and stir so that water becomes a little turbid. Take
a laser pointer and shine its beam through the turbid water. You will
find that the path of the beam inside the water shines brightly.
Shine the beam from below the beaker such that it strikes at the
upper water surface at the other end. Do you find that it undergoes partial
reflection (which is seen as a spot on the table below) and partial refraction
[which comes out in the air and is seen as a spot on the roof; Fig. 9.13(a)]?
Now direct the laser beam from one side of the beaker such that it strikes
the upper surface of water more obliquely [Fig. 9.13(b)]. Adjust the
320 direction of laser beam until you find the angle for which the refraction
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
above the water surface is totally absent and the beam is totally reflected
back to water. This is total internal reflection at its simplest.
Pour this water in a long test tube and shine the laser light from top,
as shown in Fig. 9.13(c). Adjust the direction of the laser beam such that
it is totally internally reflected every time it strikes the walls of the tube.
This is similar to what happens in optical fibres.
Take care not to look into the laser beam directly and not to point it
at anybody’s face.

9.4.1 Total internal reflection in nature and

its technological applications
(i) Mirage: On hot summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter
than the air at higher levels. The refractive index of air increases with
its density. Hotter air is less dense, and has smaller refractive index
than the cooler air. If the air currents are small, that is, the air is still,
the optical density at different layers of air increases with height. As a
result, light from a tall object such as a tree, passes through a medium
whose refractive index decreases towards the ground. Thus, a ray of
light from such an object successively bends away from the normal
and undergoes total internal reflection, if the angle of incidence for
the air near the ground exceeds the critical angle. This is shown in
Fig. 9.14(b). To a distant observer, the light appears to be coming FIGURE 9.13
from somewhere below the ground. The observer naturally assumes Observing total
that light is being reflected from the ground, say, by a pool of water internal reflection in
near the tall object. Such inverted images of distant tall objects cause water with a laser
an optical illusion to the observer. This phenomenon is called mirage. beam (refraction due
This type of mirage is especially common in hot deserts. Some of you to glass of beaker
might have noticed that while moving in a bus or a car during a hot neglected being very
summer day, a distant patch of road, especially on a highway, appears thin).
to be wet. But, you do not find any evidence of wetness when you
reach that spot. This is also due to mirage.

FIGURE 9.14 (a) A tree is seen by an observer at its place when the air above the ground is
at uniform temperature, (b) When the layers of air close to the ground have varying
temperature with hottest layers near the ground, light from a distant tree may
undergo total internal reflection, and the apparent image of the tree may create
an illusion to the observer that the tree is near a pool of water. 321
2022-23
 Physics
(ii) Diamond: Diamonds are known for their
spectacular brilliance. Their brilliance
is mainly due to the total internal
reflection of light inside them. The critical
angle for diamond-air interface (≅ 24.4°)
is very small, therefore once light enters
a diamond, it is very likely to undergo
total internal reflection inside it.
Diamonds found in nature rarely exhibit
the brilliance for which they are known.
It is the technical skill of a diamond
cutter which makes diamonds to
sparkle so brilliantly. By cutting the
diamond suitably, multiple total
internal reflections can be made
to occur.
(iii) Prism : Prisms designed to bend light by
FIGURE 9.15 Prisms designed to bend rays by 90° or by 180° make use of total internal
90° and 180° or to invert image without changing reflection [Fig. 9.15(a) and (b)]. Such a
its size make use of total internal reflection. prism is also used to invert images
without changing their size [Fig. 9.15(c)].
In the first two cases, the critical angle ic for the material of the prism
must be less than 45°. We see from Table 9.1 that this is true for both
crown glass and dense flint glass.
(iv) Optical fibres: Nowadays optical fibres are extensively used for
transmitting audio and video signals through long distances. Optical
fibres too make use of the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz
fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index
of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding.
When a signal in the form of light is
directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable
angle, it undergoes repeated total internal
reflections along the length of the fibre and
finally comes out at the other end (Fig. 9.16).
Since light undergoes total internal reflection
at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in
the intensity of the light signal. Optical fibres
FIGURE 9.16 Light undergoes successive total are fabricated such that light reflected at one
internal reflections as it moves through an side of inner surface strikes the other at an
optical fibre.
angle larger than the critical angle. Even if the
fibre is bent, light can easily travel along its
length. Thus, an optical fibre can be used to act as an optical pipe.
A bundle of optical fibres can be put to several uses. Optical fibres
are extensively used for transmitting and receiving electrical signals which
are converted to light by suitable transducers. Obviously, optical fibres
can also be used for transmission of optical signals. For example, these
are used as a ‘light pipe’ to facilitate visual examination of internal organs
322 like esophagus, stomach and intestines. You might have seen a commonly
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
available decorative lamp with fine plastic fibres with their free ends
forming a fountain like structure. The other end of the fibres is fixed over
an electric lamp. When the lamp is switched on, the light travels from the
bottom of each fibre and appears at the tip of its free end as a dot of light.
The fibres in such decorative lamps are optical fibres.
The main requirement in fabricating optical fibres is that there should
be very little absorption of light as it travels for long distances inside
them. This has been achieved by purification and special preparation of
materials such as quartz. In silica glass fibres, it is possible to transmit
more than 95% of the light over a fibre length of 1 km. (Compare with
what you expect for a block of ordinary window glass 1 km thick.)

9.5 REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

AND BY LENSES
We have so far considered refraction at a plane interface. We shall now
consider refraction at a spherical interface between two transparent media.
An infinitesimal part of a spherical surface can be regarded as planar
and the same laws of refraction can be applied at every point on the
surface. Just as for reflection by a spherical mirror, the normal at the
point of incidence is perpendicular to the tangent plane to the spherical
surface at that point and, therefore, passes through its centre of curvature.
We first consider refraction by a single spherical surface and follow it by
thin lenses. A thin lens is a transparent optical medium bounded by two
surfaces; at least one of which should be spherical. Applying the formula
for image formation by a single spherical surface successively at the two
surfaces of a lens, we shall obtain the lens maker’s formula and then the
lens formula.

9.5.1 Refraction at a spherical surface

Figure 9.17 shows the geometry of formation of image I of an object O on
the principal axis of a spherical surface with centre of curvature C, and
radius of curvature R. The rays are incident from a medium of refractive
index n1, to another of refractive index n 2. As before, we take the aperture
(or the lateral size) of the surface to be small
compared to other distances involved, so that small
angle approximation can be made. In particular,
NM will be taken to be nearly equal to the length of
the perpendicular from the point N on the principal
axis. We have, for small angles,
MN
tan ∠NOM =
OM

MN
tan ∠NCM =
MC
FIGURE 9.17 Refraction at a spherical
surface separating two media.
MN
tan ∠NIM = 323
MI
2022-23
 Physics
LIGHT SOURCES AND PHOTOMETRY

It is known that a body above absolute zero temperature emits electromagnetic radiation.
The wavelength region in which the body emits the radiation depends on its absolute
temperature. Radiation emitted by a hot body, for example, a tungsten filament lamp
having temperature 2850 K are partly invisible and mostly in infrared (or heat) region.
As the temperature of the body increases radiation emitted by it is in visible region. The
sun with temperature of about 5500 K emits radiation whose energy versus wavelength
graph peaks approximately at 550 nm corresponding to green light and is almost in the
middle of the visible region. The energy versus wavelength distribution graph for a given
body peaks at some wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of that body.
The measurement of light as perceived by human eye is called photometry. Photometry
is measurement of a physiological phenomenon, being the stimulus of light as received
by the human eye, transmitted by the optic nerves and analysed by the brain. The main
physical quantities in photometry are (i) the luminous intensity of the source,
(ii) the luminous flux or flow of light from the source, and (iii) illuminance of the surface.
The SI unit of luminous intensity (I ) is candela (cd). The candela is the luminous intensity,
in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
If a light source emits one candela of luminous intensity into a solid angle of one steradian,
the total luminous flux emitted into that solid angle is one lumen (lm). A standard
100 watt incadescent light bulb emits approximately 1700 lumens.
In photometry, the only parameter, which can be measured directly is illuminance. It
is defined as luminous flux incident per unit area on a surface (lm/m2 or lux ). Most light
meters measure this quantity. The illuminance E, produced by a source of luminous
intensity I, is given by E = I/r2, where r is the normal distance of the surface from the
source. A quantity named luminance (L), is used to characterise the brightness of emitting
or reflecting flat surfaces. Its unit is cd/m2 (sometimes called ‘nit’ in industry). A good
LCD computer monitor has a brightness of about 250 nits.

Now, for ∆NOC, i is the exterior angle. Therefore, i = ∠NOM + ∠NCM

MN MN
i= + (9.13)
OM MC
Similarly,
r = ∠NCM – ∠NIM

MN MN
i.e., r = − (9.14)
MC MI
Now, by Snell’s law
n1 sin i = n 2 sin r
or for small angles
324 n1i = n 2r
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Substituting i and r from Eqs. (9.13) and (9.14), we get
n1 n2 n 2 − n1
+ = (9.15)
OM MI MC
Here, OM, MI and MC represent magnitudes of distances. Applying the
Cartesian sign convention,
OM = –u, MI = +v, MC = +R
Substituting these in Eq. (9.15), we get
n 2 n1 n 2 − n1
− = (9.16)
v u R
Equation (9.16) gives us a relation between object and image distance
in terms of refractive index of the medium and the radius of
curvature of the curved spherical surface. It holds for any curved
spherical surface.

Example 9.6 Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical

glass surface (n = 1.5 and radius of curvature = 20 cm). The distance
of the light source from the glass surface is 100 cm. At what position
the image is formed?
Solution
We use the relation given by Eq. (9.16). Here
u = – 100 cm, v = ?, R = + 20 cm, n1 = 1, and n 2 = 1.5.
We then have

EXAMPLE 9.6
1.5 1 0.5
+ =
v 100 20
or v = +100 cm
The image is formed at a distance of 100 cm from the glass surface,
in the direction of incident light.

9.5.2 Refraction by a lens

Figure 9.18(a) shows the geometry of image formation by a double convex
lens. The image formation can be seen in terms of two steps:
(i) The first refracting surface forms the image I 1 of the object O
[Fig. 9.18(b)]. The image I1 acts as a virtual object for the second surface
that forms the image at I [Fig. 9.18(c)]. Applying Eq. (9.15) to the first
interface ABC, we get
n 1 n 2 n 2 − n1
+ = (9.17)
OB BI1 BC1
A similar procedure applied to the second interface* ADC gives,
n 2 n1 n 2 − n 1
− + = (9.18)
DI1 DI DC2

* Note that now the refractive index of the medium on the right side of ADC is n1
while on its left it is n 2. Further DI1 is negative as the distance is measured
against the direction of incident light. 325
2022-23
 Physics
For a thin lens, BI1 = DI1 . Adding
Eqs. (9.17) and (9.18), we get
n1 n1  1 1 
+ = (n 2 − n1 )  +
 BC1 DC2 
(9.19)
OB DI
Suppose the object is at infinity, i.e.,
OB → ∞ and DI = f, Eq. (9.19) gives

n1  1 1 
= (n 2 − n1 )  +
 BC1 DC2 
(9.20)
f
The point where image of an object
placed at infinity is formed is called the
focus F, of the lens and the distance f gives
its focal length. A lens has two foci, F and
F′, on either side of it (Fig. 9.19). By the
sign convention,
BC1 = + R1,
DC2 = –R 2
So Eq. (9.20) can be written as

1  1 1  n2
= (n 21 − 1)  −  n 21 = n 
 R1 R 2 
f
(9.21)
1

Equation (9.21) is known as the lens

maker’s formula. It is useful to design
lenses of desired focal length using surfaces
of suitable radii of curvature. Note that the
formula is true for a concave lens also. In
that case R1is negative, R 2 positive and
FIGURE 9.18 (a) The position of object, and the therefore, f is negative.
image formed by a double convex lens, From Eqs. (9.19) and (9.20), we get
(b) Refraction at the first spherical surface and n1 n1 n
(c) Refraction at the second spherical surface. + = 1 (9.22)
OB DI f
Again, in the thin lens approximation, B and D are both close to the
optical centre of the lens. Applying the sign convention,
BO = – u, DI = +v, we get
1 1 1
− = (9.23)
v u f
Equation (9.23) is the familiar thin lens formula. Though we derived
it for a real image formed by a convex lens, the formula is valid for both
convex as well as concave lenses and for both real and virtual images.
It is worth mentioning that the two foci, F and F′, of a double convex
or concave lens are equidistant from the optical centre. The focus on the
side of the (original) source of light is called the first focal point, whereas
the other is called the second focal point.
To find the image of an object by a lens, we can, in principle, take any
326 two rays emanating from a point on an object; trace their paths using
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
the laws of refraction and find the point where
the refracted rays meet (or appear to meet). In
practice, however, it is convenient to choose any
two of the following rays:
(i) A ray emanating from the object parallel to
the principal axis of the lens after refraction
passes through the second principal focus
F′ (in a convex lens) or appears to diverge (in
a concave lens) from the first principal focus F.
(ii) A ray of light, passing through the optical
centre of the lens, emerges without any
deviation after refraction.
(iii) (a) A ray of light passing through the first
principal focus of a convex lens [Fig. 9.19(a)]
emerges parallel to the principal axis after
refraction.
(b) A ray of light incident on a concave lens
appearing to meet the principal axis at
second focus point emerges parallel to the
principal axis after refraction [Fig. 9.19(b)].
Figures 9.19(a) and (b) illustrate these rules FIGURE 9.19 Tracing rays through (a)
for a convex and a concave lens, respectively. convex lens (b) concave lens.
You should practice drawing similar ray diagrams for different positions
of the object with respect to the lens and also verify that the lens formula,
Eq. (9.23), holds good for all cases.
Here again it must be remembered that each point on an object gives
out infinite number of rays. All these rays will pass through the same
image point after refraction at the lens.
Magnification (m ) produced by a lens is defined, like that for a mirror,
as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the object. Proceeding in the
same way as for spherical mirrors, it is easily seen that for a lens
h′ v
m= = (9.24)
h u
When we apply the sign convention, we see that, for erect (and virtual)
image formed by a convex or concave lens, m is positive, while for an
inverted (and real) image, m is negative.
Example 9.7 A magician during a show makes a glass lens with
n = 1.47 disappear in a trough of liquid. What is the refractive index
of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?
EXAMPLE 9.7

Solution
The refractive index of the liquid must be equal to 1.47 in order to
make the lens disappear. This means n 1 = n 2. This gives 1/f = 0 or
f → ∞. The lens in the liquid will act like a plane sheet of glass. No,
the liquid is not water. It could be glycerine.

