EXERCISE NO. 2.

THE LEAF

I. Introduction

The leaf organ may be distinguished by the following criteria: a) it is attached at the node
of the stem b) as a general rule, a bud is found at the leaf axil, and c) a leaf does not have nodes
and internodes or leaves attached at nodes. It is helpful to remember that a bud may develop into
a shoot or a flower later on. When a leaf falls from the plant, it leaves a leaf scar where the leaf
stalk was attached to the stem.

A. Descriptive Terminology for the Study of the Leaf

The typical complete leaf is composed of a flattened portion, the blade and the leaf-stalk
which connects the blade to the stem. In dicots, a pair of foliaceous (thin and leaf-like) or
membranaceous or variously shape processes called stipules are found one on each side of the
base of the leaf-stalk. The leaf is referred to as stipulate if the stipules are present and exstipulate
if the stipules are absent or wanting. The stipules may be modified as prickles or tendrils, or they
may sheath the stem being then called ocreate. The leaf-stalk is called a petiole when it is more
or less round in cross section as in dicots, and a leaf-sheath when it is flattened with its base or
the entire leaf-stalk partly or completely encircling or sheathing the stem as in monocots. Some
monocot leaves have a flattened, tongue-like process, the ligule, found on the inner side at the
junction of the leaf blade and the leaf-sheath or petiole. In its normal position, the ligule is