9.5.3 Power of a lens

Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence, which a
lens introduces in the light falling on it. Clearly, a lens of shorter focal 327
2022-23
 Physics
length bends the incident light more, while converging it
in case of a convex lens and diverging it in case of a
concave lens. The power P of a lens is defined as the
tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a
beam of light parallel to the principal axis falling at unit
distance from the optical centre (Fig. 9.20).
h 1 1
tan δ = ; if h = 1, tan δ = or δ = for small
f f f
value of δ. Thus,
FIGURE 9.20 Power of a lens.
1
P= (9.25)
f
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): 1D = 1m–1. The power of
a lens of focal length of 1 metre is one dioptre. Power of a lens is positive
for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens. Thus, when an
optician prescribes a corrective lens of power + 2.5 D, the required lens is
a convex lens of focal length + 40 cm. A lens of power of – 4.0 D means a
concave lens of focal length – 25 cm.

Example 9.8 (i) If f = 0.5 m for a glass lens, what is the power of the
lens? (ii) The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens
are 10 cm and 15 cm. Its focal length is 12 cm. What is the refractive
index of glass? (iii) A convex lens has 20 cm focal length in air. What
is focal length in water? (Refractive index of air-water = 1.33, refractive
index for air-glass = 1.5.)
Solution
(i) Power = +2 dioptre.
(ii) Here, we have f = +12 cm, R 1 = +10 cm, R 2 = –15 cm.
Refractive index of air is taken as unity.
We use the lens formula of Eq. (9.22). The sign convention has to
be applied for f, R 1 and R 2.
Substituting the values, we have
1  1 1 
= (n − 1)  −
12  10 −15 
This gives n = 1.5.
(iii) For a glass lens in air, n 2 = 1.5, n 1 = 1, f = +20 cm. Hence, the lens
formula gives
1 1 1 
= 0.5  − 
20 R
 1 R 2
EXAMPLE 9.8

For the same glass lens in water, n 2 = 1.5, n 1 = 1.33. Therefore,

1.33 1 1 
= (1.5 − 1.33)
 −  (9.26)
f R
 1 R 2

Combining these two equations, we find f = + 78.2 cm.

9.5.4 Combination of thin lenses in contact

Consider two lenses A and B of focal length f1 and f2 placed in contact
328 with each other. Let the object be placed at a point O beyond the focus of
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
the first lens A (Fig. 9.21). The first lens produces
an image at I1. Since image I1 is real, it serves as a
virtual object for the second lens B, producing the
final image at I. It must, however, be borne in mind
that formation of image by the first lens is presumed
only to facilitate determination of the position of the
final image. In fact, the direction of rays emerging
from the first lens gets modified in accordance with FIGURE 9.21 Image formation by a
the angle at which they strike the second lens. Since combination of two thin lenses in contact.
the lenses are thin, we assume the optical centres of the lenses to be
coincident. Let this central point be denoted by P.
For the image formed by the first lens A, we get
1 1 1
− = (9.27)
v1 u f1
For the image formed by the second lens B, we get
1 1 1
− = (9.28)
v v1 f 2
Adding Eqs. (9.27) and (9.28), we get
1 1 1 1
− = + (9.29)
v u f1 f2
If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of
focal length f, we have
1 1 1
− =
v u f
so that we get
1 1 1
= + (9.30)
f f1 f2
The derivation is valid for any number of thin lenses in contact. If
several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,... are in contact, the effective
focal length of their combination is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + +… (9.31)
f f1 f2 f3
In terms of power, Eq. (9.31) can be written as
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + … (9.32)
where P is the net power of the lens combination. Note that the sum in
Eq. (9.32) is an algebraic sum of individual powers, so some of the terms
on the right side may be positive (for convex lenses) and some negative
(for concave lenses). Combination of lenses helps to obtain diverging or
converging lenses of desired magnification. It also enhances sharpness
of the image. Since the image formed by the first lens becomes the object
for the second, Eq. (9.25) implies that the total magnification m of the
combination is a product of magnification (m1, m 2, m 3,...) of individual
lenses
m = m1 m 2 m 3 ... (9.33) 329
2022-23
 Physics
Such a system of combination of lenses is commonly used in designing
lenses for cameras, microscopes, telescopes and other optical instruments.

Example 9.9 Find the position of the image formed by the lens
combination given in the Fig. 9.22.

FIGURE 9.22

Solution Image formed by the first lens

1 1 1
− =
v1 u1 f 1

1 1 1
− =
v1 −30 10
or v1 = 15 cm
The image formed by the first lens serves as the object for the second.
This is at a distance of (15 – 5) cm = 10 cm to the right of the second
lens. Though the image is real, it serves as a virtual object for the
second lens, which means that the rays appear to come from it for
the second lens.
1 1 1
− =
v2 10 −10
or v2 = ∞
The virtual image is formed at an infinite distance to the left of the
second lens. This acts as an object for the third lens.
1 1 1
− =
v3 u 3 f3
EXAMPLE 9.9

1 1 1
or = +
v 3 ∞ 30
or v3 = 30 cm
The final image is formed 30 cm to the right of the third lens.

9.6 REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

Figure 9.23 shows the passage of light through a triangular prism ABC.
The angles of incidence and refraction at the first face AB are i and r1,
while the angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second face AC is r2
and the angle of refraction or emergence e. The angle between the
emergent ray RS and the direction of the incident ray PQ is called the
330 angle of deviation, δ.
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the angles
(at the vertices Q and R) are right angles.
Therefore, the sum of the other angles of the
quadrilateral is 180°.
∠A + ∠QNR = 180°
From the triangle QNR,
r1 + r2 + ∠QNR = 180°
Comparing these two equations, we get
r1 + r2 = A (9.34)
The total deviation δ is the sum of deviations FIGURE 9.23 A ray of light passing through
at the two faces, a triangular glass prism.
δ = (i – r1 ) + (e – r2 )
that is,
δ = i+ e–A (9.35)
Thus, the angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence. A plot
between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence is shown in
Fig. 9.24. You can see that, in general, any given value of δ, except for
i = e, corresponds to two values i and hence of e. This, in fact, is expected
from the symmetry of i and e in Eq. (9.35), i.e., δ remains the same if i
and e are interchanged. Physically, this is related
to the fact that the path of ray in Fig. 9.23 can be
traced back, resulting in the same angle of
deviation. At the minimum deviation Dm, the
refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel
to its base. We have
δ = Dm, i = e which implies r1 = r2.
Equation (9.34) gives
A
2r = A or r = (9.36)
2
In the same way, Eq. (9.35) gives
Dm = 2i – A, or i = (A + Dm)/2 (9.37)
The refractive index of the prism is
n 2 sin[( A + Dm )/ 2]
n 21 = = (9.38) FIGURE 9.24 Plot of angle of deviation (δ )
n1 sin[ A /2]
versus angle of incidence (i ) for a
The angles A and D m can be measured triangular prism.
experimentally. Equation (9.38) thus provides a
method of determining refractive index of the material of the prism.
For a small angle prism, i.e., a thin prism, Dm is also very small, and
we get
sin [( A + Dm )/2] ( A + Dm ) /2
n 21 = 
sin[ A /2] A /2
Dm = (n 21–1)A
It implies that, thin prisms do not deviate light much. 331
2022-23
 Physics
9.7 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA DUE TO SUNLIGHT
The Interplay of light with things around us gives rise to several beautiful
phenomena. The spectacles of colours that we see around us all the time
is possible due to sunlight.
While studying dispersion of visible (or white) light by a prism
(Class X) and the electromagnetic spectrum (Chapter 8, Class XII), we
got to know that colour is associated with the frequency of light or the
wavelength of light in the given medium. In the visible spectrum, red
light is at the long wavelength end (~700 nm) while the violet light is at
the short wavelength end (~ 400 nm). Dispersion takes place because
the refractive index of medium for different frequencies (colours) is
different. For example, the bending of red component of white light is
least while it is most for the violet. Equivalently, red light travels faster
than violet light in a glass prism. Table 9.2 gives the refractive indices for
different wavelength for crown glass and flint glass. Thick lenses could
be assumed as made of many prisms, therefore, thick lenses show
chromatic aberration due to dispersion of light. When white light passes
through thick lenses, red and blue colours focus at different points. This
phenomenon is known as chromatic aberration.

TABLE 9.2 REFRACTIVE INDICES FOR DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS

Colour Wavelength (nm) Crown glass Flint glass

Violet 396.9 1.533 1.663

Blue 486.1 1.523 1.639

Yellow 589.3 1.517 1.627

Red 656.3 1.515 1.622

The variation of refractive index with wavelength may be more

pronounced in some media than the other. In vacuum, of course, the
speed of light is independent of wavelength. Thus, vacuum (or air
approximately) is a non-dispersive medium in which all colours travel
with the same speed. This also follows from the fact that sunlight reaches
us in the form of white light and not as its components. On the other
hand, glass is a dispersive medium.
The blue of the sky, white clouds, the red-hue at sunrise and sunset,
the rainbow, the brilliant colours of some pearls, shells, and wings of
birds, are just a few of the natural wonders we are used to. We describe
some of them here from the point of view of physics.
332
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
9.7.1 The rainbow
The rainbow is an example of the dispersion of sunlight by the water
drops in the atmosphere. This is a phenomenon due to combined effect
of dispersion, refraction and reflection of sunlight by spherical water
droplets of rain. The conditions for observing a rainbow are that the Sun
should be shining in one part of the sky (say near western horizon) while
it is raining in the opposite part of the sky (say eastern horizon).
An observer can therefore see a rainbow only when his back is towards
the Sun.



Formation of rainbows
In order to understand the formation of rainbows, consider
Fig. 9.25(a). Sunlight is first refracted as it enters a raindrop, which causes
the different wavelengths (colours) of white light to separate. Longer
wangelength of light (red) are bent the least while the shorter wavelength
(violet) are bent the most. Next, these component rays strike the inner
surface of the water drop and get internally reflected if the angle between
the refracted ray and normal to the drop surface is greater then the critical
angle (48° in this case). The reflected light is refracted again when it comes
out of the drop, as shown in the figure. It is found that the violet light
emerges at an angle of 40° related to the incoming sunlight and red light
emerges at an angle of 42°. For other colours, angles lie in between these
two values.
Figure 9.25(b) explains the formation of primary rainbow. We see
that red light from drop 1 and violet light from drop 2 reach the observer’s
eye. The violet from drop 1 and red light from drop 2 are directed at level
above or below the observer. Thus the observer sees a rainbow with
red colour on the top and violet on the bottom. The primary
rainbow is a result of three-step process, that is, refraction, reflection
and refraction.

333
2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 9.25 Rainbow: (a) The sun rays incident on a water drop get
refracted twice and reflected internally by a drop; (b) Enlarged view of
internal reflection and refraction of a ray of light inside a drop forming
primary rainbow; and (c) secondary rainbow is formed by rays undergoing
internal reflection twice inside the drop.

When light rays undergoes two internal reflections inside a raindrop,

instead of one as in the primary rainbow, a secondary rainbow is formed
as shown in Fig. 9.25(c). It is due to four -step process. The intensity of
light is reduced at the second reflection and hence the secondary rainbow
is fainter than the primary rainbow. Further, the order of the colours is
reversed in it as is clear from Fig. 9.25(c).

9.7.2 Scattering of light

As sunlight travels through the earth’s atmosphere, it gets scattered
(changes its direction) by the atmospheric particles. Light of shorter
wavelengths is scattered much more than light of longer wavelengths.
(The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power
of the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering). Hence, the bluish
colour predominates in a clear sky, since blue has a shorter wave-
length than red and is scattered much more strongly. In fact, violet
gets scattered even more than blue, having a shorter wavelength.
But since our eyes are more sensitive to blue than violet, we see the
sky blue.
Large particles like dust and water droplets present in the atmosphere
behave differently. The relevant quantity here is the relative size of the
wavelength of light λ, and the scatterer (of typical size, say, a). For a << λ,
one has Rayleigh scattering which is proportional to 1/λ4. For a >> λ,
i.e., large scattering objects (for example, raindrops, large dust or ice
particles) this is not true; all wavelengths are scattered nearly equally.
Thus, clouds which have droplets of water with a >> λ are generally white.
334
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

FIGURE 9.26 Sunlight travels through a longer distance in the

atmosphere at sunset and sunrise.

At sunset or sunrise, the sun’s rays have to pass through a larger

distance in the atmosphere (Fig. 9.26). Most of the blue and other shorter
wavelengths are removed by scattering. The least scattered light reaching
our eyes, therefore, the sun looks reddish. This explains the reddish
appearance of the sun and full moon near the horizon.

9.8 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

A number of optical devices and instruments have been designed utilising
reflecting and refracting properties of mirrors, lenses and prisms.
Periscope, kaleidoscope, binoculars, telescopes, microscopes are some
examples of optical devices and instruments that are in common use.
Our eye is, of course, one of the most important optical device the nature
has endowed us with. We have already studied about the human eye in
Class X. We now go on to describe the principles of working of the
microscope and the telescope.

9.8.1 The microscope

A simple magnifier or microscope is a converging lens of small focal length
(Fig. 9.27). In order to use such a lens as a microscope, the lens is held

335
2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 9.27 A simple microscope; (a) the magnifying lens is located

such that the image is at the near point, (b) the angle subtanded by the
object, is the same as that at the near point, and (c) the object near the
focal point of the lens; the image is far off but closer than infinity.

near the object, one focal length away or less, and the eye is positioned
close to the lens on the other side. The idea is to get an erect, magnified
and virtual image of the object at a distance so that it can be viewed
comfortably, i.e., at 25 cm or more. If the object is at a distance f, the
image is at infinity. However, if the object is at a distance slightly less
than the focal length of the lens, the image is virtual and closer than
infinity. Although the closest comfortable distance for viewing the image
is when it is at the near point (distance D ≅ 25 cm), it causes some strain
on the eye. Therefore, the image formed at infinity is often considered
most suitable for viewing by the relaxed eye. We show both cases, the
first in Fig. 9.27(a), and the second in Fig. 9.27(b) and (c).
The linear magnification m, for the image formed at the near point D,
by a simple microscope can be obtained by using the relation
v 1 1   v
m= = v  –  = 1 – 
u  v f   f 
Now according to our sign convention, v is negative, and is equal in
magnitude to D. Thus, the magnification is
 D
336 m = 1 +  (9.39)
 f
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
Since D is about 25 cm, to have a magnification of six, one needs a convex
lens of focal length, f = 5 cm.
Note that m = h′/h where h is the size of the object and h′ the size of
the image. This is also the ratio of the angle subtended by the image
to that subtended by the object, if placed at D for comfortable viewing.
(Note that this is not the angle actually subtended by the object at the
eye, which is h/u.) What a single-lens simple magnifier achieves is that it
allows the object to be brought closer to the eye than D.
We will now find the magnification when the image is at infinity. In
this case we will have to obtained the angular magnification. Suppose
the object has a height h. The maximum angle it can subtend, and be
clearly visible (without a lens), is when it is at the near point, i.e., a distance
D. The angle subtended is then given by
h
tan θo =   ≈ θo (9.40)
D
We now find the angle subtended at the eye by the image when the
object is at u. From the relations
h′ v
=m =
h u
we have the angle subtended by the image
h′ h v h
tan θi = = ⋅ = ≈θ . The angle subtended by the object, when it
−v −v u −u
is at u = –f.

h 
θi =   (9.41)
f
as is clear from Fig. 9.27(c). The angular magnification is, therefore

θ  D
m = i = (9.42)
 θo  f

This is one less than the magnification when the image is at the near
point, Eq. (9.39), but the viewing is more comfortable and the difference
in magnification is usually small. In subsequent discussions of optical
instruments (microscope and telescope) we shall assume the image to be
at infinity.
A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification (≤ 9) for
realistic focal lengths. For much larger magnifications, one uses two lenses,
one compounding the effect of the other. This is known as a compound
microscope. A schematic diagram of a compound microscope is shown
in Fig. 9.28. The lens nearest the object, called the objective, forms a
real, inverted, magnified image of the object. This serves as the object for
the second lens, the eyepiece, which functions essentially like a simple
337
2022-23
 Physics

FIGURE 9.28 Ray diagram for the formation of image by a

compound microscope.

microscope or magnifier, produces the final image, which is enlarged

and virtual. The first inverted image is thus near (at or within) the focal
plane of the eyepiece, at a distance appropriate for final image formation
at infinity, or a little closer for image formation at the near point. Clearly,
the final image is inverted with respect to the original object.
We now obtain the magnification due to a compound microscope.
The ray diagram of Fig. 9.28 shows that the (linear) magnification due to
the objective, namely h′/h, equals
h′ L
mO = = (9.43)
h fo
where we have used the result
 h   h ′
tan β =   =  
 fo   L 

Here h′ is the size of the first image, the object size being h and fo
being the focal length of the objective. The first image is formed near the
focal point of the eyepiece. The distance L, i.e., the distance between the
second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of the eyepiece
(focal length fe ) is called the tube length of the compound microscope.
As the first inverted image is near the focal point of the eyepiece, we
use the result from the discussion above for the simple microscope to
obtain the (angular) magnification me due to it [Eq. (9.39)], when the
final image is formed at the near point, is

 D 
m e = 1 +  [9.44(a)]
338  fe 
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments
When the final image is formed at infinity, the angular magnification
due to the eyepiece [Eq. (9.42)] is
me = (D/fe ) [9.44(b)]
Thus, the total magnification [(according to Eq. (9.33)], when the
image is formed at infinity, is

 L  D 
m = m om e =     (9.45)
 fo  fe 
Clearly, to achieve a large magnification of a small object (hence the
name microscope), the objective and eyepiece should have small focal
lengths. In practice, it is difficult to make the focal length much smaller
than 1 cm. Also large lenses are required to make L large.
For example, with an objective with fo = 1.0 cm, and an eyepiece with
focal length fe = 2.0 cm, and a tube length of 20 cm, the magnification is

 L  D 
m = m om e =    
 fo  fe 


The world’s largest optical telescopes
20 25
   250
1 2
Various other factors such as illumination of the object, contribute to
the quality and visibility of the image. In modern microscopes, multi-
component lenses are used for both the objective and the eyepiece to
improve image quality by minimising various optical aberrations (defects)
in lenses.

9.8.2 Telescope
The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects
(Fig. 9.29). It also has an objective and an eyepiece. But here, the objective
has a large focal length and a much larger aperture than the eyepiece.
Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed
in the tube at its second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image
producing a final inverted image. The magnifying power m is the ratio of
the angle β subtended at the eye by the final image to the angle α which
the object subtends at the lens or the eye. Hence
 h fo f
m  .  o (9.46)
 fe h fe
In this case, the length of the telescope tube is fo + fe.
Terrestrial telescopes have, in addition, a pair of inverting lenses to
make the final image erect. Refracting telescopes can be used both for
terrestrial and astronomical observations. For example, consider
a telescope whose objective has a focal length of 100 cm and the eyepiece
a focal length of 1 cm. The magnifying power of this telescope is
m = 100/1 = 100. 339
2022-23
 Physics
Let us consider a pair of stars of actual separation 1′ (one minute of
arc). The stars appear as though they are separated by an angle of 100 ×
1′ = 100′ =1.67°.

FIGURE 9.29 A refracting telescope.

The main considerations with an astronomical telescope are its light

gathering power and its resolution or resolving power. The former clearly
depends on the area of the objective. With larger diameters, fainter objects
can be observed. The resolving power, or the ability to observe two objects
distinctly, which are in very nearly the same direction, also depends on
the diameter of the objective. So, the desirable aim in optical telescopes is
to make them with objective of large diameter. The largest lens objective
in use has a diameter of 40 inch (~1.02 m). It is at the Yerkes Observatory
in Wisconsin, USA. Such big lenses tend to be very heavy and therefore,
difficult to make and support by their edges. Further, it is rather difficult
and expensive to make such large sized lenses which form images that
are free from any kind of chromatic aberration and distortions.
For these reasons, modern telescopes use a concave mirror rather
than a lens for the objective. Telescopes with mirror objectives are called
reflecting telescopes. There is no chromatic aberration in a mirror.
Mechanical support is much less of a problem since a mirror weighs
much less than a lens of equivalent optical quality, and can be supported
over its entire back surface, not just over its rim. One obvious problem
with a reflecting telescope is that the objective mirror focusses light inside
the telescope tube. One must have an eyepiece and the observer right
there, obstructing some light (depending on the size of the observer cage).
This is what is done in the very large 200 inch (~5.08 m) diameters, Mt.
Palomar telescope, California. The viewer sits near the focal point of the
mirror, in a small cage. Another solution to the problem is to deflect the
340 light being focussed by another mirror. One such arrangement using a

2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

FIGURE 9.30 Schematic diagram of a reflecting telescope (Cassegrain).

convex secondary mirror to focus the incident light, which now passes
through a hole in the objective primary mirror, is shown in Fig. 9.30.
This is known as a Cassegrain telescope, after its inventor. It has the
advantages of a large focal length in a short telescope. The largest telescope
in India is in Kavalur, Tamil Nadu. It is a 2.34 m diameter reflecting
telescope (Cassegrain). It was ground, polished, set up, and is being used
by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore. The largest reflecting
telescopes in the world are the pair of Keck telescopes in Hawaii, USA,
with a reflector of 10 metre in diameter.

SUMMARY

1. Reflection is governed by the equation ∠i = ∠r′ and refraction by the

Snell’s law, sini/sinr = n, where the incident ray, reflected ray, refracted
ray and normal lie in the same plane. Angles of incidence, reflection
and refraction are i, r ′ and r, respectively.
2. The critical angle of incidence ic for a ray incident from a denser to rarer
medium, is that angle for which the angle of refraction is 90°. For
i > ic, total internal reflection occurs. Multiple internal reflections in
diamond (ic ≅ 24.4°), totally reflecting prisms and mirage, are some
examples of total internal reflection. Optical fibres consist of glass
fibres coated with a thin layer of material of lower refractive index.
Light incident at an angle at one end comes out at the other, after
multiple internal reflections, even if the fibre is bent.
3. Cartesian sign convention: Distances measured in the same direction
as the incident light are positive; those measured in the opposite
direction are negative. All distances are measured from the pole/optic
centre of the mirror/lens on the principal axis. The heights measured
upwards above x-axis and normal to the principal axis of the mirror/
lens are taken as positive. The heights measured downwards are taken
as negative.
341
2022-23
 Ray Optics and
Optical Instruments

m = me × m0 where me = 1 + (D/fe ), is the magnification due to the

eyepiece and mo is the magnification produced by the objective.
Approximately,
L D
m = ×
fo fe
where fo and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece,
respectively, and L is the distance between their focal points.
9. Magnifying power m of a telescope is the ratio of the angle β subtended
at the eye by the image to the angle α subtended at the eye by the
object.
β f
m = = o
α fe
where f0 and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece,
respectively.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The laws of reflection and refraction are true for all surfaces and
pairs of media at the point of the incidence.
2. The real image of an object placed between f and 2f from a convex lens
can be seen on a screen placed at the image location. If the screen is
removed, is the image still there? This question puzzles many, because
it is difficult to reconcile ourselves with an image suspended in air
without a screen. But the image does exist. Rays from a given point
on the object are converging to an image point in space and diverging
away. The screen simply diffuses these rays, some of which reach our
eye and we see the image. This can be seen by the images formed in
air during a laser show.
3. Image formation needs regular reflection/refraction. In principle, all
rays from a given point should reach the same image point. This is
why you do not see your image by an irregular reflecting object, say
the page of a book.
4. Thick lenses give coloured images due to dispersion. The variety in
colour of objects we see around us is due to the constituent colours
of the light incident on them. A monochromatic light may produce an
entirely different perception about the colours on an object as seen in
white light.
5. For a simple microscope, the angular size of the object equals the
angular size of the image. Yet it offers magnification because we can
keep the small object much closer to the eye than 25 cm and hence
have it subtend a large angle. The image is at 25 cm which we can see.
Without the microscope, you would need to keep the small object at
25 cm which would subtend a very small angle.

343
2022-23
 Wave Optics

Chapter Ten

WAVE OPTICS

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In 1637 Descartes gave the corpuscular model of light and derived Snell’s
law. It explained the laws of reflection and refraction of light at an interface.
The corpuscular model predicted that if the ray of light (on refraction)
bends towards the normal then the speed of light would be greater in the
second medium. This corpuscular model of light was further developed
by Isaac Newton in his famous book entitled OPTICKS and because of
the tremendous popularity of this book, the corpuscular model is very
often attributed to Newton.
In 1678, the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens put forward the
wave theory of light – it is this wave model of light that we will discuss in
this chapter. As we will see, the wave model could satisfactorily explain
the phenomena of reflection and refraction; however, it predicted that on
refraction if the wave bends towards the normal then the speed of light
would be less in the second medium. This is in contradiction to the
prediction made by using the corpuscular model of light. It was much
later confirmed by experiments where it was shown that the speed of
light in water is less than the speed in air confirming the prediction of the
wave model; Foucault carried out this experiment in 1850.
The wave theory was not readily accepted primarily because of
Newton’s authority and also because light could travel through vacuum 351
2022-23
 Physics
and it was felt that a wave would always require a medium to propagate
from one point to the other. However, when Thomas Young performed
his famous interference experiment in 1801, it was firmly established
that light is indeed a wave phenomenon. The wavelength of visible
light was measured and found to be extremely small; for example, the
wavelength of yellow light is about 0.6 µm. Because of the smallness
of the wavelength of visible light (in comparison to the dimensions of
typical mirrors and lenses), light can be assumed to approximately
travel in straight lines. This is the field of geometrical optics, which we
had discussed in the previous chapter. Indeed, the branch of optics in
which one completely neglects the finiteness of the wavelength is called
geometrical optics and a ray is defined as the path of energy
propagation in the limit of wavelength tending to zero.
After the interference experiment of Young in 1801, for the next 40
years or so, many experiments were carried out involving the
interference and diffraction of lightwaves; these experiments could only
be satisfactorily explained by assuming a wave model of light. Thus,
around the middle of the nineteenth century, the wave theory seemed
to be very well established. The only major difficulty was that since it
was thought that a wave required a medium for its propagation, how
could light waves propagate through vacuum. This was explained
when Maxwell put forward his famous electromagnetic theory of light.
Maxwell had developed a set of equations describing the laws of
electricity and magnetism and using these equations he derived what
is known as the wave equation from which he predicted the existence
of electromagnetic waves*. From the wave equation, Maxwell could
calculate the speed of electromagnetic waves in free space and he found
that the theoretical value was very close to the measured value of speed
o f l i g h t . F r o m t h i s , h e p r o p o u n d e d t h a t light must be an
electromagnetic wave. Thus, according to Maxwell, light waves are
associated with changing electric and magnetic fields; changing electric
field produces a time and space varying magnetic field and a changing
magnetic field produces a time and space varying electric field. The
changing electric and magnetic fields result in the propagation of
electromagnetic waves (or light waves) even in vacuum.
In this chapter we will first discuss the original formulation of the
Huygens principle and derive the laws of reflection and refraction. In
Sections 10.4 and 10.5, we will discuss the phenomenon of interference
which is based on the principle of superposition. In Section 10.6 we
will discuss the phenomenon of diffraction which is based on Huygens-
Fresnel principle. Finally in Section 10.7 we will discuss the
phenomenon of polarisation which is based on the fact that the light
waves are transverse electromagnetic waves.

* Maxwell had predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves around 1855; it

was much later (around 1890) that Heinrich Hertz produced radiowaves in the
laboratory. J.C. Bose and G. Marconi made practical applications of the Hertzian
352 waves
2022-23
 Wave Optics

DOES LIGHT TRAVEL IN A STRAIGHT LINE?

Light travels in a straight line in Class VI; it does not do so in Class XII and beyond! Surprised,
aren’t you?
In school, you are shown an experiment in which you take three cardboards with
pinholes in them, place a candle on one side and look from the other side. If the flame of the
candle and the three pinholes are in a straight line, you can see the candle. Even if one of
them is displaced a little, you cannot see the candle. This proves, so your teacher says,
that light travels in a straight line.
In the present book, there are two consecutive chapters, one on ray optics and the other
on wave optics. Ray optics is based on rectilinear propagation of light, and deals with
mirrors, lenses, reflection, refraction, etc. Then you come to the chapter on wave optics,
and you are told that light travels as a wave, that it can bend around objects, it can diffract
and interfere, etc.
In optical region, light has a wavelength of about half a micrometre. If it encounters an
obstacle of about this size, it can bend around it and can be seen on the other side. Thus a
micrometre size obstacle will not be able to stop a light ray. If the obstacle is much larger,
however, light will not be able to bend to that extent, and will not be seen on the other side.
This is a property of a wave in general, and can be seen in sound waves too. The sound
wave of our speech has a wavelength of about 50 cm to 1 m. If it meets an obstacle of the
size of a few metres, it bends around it and reaches points behind the obstacle. But when it
comes across a larger obstacle of a few hundred metres, such as a hillock, most of it is
reflected and is heard as an echo.
Then what about the primary school experiment? What happens there is that when we
move any cardboard, the displacement is of the order of a few millimetres, which is much
larger than the wavelength of light. Hence the candle cannot be seen. If we are able to move
one of the cardboards by a micrometer or less, light will be able to diffract, and the candle
will still be seen.
One could add to the first sentence in this box : It learns how to bend as it grows up!

10.2 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE

We would first define a wavefront: when we drop a small stone on a calm
pool of water, waves spread out from the point of impact. Every point on
the surface starts oscillating with time. At any instant, a photograph of
the surface would show circular rings on which the disturbance is
maximum. Clearly, all points on such a circle are oscillating in phase
because they are at the same distance from the source. Such a locus of
points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront ; thus a wavefront
is defined as a surface of constant phase. The speed with which the
wavefront moves outwards from the source is called the speed of the FIGURE 10.1 (a) A
wave. The energy of the wave travels in a direction perpendicular to the diverging spherical
wavefront. wave emanating from
If we have a point source emitting waves uniformly in all directions, a point source. The
wavefronts are
then the locus of points which have the same amplitude and vibrate in
spherical.
the same phase are spheres and we have what is known as a spherical
wave as shown in Fig. 10.1(a). At a large distance from the source, a 353
2022-23
 Physics
small portion of the sphere can be considered as a plane and we have
what is known as a plane wave [Fig. 10.1(b)].
Now, if we know the shape of the wavefront at t = 0, then Huygens
principle allows us to determine the shape of the wavefront at a later
time τ. Thus, Huygens principle is essentially a geometrical construction,
which given the shape of the wafefront at any time allows us to determine
FIGURE 10.1 (b) At a
large distance from the shape of the wavefront at a later time. Let us consider a diverging
the source, a small wave and let F1F2 represent a portion of the spherical wavefront at t = 0
portion of the (Fig. 10.2). Now, according to Huygens principle, each point of the
spherical wave can wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets
be approximated by a emanating from these points spread out in all directions with the speed
plane wave. of the wave. These wavelets emanating from the wavefront are usually
referred to as secondary wavelets and if we draw a common tangent
to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a
later time.

FIGURE 10.2 F1F2 represents the spherical wavefront (with O as

centre) at t = 0. The envelope of the secondary wavelets
emanating from F1F2 produces the forward moving wavefront G1G2.
The backwave D1D2 does not exist.

Thus, if we wish to determine the shape of the wavefront at t = τ, we

draw spheres of radius vτ from each point on the spherical wavefront
FIGURE 10.3
Huygens geometrical where v represents the speed of the waves in the medium. If we now draw
construction for a a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the
plane wave wavefront at t = τ. The new wavefront shown as G1G2 in Fig. 10.2 is again
propagating to the spherical with point O as the centre.
right. F1 F2 is the The above model has one shortcoming: we also have a backwave which
plane wavefront at is shown as D D in Fig. 10.2. Huygens argued that the amplitude of the
1 2
t = 0 and G1G2 is the secondary wavelets is maximum in the forward direction and zero in the
wavefront at a later
backward direction; by making this adhoc assumption, Huygens could
time τ. The lines A1A2,
explain the absence of the backwave. However, this adhoc assumption is
B1B2 … etc., are
normal to both F1F2 not satisfactory and the absence of the backwave is really justified from
and G1G2 and more rigorous wave theory.
represent rays. In a similar manner, we can use Huygens principle to determine the
shape of the wavefront for a plane wave propagating through a medium
354 (Fig. 10.3).
2022-23
 Wave Optics

10.3 REFRACTION AND REFLECTION OF

P LANE W AVES USING H UYGENS
PRINCIPLE
10.3.1 Refraction of a plane wave
We will now use Huygens principle to derive the laws of
refraction. Let PP′ represent the surface separating medium
1 and medium 2, as shown in Fig. 10.4. Let v1 and v2
represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2,
respectively. We assume a plane wavefront AB propagating
in the direction A′A incident on the interface at an angle i
as shown in the figure. Let τ be the time taken by the
wavefront to travel the distance BC. Thus, Christiaan Huygens

CHRISTIAAN HUYGENS (1629 – 1695)

(1629 – 1695) Dutch
BC = v1 τ physicist, astronomer,
mathematician and the
founder of the wave
theory of light. His book,
T reatise on light, makes
fascinating reading even
today. He brilliantly
explained the double
refraction shown by the
mineral calcite in this
work in addition to
reflection and refraction.
He was the first to
analyse circular and
simple harmonic motion
and designed and built
improved clocks and
FIGURE 10.4 A plane wave AB is incident at an angle i telescopes. He discovered
on the surface PP′ separating medium 1 and medium 2. the true geometry of
The plane wave undergoes refraction and CE represents Saturn’s rings.
the refracted wavefront. The figure corresponds to v2 < v1
so that the refracted waves bends towards the normal.

In order to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a

sphere of radius v2τ from the point A in the second medium (the speed of
the wave in the second medium is v2). Let CE represent a tangent plane
drawn from the point C on to the sphere. Then, AE = v2 τ and CE would
represent the refracted wavefront. If we now consider the triangles ABC
and AEC, we readily obtain
BC v1τ
sin i = = (10.1)
AC AC
and
AE v 2τ
sin r = = (10.2)
AC AC
where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively. 355
2022-23
 Physics
Thus we obtain
sin i v
= 1 (10.3)
sin r v2
From the above equation, we get the important result that if r < i (i.e.,
if the ray bends toward the normal), the speed of the light wave in the
second medium (v2) will be less then the speed of the light wave in the
first medium (v1). This prediction is opposite to the prediction from the
Demonstration of interference, diffraction, refraction, resonance and Doppler effect

corpuscular model of light and as later experiments showed, the prediction

of the wave theory is correct. Now, if c represents the speed of light in
vacuum, then,
c
n1 = (10.4)
v1
and
c
n2 = (10.5)
v2
are known as the refractive indices of medium 1 and medium 2,
respectively. In terms of the refractive indices, Eq. (10.3) can be
written as
n1 sin i = n2 sin r (10.6)
This is the Snell’s law of refraction. Further, if λ1 and λ 2 denote the
wavelengths of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively and if the
distance BC is equal to λ 1 then the distance AE will be equal to λ 2 (because
if the crest from B has reached C in time τ, then the crest from A should
have also reached E in time τ ); thus,
λ1 BC v
= 1


=
λ2 AE v2
or
v1 v2
= (10.7)
λ1 λ2
The above equation implies that when a wave gets refracted into a
denser medium (v1 > v2) the wavelength and the speed of propagation
decrease but the frequency ν (= v/λ) remains the same.

10.3.2 Refraction at a rarer medium

We now consider refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium, i.e.,
v2 > v1. Proceeding in an exactly similar manner we can construct a
refracted wavefront as shown in Fig. 10.5. The angle of refraction
will now be greater than angle of incidence; however, we will still have
n1 sin i = n2 sin r . We define an angle ic by the following equation
n2
sin i c = (10.8)
n1
Thus, if i = ic then sin r = 1 and r = 90°. Obviously, for i > ic, there can
not be any refracted wave. The angle ic is known as the critical angle and
356 for all angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, we will not have
2022-23
 Wave Optics
any refracted wave and the wave will undergo what is known as total
internal reflection. The phenomenon of total internal reflection and its
applications was discussed in Section 9.4.

FIGURE 10.5 Refraction of a plane wave incident on a rarer medium for

which v2 > v1. The plane wave bends away from the normal.

10.3.3 Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

We next consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting
surface MN. If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if τ
represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance from the point B
to C then the distance
BC = vτ
In order to construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of radius
vτ from the point A as shown in Fig. 10.6. Let CE represent the tangent
plane drawn from the point C to this sphere. Obviously
AE = BC = vτ

FIGURE 10.6 Reflection of a plane wave AB by the reflecting surface MN.

AB and CE represent incident and reflected wavefronts.
If we now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that they
are congruent and therefore, the angles i and r (as shown in Fig. 10.6)
would be equal. This is the law of reflection.
Once we have the laws of reflection and refraction, the behaviour of
prisms, lenses, and mirrors can be understood. These phenomena were 357
2022-23
 Physics
discussed in detail in Chapter 9 on the basis of rectilinear propagation of
light. Here we just describe the behaviour of the wavefronts as they
undergo reflection or refraction. In Fig. 10.7(a) we consider a plane wave
passing through a thin prism. Clearly, since the speed of light waves is
less in glass, the lower portion of the incoming wavefront (which travels
through the greatest thickness of glass) will get delayed resulting in a tilt
in the emerging wavefront as shown in the figure. In Fig. 10.7(b) we
consider a plane wave incident on a thin convex lens; the central part of
the incident plane wave traverses the thickest portion of the lens and is
delayed the most. The emerging wavefront has a depression at the centre
and therefore the wavefront becomes spherical and converges to the point
F which is known as the focus. In Fig. 10.7(c) a plane wave is incident on
a concave mirror and on reflection we have a spherical wave converging
to the focal point F. In a similar manner, we can understand refraction
and reflection by concave lenses and convex mirrors.

FIGURE 10.7 Refraction of a plane wave by (a) a thin prism, (b) a convex lens. (c) Reflection of a
plane wave by a concave mirror.

From the above discussion it follows that the total time taken from a
point on the object to the corresponding point on the image is the same
measured along any ray. For example, when a convex lens focusses light
to form a real image, although the ray going through the centre traverses
a shorter path, but because of the slower speed in glass, the time taken
is the same as for rays travelling near the edge of the lens.

10.3.4 The doppler effect

We should mention here that one should be careful in constructing the
wavefronts if the source (or the observer) is moving. For example, if there
is no medium and the source moves away from the observer, then later
wavefronts have to travel a greater distance to reach the observer and
hence take a longer time. The time taken between the arrival of two
successive wavefronts is hence longer at the observer than it is at the
source. Thus, when the source moves away from the observer the
frequency as measured by the source will be smaller. This is known as
the Doppler effect. Astronomers call the increase in wavelength due to
doppler effect as red shift since a wavelength in the middle of the visible
region of the spectrum moves towards the red end of the spectrum. When
waves are received from a source moving towards the observer, there is
358 an apparent decrease in wavelength, this is referred to as blue shift.
2022-23
 Wave Optics
You have already encountered Doppler effect for sound waves in
Chapter 15 of Class XI textbook. For velocities small compared to the
speed of light, we can use the same formulae which we use for sound
waves. The fractional change in frequency ∆ν/ν is given by –vradial/c, where
vradial is the component of the source velocity along the line joining the
observer to the source relative to the observer; vradial is considered positive
when the source moves away from the observer. Thus, the Doppler shift
can be expressed as:
∆ν vradial
=– (10.9)
ν c
The formula given above is valid only when the speed of the source is
small compared to that of light. A more accurate formula for the Doppler
effect which is valid even when the speeds are close to that of light, requires
the use of Einstein’s special theory of relativity. The Doppler effect for
light is very important in astronomy. It is the basis for the measurements
of the radial velocities of distant galaxies.

Example 10.1 What speed should a galaxy move with respect

to us so that the sodium line at 589.0 nm is observed
at 589.6 nm?
∆ν ∆λ
Solution Since νλ = c, =– (for small changes in ν and λ). For
ν λ
∆λ = 589.6 – 589.0 = + 0.6 nm
we get [using Eq. (10.9)]
∆ν ∆λ vradial
=– =–
ν λ c
EXAMPLE 10.1

 0.6  5 –1
or, vradial ≅ + c   = + 3.06 × 10 m s
589.0 
= 306 km/s
Therefore, the galaxy is moving away from us.

Example 10.2
(a) When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating
two media, the reflected and refracted light both have the same
frequency as the incident frequency. Explain why?
(b) When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed
decreases. Does the reduction in speed imply a reduction in the
energy carried by the light wave?
(c) In the wave picture of light, intensity of light is determined by the
EXAMPLE 10.2

square of the amplitude of the wave. What determines the intensity

of light in the photon picture of light.
Solution
(a) Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light
with the atomic constituents of matter. Atoms may be viewed as
359
2022-23
 Physics
oscillators, which take up the frequency of the external agency (light)
causing forced oscillations. The frequency of light emitted by a charged
oscillator equals its frequency of oscillation. Thus, the frequency of
EXAMPLE 10.2 scattered light equals the frequency of incident light.
(b) No. Energy carried by a wave depends on the amplitude of the
wave, not on the speed of wave propagation.
(c) For a given frequency, intensity of light in the photon picture is
determined by the number of photons crossing an unit area per
unit time.

10.4 COHERENT AND INCOHERENT ADDITION OF WAVES

In this section we will discuss the interference pattern produced by
the superposition of two waves. You may recall that we had discussed
the superposition principle in Chapter 15 of your Class XI textbook.
Indeed the entire field of interference is based on the superposition
principle according to which at a particular point in the medium, the
resultant displacement produced by a number of waves is the vector
sum of the displacements produced by each of the waves.
Consider two needles S1 and S2 moving periodically up and down
in an identical fashion in a trough of water [Fig. 10.8(a)]. They produce
(a)
two water waves, and at a particular point, the phase difference between
the displacements produced by each of the waves does not change
with time; when this happens the two sources are said to be coherent.
Figure 10.8(b) shows the position of crests (solid circles) and troughs
(dashed circles) at a given instant of time. Consider a point P for which
S1 P = S2 P
Since the distances S1 P and S2 P are equal, waves from S1 and S2
will take the same time to travel to the point P and waves that emanate
from S1 and S2 in phase will also arrive, at the point P, in phase.
(b)
Thus, if the displacement produced by the source S1 at the point P
FIGURE 10.8 (a) Two is given by
needles oscillating in
phase in water y1 = a cos ωt
represent two coherent then, the displacement produced by the source S2 (at the point P) will
sources. also be given by
(b) The pattern of
y2 = a cos ωt
displacement of water
molecules at an Thus, the resultant of displacement at P would be given by
instant on the surface
of water showing nodal y = y1 + y2 = 2 a cos ωt
N (no displacement) Since the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude,
and antinodal A
the resultant intensity will be given by
(maximum
displacement) lines. I = 4 I0
where I0 represents the intensity produced by each one of the individual
sources; I0 is proportional to a2. In fact at any point on the perpendicular
360 bisector of S1S2, the intensity will be 4I0. The two sources are said to
2022-23
 Wave Optics
interfere constructively and we have what is referred to as constructive
interference. We next consider a point Q [Fig. 10.9(a)]
for which
S2Q –S1Q = 2λ
The waves emanating from S1 will arrive exactly two cycles earlier
than the waves from S2 and will again be in phase [Fig. 10.9(a)]. Thus, if
the displacement produced by S1 is given by
y1 = a cos ωt
then the displacement produced by S2 will be given by
y2 = a cos (ωt – 4π) = a cos ωt
where we have used the fact that a path difference of 2λ corresponds to a
phase difference of 4π. The two displacements are once again in phase
and the intensity will again be 4 I0 giving rise to constructive interference.
In the above analysis we have assumed that the distances S1Q and S2Q
are much greater than d (which represents the distance between S1 and
S2) so that although S1Q and S2Q are not equal, the amplitudes of the
displacement produced by each wave are very nearly the same.
We next consider a point R [Fig. 10.9(b)] for which
FIGURE 10.9
S2R – S1R = –2.5λ
(a) Constructive
The waves emanating from S1 will arrive exactly two and a half cycles interference at a
later than the waves from S2 [Fig. 10.10(b)]. Thus if the displacement point Q for which the
produced by S1 is given by path difference is 2 λ.
(b) Destructive
y1 = a cos ωt interference at a
then the displacement produced by S2 will be given by point R for which the
path difference is
y2 = a cos (ωt + 5π) = – a cos ωt
2.5 λ .
where we have used the fact that a path difference of 2.5λ corresponds to
a phase difference of 5π. The two displacements are now out of phase
and the two displacements will cancel out to give zero intensity. This is
referred to as destructive interference.
To summarise: If we have two coherent sources S1 and S2 vibrating
in phase, then for an arbitrary point P whenever the path difference,
S1P ~S2P = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...) (10.10)
we will have constructive interference and the resultant intensity will be
4I0; the sign ~between S1P and S2 P represents the difference between
S1P and S2 P. On the other hand, if the point P is such that the path
difference,
1
S1P ~S2P = (n+ ) λ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...) (10.11)
2
FIGURE 10.10 Locus
we will have destructive interference and the resultant intensity will be of points for which
zero. Now, for any other arbitrary point G (Fig. 10.10) let the phase S P – S P is equal to
1 2
difference between the two displacements be φ. Thus, if the displacement zero, ±λ, ± 2λ, ± 3λ .
produced by S1 is given by
y1 = a cos ωt 361
2022-23
 Physics
then, the displacement produced by S2 would be
y2 = a cos (ωt + φ )
and the resultant displacement will be given by
y = y1 + y2
= a [cos ωt + cos (ωt +φ )]
= 2 a cos (φ/2) cos (ωt + φ/2)

The amplitude of the resultant displacement is 2a cos (φ/2) and

therefore the intensity at that point will be


I = 4 I0 cos2 (φ/2) (10.12)

If φ = 0, ± 2 π, ± 4 π,… which corresponds to the condition given by
Eq. (10.10) we will have constructive interference leading to maximum
intensity. On the other hand, if φ = ± π, ± 3π, ± 5π … [which corresponds to
the condition given by Eq. (10.11)] we will have destructive interference
leading to zero intensity.


Now if the two sources are coherent (i.e., if the two needles are going
up and down regularly) then the phase difference φ at any point will not
change with time and we will have a stable interference pattern; i.e., the
positions of maxima and minima will not change with time. However, if
the two needles do not maintain a constant phase difference, then the
interference pattern will also change with time and, if the phase difference
changes very rapidly with time, the positions of maxima and minima will
also vary rapidly with time and we will see a “time-averaged” intensity
distribution. When this happens, we will observe an average intensity
that will be given by

< I >= 4I 0 < cos2 (φ/2 ) > (10.13)

where angular brackets represent time averaging. Indeed it is shown in
Section 7.2 that if φ (t ) varies randomly with time, the time-averaged
quantity < cos2 (φ/2) > will be 1/2. This is also intuitively obvious because
the function cos2 (φ/2) will randomly vary between 0 and 1 and the
average value will be 1/2. The resultant intensity will be given by
I = 2 I0 (10.14)
at all points.
When the phase difference between the two vibrating sources changes
rapidly with time, we say that the two sources are incoherent and when
this happens the intensities just add up. This is indeed what happens
when two separate light sources illuminate a wall.

10.5 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT WAVES AND YOUNG’S

EXPERIMENT
We will now discuss interference using light waves. If we use two sodium
lamps illuminating two pinholes (Fig. 10.11) we will not observe any
interference fringes. This is because of the fact that the light wave emitted
362 from an ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) undergoes abrupt phase
2022-23
 Wave Optics
changes in times of the order of 10–10 seconds. Thus
the light waves coming out from two independent
sources of light will not have any fixed phase
relationship and would be incoherent, when this
happens, as discussed in the previous section, the
intensities on the screen will add up.
The British physicist Thomas Young used an
ingenious technique to “lock” the phases of the waves
emanating from S1 and S2. He made two pinholes S1 FIGURE 10.11 If two sodium
and S2 (very close to each other) on an opaque screen lamps illuminate two pinholes
[Fig. 10.12(a)]. These were illuminated by another S1 and S2, the intensities will add
pinholes that was in turn, lit by a bright source. Light up and no interference fringes will
waves spread out from S and fall on both S1 and S2. be observed on the screen.
S1 and S2 then behave like two coherent sources
because light waves coming out from S1 and S2 are derived from the
same original source and any abrupt phase change in S will manifest in
exactly similar phase changes in the light coming out from S1 and S2.
Thus, the two sources S1 and S2 will be locked in phase; i.e., they will be
coherent like the two vibrating needle in our water wave example
[Fig. 10.8(a)].

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.12 Young’s arrangement to produce interference pattern.

Thus spherical waves emanating from S1 and S2 will produce

interference fringes on the screen GG′, as shown in Fig. 10.12(b). The
positions of maximum and minimum intensities can be calculated by
using the analysis given in Section 10.4 where we had shown that for an
arbitrary point P on the line GG′ [Fig. 10.12(b)] to correspond to a
maximum, we must have
S2P – S1P = n λ; n = 0, 1, 2 ... (10.15)
Now,
 2  d   2 
2
d 
2
2 2
(S2P ) – (S1P ) =  D +  x +   –  D +  x –  
 2    2   = 2x d 363
2022-23
 Physics
where S1S2 = d and OP = x. Thus
2xd
S2P – S1P = (10.16)
S2 P+S1P
If x, d<<D then negligible error will be introduced if
S2P + S1P (in the denominator) is replaced by 2D. For
example, for d = 0.1 cm, D = 100 cm, OP = 1 cm (which
correspond to typical values for an interference
experiment using light waves), we have
THOMAS YOUNG (1773 – 1829)

S2P + S1P = [(100)2 + (1.05)2]½ + [(100)2 + (0.95)2]½

≈ 200.01 cm
Thomas Young
Thus if we replace S2P + S1P by 2 D, the error involved is
(1773 – 1829) English
about 0.005%. In this approximation, Eq. (10.16)
physicist, physician and
Egyptologist. Young worked
becomes
on a wide variety of xd
scientific problems, ranging S2P – S1P ≈ (10.17)
D
from the structure of the eye
and the mechanism of Hence we will have constructive interference resulting in
vision to the decipherment xd
a bright region when = nλ [Eq. (10.15)]. That is,
of the Rosetta stone. He D
revived the wave theory of n λD
light and recognised that x = xn = ; n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ... (10.18)
interference phenomena
d
provide proof of the wave On the other hand, we will have destructive
xd 1
properties of light. interference resulting in a dark region when = (n+ ) λ
D 2
that is
1 λD
x = xn = (n+ ) ; n = 0, ± 1, ± 2 (10.19)
2 d
Thus dark and bright bands appear on the screen, as shown in
Fig. 10.13. Such bands are called fringes. Equations (10.18) and (10.19)
show that dark and bright fringes are equally spaced and the distance
between two consecutive bright and dark fringes is given by
λD
β = xn+1 –xn or β = (10.20)
d
which is the expression for the fringe width. Obviously, the central point
O (in Fig. 10.12) will be bright because S1O = S2O and it will correspond
to n = 0 [Eq. (10.18)]. If we consider the line perpendicular to the plane
of the paper and passing through O [i.e., along the y-axis] then all points
on this line will be equidistant from S 1 and S2 and we will have a bright
central fringe which is a straight line as shown in Fig. 10.13. In order
to determine the shape of the interference pattern on the screen we note
that a particular fringe would correspond to the locus of points with a
constant value of S2P – S1P. Whenever this constant is an integral
multiple of λ, the fringe will be bright and whenever it is an odd integral
multiple of λ/2 it will be a dark fringe. Now, the locus of the point P
lying in the x-y plane such that S2P – S1P (= ∆) is a constant, is a
hyperbola. Thus the fringe pattern will strictly be a hyperbola; however,
if the distance D is very large compared to the fringe width, the fringes
364 will be very nearly straight lines as shown in Fig. 10.13.
2022-23
distance b/w slits and screen
 Wave Optics

FIGURE 10.13 Computer generated fringe pattern produced by two point source S 1 and S2 on the
screen GG′ (Fig. 10.12); (a) and (b) correspond to d = 0.005 mm and 0.025 mm, respectively (both
figures correspond to D = 5 cm and λ = 5 × 10–5 cm.) (Adopted from OPTICS by A. Ghatak, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2000.)
In the double-slit experiment shown in Fig. 10.12(b), we have taken
the source hole S on the perpendicular bisector of the two slits, which is
shown as the line SO. What happens if the source S is slightly away
from the perpendicular bisector. Consider that the source is moved to
some new point S′ and suppose that Q is the mid-point of S1 and S2. If
the angle S′QS is φ, then the central bright fringe occurs at an angle –φ,
on the other side. Thus, if the source S is on the perpendicular bisector,
then the central fringe occurs at O, also on the perpendicular bisector. If
S is shifted by an angle φ to point S′, then the central fringe appears at a
point O′ at an angle –φ, which means that it is shifted by the same angle
on the other side of the bisector. This also means that the source S′, the
mid-point Q and the point O′ of the central fringe are in a straight line.
We end this section by quoting from the Nobel lecture of Dennis Gabor*
The wave nature of light was demonstrated convincingly for the
first time in 1801 by Thomas Young by a wonderfully simple
experiment. He let a ray of sunlight into a dark room, placed a
dark screen in front of it, pierced with two small pinholes, and
beyond this, at some distance, a white screen. He then saw two
darkish lines at both sides of a bright line, which gave him
sufficient encouragement to repeat the experiment, this time with
spirit flame as light source, with a little salt in it to produce the
bright yellow sodium light. This time he saw a number of dark
lines, regularly spaced; the first clear proof that light added to
light can produce darkness. This phenomenon is called
* Dennis Gabor received the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the
principles of holography. 365
2022-23
 Physics
interference. Thomas Young had expected it because he believed
in the wave theory of light.
We should mention here that the fringes are straight lines although
S1 and S2 are point sources. If we had slits instead of the point sources
(Fig. 10.14), each pair of points would have produced straight line fringes
resulting in straight line fringes with increased intensities.



FIGURE 10.14 Photograph and the graph of the intensity

distribution in Young’s double-slit experiment.

Example 10.3 Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen
is placed one metre away. What is the fringe separation when blue-
EXAMPLE 10.3

green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?

Solution Fringe spacing

= 5 × 10–4 m = 0.5 mm

Example 10.4 What is the effect on the interference fringes in a

Young’s double-slit experiment due to each of the following operations:
(a) the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits;
(b) the (monochromatic) source is replaced by another
(monochromatic) source of shorter wavelength;
EXAMPLE 10.4

(c) the separation between the two slits is increased;

(d) the source slit is moved closer to the double-slit plane;
(e) the width of the source slit is increased;
(f ) the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white
366 light?

2022-23
 Wave Optics

( In each operation, take all parameters, other than the one specified,
to remain unchanged.)
Solution
(a) Angular separation of the fringes remains constant
(= λ /d). The actual separation of the fringes increases in
proportion to the distance of the screen from the plane of the
two slits.
(b) The separation of the fringes (and also angular separation)
decreases. See, however, the condition mentioned in (d) below.
(c) The separation of the fringes (and also angular separation)
decreases. See, however, the condition mentioned in (d) below.
(d) Let s be the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of
the two slits. For interference fringes to be seen, the condition
s/S < λ/d should be satisfied; otherwise, interference patterns
produced by different parts of the source overlap and no fringes
are seen. Thus, as S decreases (i.e., the source slit is brought
closer), the interference pattern gets less and less sharp, and
when the source is brought too close for this condition to be valid,
the fringes disappear. Till this happens, the fringe separation
remains fixed.
(e) Same as in (d). As the source slit width increases, fringe pattern
gets less and less sharp. When the source slit is so wide that the
condition s/S ≤ λ/d is not satisfied, the interference pattern
disappears.
(f ) The interference patterns due to different component colours of
white light overlap (incoherently). The central bright fringes for
different colours are at the same position. Therefore, the central
fringe is white. For a point P for which S2P –S1P = λb/2, where λb
(≈ 4000 Å) represents the wavelength for the blue colour, the blue
component will be absent and the fringe will appear red in colour.
Slightly farther away where S2Q–S1Q = λb = λr/2 where λr (≈ 8000 Å)
EXAMPLE 10.4

is the wavelength for the red colour, the fringe will be predominantly
blue.
Thus, the fringe closest on either side of the central white fringe
is red and the farthest will appear blue. After a few fringes, no
clear fringe pattern is seen.

10.6 DIFFRACTION
If we look clearly at the shadow cast by an opaque object, close to the
region of geometrical shadow, there are alternate dark and bright regions
just like in interference. This happens due to the phenomenon of
diffraction. Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of
waves, be it sound waves, light waves, water waves or matter waves. Since
the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most
obstacles; we do not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday
observations. However, the finite resolution of our eye or of optical 367
2022-23
 Physics
instruments such as telescopes or microscopes is limited due to the
phenomenon of diffraction. Indeed the colours that you see when a CD is
viewed is due to diffraction effects. We will now discuss the phenomenon
of diffraction.

10.6.1 The single slit

In the discussion of Young’s experiment, we stated that a single narrow
slit acts as a new source from which light spreads out. Even before Young,
early experimenters – including Newton – had noticed that light spreads
out from narrow holes and slits. It seems to turn around corners and
enter regions where we would expect a shadow. These effects, known as
diffraction, can only be properly understood using wave ideas. After all,
you are hardly surprised to hear sound waves from someone talking
around a corner !
When the double slit in Young’s experiment is replaced by a single
narrow slit (illuminated by a monochromatic source), a broad pattern
with a central bright region is seen. On both sides, there are alternate
dark and bright regions, the intensity becoming weaker away from the
centre (Fig. 10.16). To understand this, go to Fig. 10.15, which shows a
parallel beam of light falling normally on a single slit LN of width a. The
diffracted light goes on to meet a screen. The midpoint of the slit is M.
A straight line through M perpendicular to the slit plane meets the
screen at C. We want the intensity at any point P on the screen. As before,
straight lines joining P to the different points L,M,N, etc., can be treated as
parallel, making an angle θ with the normal MC.
The basic idea is to divide the slit into much smaller parts, and add
their contributions at P with the proper phase differences. We are treating
different parts of the wavefront at the slit as secondary sources. Because
the incoming wavefront is parallel to the plane of the slit, these sources
are in phase.
The path difference NP – LP between the two edges of the slit can be
calculated exactly as for Young’s experiment. From Fig. 10.15,

NP – LP = NQ

= a sin θ

≈ a θ (for smaller angles) (10.21)

Similarly, if two points M1 and M2 in the slit plane are separated by y, the
path difference M2 P – M1P ≈ yθ. We now have to sum up equal, coherent
contributions from a large number of sources, each with a different phase.
This calculation was made by Fresnel using integral calculus, so we omit
it here. The main features of the diffraction pattern can be understood by
simple arguments.
At the central point C on the screen, the angle θ is zero. All path
differences are zero and hence all the parts of the slit contribute in phase.
368 This gives maximum intensity at C. Experimental observation shown in
2022-23
 Wave Optics
Fig. 10.15 indicates that the intensity has a
central maximum at θ = 0 and other
secondary maxima at θ (n+1/2) λ/a, and
has minima (zero intensity) at θ  nλ/a,
n = ±1, ±2, ±3, .... It is easy to see why it has
minima at these values of angle. Consider
first the angle θ where the path difference aθ
is λ. Then,

θ ≈ λ /a . (10.22)

Now, divide the slit into two equal halves FIGURE 10.15 The geometry of path
LM and MN each of size a/2. For every point differences for diffraction by a single slit.
M1 in LM, there is a point M2 in MN such that
M1M2 = a/2. The path difference between M1 and M2 at P = M2P – M1P
= θ a/2 = λ/2 for the angle chosen. This means that the contributions
from M1 and M2 are 180° out of phase and cancel in the direction
θ = λ/a. Contributions from the two halves of the slit LM and MN,
therefore, cancel each other. Equation (10.22) gives the angle at which
the intensity falls to zero. One can similarly show that the intensity is
zero for θ = n λ/a, with n being any integer (except zero!). Notice that the
angular size of the central maximum increases when the slit width a
decreases.
It is also easy to see why there are maxima at θ = (n + 1/2) λ/a and
why they go on becoming weaker and weaker with increasing n. Consider
an angle θ = 3λ/2a which is midway between two of the dark fringes.
Divide the slit into three equal parts. If we take the first two thirds of the
slit, the path difference between the two ends would be

2 2a 3λ
a ×θ = × =λ (10.23)
3 3 2a

The first two-thirds of the slit can therefore be divided

into two halves which have a λ/2 path difference. The
contributions of these two halves cancel in the same manner
as described earlier. Only the remaining one-third of the
slit contributes to the intensity at a point between the two
minima. Clearly, this will be much weaker than the central
maximum (where the entire slit contributes in phase). One
can similarly show that there are maxima at (n + 1/2) λ/a
with n = 2, 3, etc. These become weaker with increasing n,
since only one-fifth, one-seventh, etc., of the slit contributes
in these cases. The photograph and intensity pattern
corresponding to it is shown in Fig. 10.16. FIGURE 10.16 Intensity
There has been prolonged discussion about difference distribution and photograph of
between intereference and diffraction among scientists since fringes due to diffraction
at single slit. 369
the discovery of these phenomena. In this context, it is
2022-23
 Physics
interesting to note what Richard Feynman* has said in his famous
Feynman Lectures on Physics:
No one has ever been able to define the difference between
interference and diffraction satisfactorily. It is just a question
of usage, and there is no specific, important physical difference
between them. The best we can do is, roughly speaking, is to
say that when there are only a few sources, say two interfering
sources, then the result is usually called interference, but if there
is a large number of them, it seems that the word diffraction is
more often used.
In the double-slit experiment, we must note that the pattern on the
screen is actually a superposition of single-slit diffraction from each slit
or hole, and the double-slit interference pattern. This is shown in
Fig. 10.17. It shows a broader diffraction peak in which there appear
several fringes of smaller width due to double-slit interference. The



number of interference fringes occuring in the broad diffraction peak

depends on the ratio d/a, that is the ratio of the distance between the
two slits to the width of a slit. In the limit of a becoming very small, the
diffraction pattern will become very flat and we will obsrve the two-slit
interference pattern [see Fig. 10.13(b)].

FIGURE 10.17 The actual double-slit interference pattern.

The envelope shows the single slit diffraction.

Example 10.5 In Example 10.3, what should the width of each slit be
to obtain 10 maxima of the double slit pattern within the central
maximum of the single slit pattern?

λ
Solution We want aθ = λ ,θ =
EXAMPLE 10.5

λ λ d
10 =2 a = = 0 2 mm
d a 5
Notice that the wavelength of light and distance of the screen do not
enter in the calculation of a.

In the double-slit interference experiment of Fig. 10.12, what happens

if we close one slit? You will see that it now amounts to a single slit. But
you will have to take care of some shift in the pattern. We now have a
source at S, and only one hole (or slit) S1 or S2. This will produce a single-

* Richand Feynman was one of the recipients of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics
370 for his fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.
2022-23
 Wave Optics
slit diffraction pattern on the screen. The centre of the central bright fringe
will appear at a point which lies on the straight line SS1 or SS2, as the
case may be.
We now compare and contrast the interference pattern with that seen
for a coherently illuminated single slit (usually called the single slit
diffraction pattern).
(i) The interference pattern has a number of equally spaced bright and
dark bands. The diffraction pattern has a central bright maximum
which is twice as wide as the other maxima. The intensity falls as we
go to successive maxima away from the centre, on either side.
(ii) We calculate the interference pattern by superposing two waves
originating from the two narrow slits. The diffraction pattern is a
superposition of a continuous family of waves originating from each
point on a single slit.
(iii) For a single slit of width a, the first null of the interference pattern
occurs at an angle of λ/a. At the same angle of λ/a, we get a maximum
(not a null) for two narrow slits separated by a distance a.
One must understand that both d and a have to be quite small, to be
able to observe good interference and diffraction patterns. For example,
the separation d between the two slits must be of the order of a milimetre
or so. The width a of each slit must be even smaller, of the order of 0.1 or
0.2 mm.
In our discussion of Young’s experiment and the single-slit diffraction,
we have assumed that the screen on which the fringes are formed is at a
large distance. The two or more paths from the slits to the screen were
treated as parallel. This situation also occurs when we place a converging
lens after the slits and place the screen at the focus. Parallel paths from
the slit are combined at a single point on the screen. Note that the lens
does not introduce any extra path differences in a parallel beam. This
arrangement is often used since it gives more intensity than placing the
screen far away. If f is the focal length of the lens, then we can easily work
out the size of the central bright maximum. In terms of angles, the
separation of the central maximum from the first null of the diffraction
pattern is λ/a . Hence, the size on the screen will be f λ/a.

10.6.2 Seeing the single slit diffraction pattern

It is surprisingly easy to see the single-slit diffraction pattern for oneself.
The equipment needed can be found in most homes –– two razor blades
and one clear glass electric bulb preferably with a straight filament. One
has to hold the two blades so that the edges are parallel and have a
narrow slit in between. This is easily done with the thumb and forefingers
(Fig. 10.18). FIGURE 10.18
Keep the slit parallel to the filament, right in front of the eye. Use Holding two blades to
form a single slit. A
spectacles if you normally do. With slight adjustment of the width of the
bulb filament viewed
slit and the parallelism of the edges, the pattern should be seen with its through this shows
bright and dark bands. Since the position of all the bands (except the clear diffraction
central one) depends on wavelength, they will show some colours. Using bands.
a filter for red or blue will make the fringes clearer. With both filters
available, the wider fringes for red compared to blue can be seen. 371
2022-23
 Physics
In this experiment, the filament plays the role of the first slit S in
Fig. 10.16. The lens of the eye focuses the pattern on the screen (the
retina of the eye).
With some effort, one can cut a double slit in an aluminium foil with
a blade. The bulb filament can be viewed as before to repeat Young’s
experiment. In daytime, there is another suitable bright source subtending
a small angle at the eye. This is the reflection of the Sun in any shiny
convex surface (e.g., a cycle bell). Do not try direct sunlight – it can damage
the eye and will not give fringes anyway as the Sun subtends an angle
of (1/2)°.
In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it
reduces in one region, producing a dark fringe, it increases in another
region, producing a bright fringe. There is no gain or loss of energy,
which is consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.

10.6.3 Resolving power of optical instruments

In Chapter 9 we had discussed about telescopes. The angular resolution
of the telescope is determined by the objective of the telescope. The stars
which are not resolved in the image produced by the objective cannot be
resolved by any further magnification produced by the eyepiece. The
primary purpose of the eyepiece is to provide magnification of the image
produced by the objective.
Consider a parallel beam of light falling on a convex lens. If the lens is
well corrected for aberrations, then geometrical optics tells us that the
beam will get focused to a point. However, because of diffraction, the
beam instead of getting focused to a point gets focused to a spot of finite
area. In this case the effects due to diffraction can be taken into account
by considering a plane wave incident on a circular aperture followed by
a convex lens (Fig. 10.19). The analysis of the corresponding diffraction
pattern is quite involved; however, in principle, it is similar to the analysis
carried out to obtain the single-slit diffraction pattern. Taking into account
the effects due to diffraction, the pattern on the focal plane would consist
of a central bright region surrounded by concentric dark and bright rings
(Fig. 10.19). A detailed analysis shows that the radius of the central bright
region is approximately given by
1.22 λ f 0.61λ f
r0 ≈ = (10.24)
2a a

FIGURE 10.19 A parallel beam of light is incident on a convex lens.

Because of diffraction effects, the beam gets focused to a
372 spot of radius ≈ 0.61 λf/a .
2022-23
 Wave Optics
where f is the focal length of the lens and 2a is the diameter of the circular
aperture or the diameter of the lens, whichever is smaller. Typically if
λ ≈ 0.5 µm, f ≈ 20 cm and a ≈ 5 cm
we have
r0 ≈ 1.2 µm
Although the size of the spot is very small, it plays an important role
in determining the limit of resolution of optical instruments like a telescope
or a microscope. For the two stars to be just resolved
0.61λ f
f ∆θ ≈ r0 ≈
a
implying
0.61λ
∆θ ≈ (10.25)
a
Thus ∆θ will be small if the diameter of the objective is large. This
implies that the telescope will have better resolving power if a is large. It
is for this reason that for better resolution, a telescope must have a large
diameter objective.

Example 10.6 Assume that light of wavelength 6000Å is coming from

a star. What is the limit of resolution of a telescope whose objective
has a diameter of 100 inch?
Solution A 100 inch telescope implies that 2a = 100 inch
EXAMPLE 10.6
= 254 cm. Thus if,
λ ≈ 6000Å = 6×10–5 cm
then
–5
0.61 × 6 × 10 –7
∆θ ≈ ≈ 2.9 × 10 radians
127

We can apply a similar argument to the objective lens of a microscope.

In this case, the object is placed slightly beyond f, so that a real image is
formed at a distance v [Fig. 10.20]. The magnification (ratio of
image size to object size) is given by m  v/f. It can be seen from
Fig. 10.20 that
D/f  2 tan β (10.26)
where 2β is the angle subtended by the diameter of the objective lens at
the focus of the microscope.

FIGURE 10.20 Real image formed by the objective lens of the microscope. 373
2022-23
 Physics
DETERMINE THE RESOLVING POWER OF YOUR EYE

You can estimate the resolving power of your eye with a simple experiment. Make
black stripes of equal width separated by white stripes; see figure here. All the black
stripes should be of equal width, while the width of the intermediate white stripes should
increase as you go from the left to the right. For example, let all black stripes have a width
of 5 mm. Let the width of the first two white stripes be 0.5 mm each, the next two white
stripes be 1 mm each, the next two 1.5 mm each, etc. Paste this pattern on a wall in a
room or laboratory, at the height of your eye.

Now watch the pattern, preferably with one eye. By moving away or closer to the wall,
find the position where you can just see some two black stripes as separate stripes. All
the black stripes to the left of this stripe would merge into one another and would not be
distinguishable. On the other hand, the black stripes to the right of this would be more
and more clearly visible. Note the width d of the white stripe which separates the two
regions, and measure the distance D of the wall from your eye. Then d/D is the resolution
of your eye.
You have watched specks of dust floating in air in a sunbeam entering through your
window. Find the distance (of a speck) which you can clearly see and distinguish from a
neighbouring speck. Knowing the resolution of your eye and the distance of the speck,
estimate the size of the speck of dust.

When the separation between two points in a microscopic specimen

is comparable to the wavelength λ of the light, the diffraction effects
become important. The image of a point object will again be a diffraction
pattern whose size in the image plane will be
 1.22 λ 
vθ = v 
 D  (10.27)

Two objects whose images are closer than this distance will not be
resolved, they will be seen as one. The corresponding minimum
separation, dmin, in the object plane is given by
  1.22 λ  
dmin = v   m
 D  

1.22 λ v
= .
D m
v
or, since m =
f

1.22 f λ
= (10.28)
D
Now, combining Eqs. (10.26) and (10.28), we get
1.22 λ
d min =
374 2 tan β
2022-23
 Wave Optics

1.22 λ
 (10.29)
2 sin β
If the medium between the object and the objective lens is not air but
a medium of refractive index n, Eq. (10.29) gets modified to
1.22 λ
d min = (10.30)
2 n sin β
The product n sinβ is called the numerical aperture and is sometimes
marked on the objective.
The resolving power of the microscope is given by the reciprocal of
the minimum separation of two points seen as distinct. It can be seen
from Eq. (10.30) that the resolving power can be increased by choosing a
medium of higher refractive index. Usually an oil having a refractive index
close to that of the objective glass is used. Such an arrangement is called
an ‘oil immersion objective’. Notice that it is not possible to make sinβ
larger than unity. Thus, we see that the resolving power of a microscope
is basically determined by the wavelength of the light used.
There is a likelihood of confusion between resolution and
magnification, and similarly between the role of a telescope and a
microscope to deal with these parameters. A telescope produces images
of far objects nearer to our eye. Therefore objects which are not resolved
at far distance, can be resolved by looking at them through a telescope.
A microscope, on the other hand, magnifies objects (which are near to
us) and produces their larger image. We may be looking at two stars or
two satellites of a far-away planet, or we may be looking at different
regions of a living cell. In this context, it is good to remember that a
telescope resolves whereas a microscope magnifies.

10.6.4 The validity of ray optics

An aperture (i.e., slit or hole) of size a illuminated by a parallel beam
sends diffracted light into an angle of approximately ≈ λ/a . This is the
angular size of the bright central maximum. In travelling a distance z,
the diffracted beam therefore acquires a width zλ/a due to diffraction. It
is interesting to ask at what value of z the spreading due to diffraction
becomes comparable to the size a of the aperture. We thus approximately
equate zλ/a with a. This gives the distance beyond which divergence of
the beam of width a becomes significant. Therefore,
a2
z (10.31)
λ
We define a quantity zF called the Fresnel distance by the following
equation
zF  a2 / λ
Equation (10.31) shows that for distances much smaller than zF , the
spreading due to diffraction is smaller compared to the size of the beam.
It becomes comparable when the distance is approximately zF . For
distances much greater than zF , the spreading due to diffraction 375
2022-23
 Physics
dominates over that due to ray optics (i.e., the size a of the aperture).
Equation (10.31) also shows that ray optics is valid in the limit of
wavelength tending to zero.
Example 10.7 For what distance is ray optics a good approximation
when the aperture is 3 mm wide and the wavelength is 500 nm?

(3 × 10 )
–3 2
EXAMPLE 10.7

2
a
Solution z F = = –7
= 18 m
λ 5 × 10

This example shows that even with a small aperture, diffraction

spreading can be neglected for rays many metres in length. Thus, ray
optics is valid in many common situations.

10.7 POLARISATION
Consider holding a long string that is held horizontally, the other end of
which is assumed to be fixed. If we move the end of the string up and
down in a periodic manner, we will generate a wave propagating in the
+x direction (Fig. 10.21). Such a wave could be described by the following
equation

FIGURE 10.21 (a) The curves represent the displacement of a string at

t = 0 and at t = ∆t, respectively when a sinusoidal wave is propagating
in the +x-direction. (b) The curve represents the time variation
of the displacement at x = 0 when a sinusoidal wave is propagating
in the +x-direction. At x = ∆x, the time variation of the
376 displacement will be slightly displaced to the right.
2022-23
 Wave Optics
y (x,t ) = a sin (kx – ωt) (10.32)

where a and ω (= 2πν ) represent the amplitude and the angular frequency
of the wave, respectively; further,

2π
λ= (10.33)
k
represents the wavelength associated with the wave. We had discussed
propagation of such waves in Chapter 15 of Class XI textbook. Since the
displacement (which is along the y direction) is at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the wave, we have what is known as a
transverse wave. Also, since the displacement is in the y direction, it is
often referred to as a y-polarised wave. Since each point on the string
moves on a straight line, the wave is also referred to as a linearly polarised
wave. Further, the string always remains confined to the x-y plane and
therefore it is also referred to as a plane polarised wave.
In a similar manner we can consider the vibration of the string in the
x-z plane generating a z-polarised wave whose displacement will be given
by
z (x,t ) = a sin (kx – ωt ) (10.34)
It should be mentioned that the linearly polarised waves [described
by Eqs. (10.32) and (10.34)] are all transverse waves; i.e., the
displacement of each point of the string is always at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the wave. Finally, if the plane of vibration of
the string is changed randomly in very short intervals of time, then we
have what is known as an unpolarised wave. Thus, for an unpolarised
wave the displacement will be randomly changing with time though it
will always be perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Light waves are transverse in nature; i.e., the electric field associated
with a propagating light wave is always at right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave. This can be easily demonstrated using a simple
polaroid. You must have seen thin plastic like sheets, which are called
polaroids. A polaroid consists of long chain molecules aligned in a
particular direction. The electric vectors (associated with the propagating
light wave) along the direction of the aligned molecules get absorbed.
Thus, if an unpolarised light wave is incident on such a polaroid then
the light wave will get linearly polarised with the electric vector oscillating
along a direction perpendicular to the aligned molecules; this direction
is known as the pass-axis of the polaroid.
Thus, if the light from an ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) passes
through a polaroid sheet P 1, it is observed that its intensity is reduced by
half. Rotating P 1 has no effect on the transmitted beam and transmitted
intensity remains constant. Now, let an identical piece of polaroid P2 be
placed before P1. As expected, the light from the lamp is reduced in
intensity on passing through P2 alone. But now rotating P1 has a dramatic
effect on the light coming from P2. In one position, the intensity transmitted 377
2022-23
 Physics
by P2 followed by P1 is nearly zero. When turned by 90° from this position,
P1 transmits nearly the full intensity emerging from P2 (Fig. 10.22).

FIGURE 10.22 (a) Passage of light through two polaroids P2 and P1. The
transmitted fraction falls from 1 to 0 as the angle between them varies
from 0° to 90°. Notice that the light seen through a single polaroid
P1 does not vary with angle. (b) Behaviour of the electric vector
when light passes through two polaroids. The transmitted
polarisation is the component parallel to the polaroid axis.
The double arrows show the oscillations of the electric vector.

The above experiment can be easily understood by assuming that

light passing through the polaroid P2 gets polarised along the pass-axis
of P2. If the pass-axis of P2 makes an angle θ with the pass-axis of P1,
then when the polarised beam passes through the polaroid P2, the
component E cos θ (along the pass-axis of P2) will pass through P2.
Thus, as we rotate the polaroid P1 (or P2), the intensity will vary as:
I = I0 cos2θ (10.35)
where I0 is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through
P1. This is known as Malus’ law. The above discussion shows that the
intensity coming out of a single polaroid is half of the incident intensity.
By putting a second polaroid, the intensity can be further controlled
from 50% to zero of the incident intensity by adjusting the angle between
the pass-axes of two polaroids.
Polaroids can be used to control the intensity, in sunglasses,
windowpanes, etc. Polaroids are also used in photographic cameras and
3D movie cameras.

Example 10.8 Discuss the intensity of transmitted light when a

EXAMPLE 10.8

polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed polaroids?

Solution Let I0 be the intensity of polarised light after passing through
the first polariser P1. Then the intensity of light after passing through
second polariser P2 will be
378 I = I 0 cos 2θ ,
2022-23
 Wave Optics

where θ is the angle between pass axes of P1 and P2. Since P1 and P3
are crossed the angle between the pass axes of P2 and P 3 will be
(π/2 – θ ). Hence the intensity of light emerging from P3 will be

EXAMPLE 10.8
π 
I = I 0 cos 2θ cos2  – θ 
2 
= I0 cos2θ sin2θ =(I0/4) sin22θ
Therefore, the transmitted intensity will be maximum when θ = π/4.

10.7.1 Polarisation by scattering

The light from a clear blue portion of the sky shows a rise and fall of
intensity when viewed through a polaroid which is rotated. This is nothing
but sunlight, which has changed its direction (having been scattered) on
encountering the molecules of the earth’s atmosphere. As Fig. 10.23(a)
shows, the incident sunlight is unpolarised. The dots stand for polarisation
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. The double arrows show
polarisation in the plane of the figure. (There is no phase relation between
these two in unpolarised light). Under the influence of the electric field of
the incident wave the electrons in the molecules acquire components of
motion in both these directions. We have drawn an observer looking at
90° to the direction of the sun. Clearly, charges accelerating parallel to
the double arrows do not radiate energy towards this observer since their
acceleration has no transverse component. The radiation scattered by
the molecule is therefore represented by dots. It is polarised
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. This explains the polarisation of
scattered light from the sky.

FIGURE 10.23 (a) Polarisation of the blue scattered light from the sky.
The incident sunlight is unpolarised (dots and arrows). A typical
molecule is shown. It scatters light by 90° polarised normal to
the plane of the paper (dots only). (b) Polarisation of light
reflected from a transparent medium at the Brewster angle
(reflected ray perpendicular to refracted ray).

The scattering of light by molecules was intensively investigated by

C.V. Raman and his collaborators in Kolkata in the 1920s. Raman was
awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for this work. 379
2022-23
 Physics
A SPECIAL CASE OF TOTAL TRANSMISSION

When light is incident on an interface of two media, it is observed that some part of it
gets reflected and some part gets transmitted. Consider a related question: Is it possible
that under some conditions a monochromatic beam of light incident on a surface
(which is normally reflective) gets completely transmitted with no reflection? To your
surprise, the answer is yes.

Let us try a simple experiment and check what happens. Arrange a laser, a good
polariser, a prism and screen as shown in the figure here.
Let the light emitted by the laser source pass through the polariser and be incident
on the surface of the prism at the Brewster’s angle of incidence iB. Now rotate the
polariser carefully and you will observe that for a specific alignment of the polariser, the
light incident on the prism is completely transmitted and no light is reflected from the
surface of the prism. The reflected spot will completely vanish.

10.7.2 Polarisation by reflection

Figure 10.23(b) shows light reflected from a transparent medium, say,
water. As before, the dots and arrows indicate that both polarisations are
present in the incident and refracted waves. We have drawn a situation
in which the reflected wave travels at right angles to the refracted wave.
The oscillating electrons in the water produce the reflected wave. These
move in the two directions transverse to the radiation from wave in the
medium, i.e., the refracted wave. The arrows are parallel to the direction
of the reflected wave. Motion in this direction does not contribute to the
reflected wave. As the figure shows, the reflected light is therefore linearly
polarised perpendicular to the plane of the figure (represented by dots).
This can be checked by looking at the reflected light through an analyser.
The transmitted intensity will be zero when the axis of the analyser is in
the plane of the figure, i.e., the plane of incidence.
When unpolarised light is incident on the boundary between two
transparent media, the reflected light is polarised with its electric vector
perpendicular to the plane of incidence when the refracted and reflected
rays make a right angle with each other. Thus we have seen that when
reflected wave is perpendicular to the refracted wave, the reflected wave
is a totally polarised wave. The angle of incidence in this case is called
Brewster’s angle and is denoted by i B. We can see that i B is related to the
refractive index of the denser medium. Since we have i B+r = π/2, we get
from Snell’s law
sin i B sin i B
µ= =
380 sin r sin ( π / 2 – i B )
2022-23
 Wave Optics

sin i B
= = tan i B (10.36)
cos i B
This is known as Brewster’s law.

Example 10.9 Unpolarised light is incident on a plane glass surface.

EXAMPLE 10.9
What should be the angle of incidence so that the reflected and
refracted rays are perpendicular to each other?
Solution For i + r to be equal to π/2, we should have tan iB = µ = 1.5.
This gives i B = 57°. This is the Brewster’s angle for air to glass
interface.

For simplicity, we have discussed scattering of light by 90°, and

reflection at the Brewster angle. In this special situation, one of the two
perpendicular components of the electric field is zero. At other angles,
both components are present but one is stronger than the other. There is
no stable phase relationship between the two perpendicular components
since these are derived from two perpendicular components of an
unpolarised beam. When such light is viewed through a rotating analyser,
one sees a maximum and a minimum of intensity but not complete
darkness. This kind of light is called partially polarised.
Let us try to understand the situation. When an unpolarised beam of
light is incident at the Brewster’s angle on an interface of two media, only
part of light with electric field vector perpendicular to the plane of
incidence will be reflected. Now by using a good polariser, if we completely
remove all the light with its electric vector perpendicular to the plane of
incidence and let this light be incident on the surface of the prism at
Brewster’s angle, you will then observe no reflection and there will be
total transmission of light.
We began this chapter by pointing out that there are some phenomena
which can be explained only by the wave theory. In order to develop a
proper understanding, we first described how some phenomena like
reflection and refraction, which were studied on this basis of Ray Optics
in Chapter 9, can also be understood on the basis of Wave Optics. Then
we described Young’s double slit experiment which was a turning point
in the study of optics. Finally, we described some associated points such
as diffraction, resolution, polarisation, and validity of ray optics. In the
next chapter, you will see how new experiments led to new theories at
the turn of the century around 1900 A.D.

SUMMARY

1. Huygens’ principle tells us that each point on a wavefront is a source

of secondary waves, which add up to give the wavefront at a later time.
2. Huygens’ construction tells us that the new wavefront is the forward
envelope of the secondary waves. When the speed of light is
independent of direction, the secondary waves are spherical. The rays
are then perpendicular to both the wavefronts and the time of travel 381
2022-23
 Physics
is the same measured along any ray. This principle leads to the well
known laws of reflection and refraction.
3. The principle of superposition of waves applies whenever two or more
sources of light illuminate the same point. When we consider the
intensity of light due to these sources at the given point, there is an
interference term in addition to the sum of the individual intensities.
But this term is important only if it has a non-zero average, which
occurs only if the sources have the same frequency and a stable
phase difference.
4. Young’s double slit of separation d gives equally spaced fringes of
angular separation λ/d. The source, mid-point of the slits, and central
bright fringe lie in a straight line. An extended source will destroy
the fringes if it subtends angle more than λ/d at the slits.
5. A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a central
λ 2λ
maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of ± , ± , etc.,
a a
with successively weaker secondary maxima in between. Diffraction
limits the angular resolution of a telescope to λ/D where D is the
diameter. Two stars closer than this give strongly overlapping images.
Similarly, a microscope objective subtending angle 2β at the focus,
in a medium of refractive index n, will just separate two objects spaced
at a distance λ /(2n sin β ), which is the resolution limit of a
microscope. Diffraction determines the limitations of the concept of
light rays. A beam of width a travels a distance a2/λ, called the Fresnel
distance, before it starts to spread out due to diffraction.
6. Natural light, e.g., from the sun is unpolarised. This means the electric
vector takes all possible directions in the transverse plane, rapidly
and randomly, during a measurement. A polaroid transmits only one
component (parallel to a special axis). The resulting light is called
linearly polarised or plane polarised. When this kind of light is viewed
through a second polaroid whose axis turns through 2π, two maxima
and minima of intensity are seen. Polarised light can also be produced
by reflection at a special angle (called the Brewster angle) and by
scattering through π/2 in the earth’s atmosphere.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Waves from a point source spread out in all directions, while light was
seen to travel along narrow rays. It required the insight and experiment
of Huygens, Young and Fresnel to understand how a wave theory could
explain all aspects of the behaviour of light.
2. The crucial new feature of waves is interference of amplitudes from different
sources which can be both constructive and destructive, as shown in
Young’s experiment.
3. Diffraction phenomena define the limits of ray optics. The limit of the
ability of microscopes and telescopes to distinguish very close objects is
set by the wavelength of light.
4. Most interference and diffraction effects exist even for longitudinal waves
like sound in air. But polarisation phenomena are special to transverse
waves like light waves.

382
2022-23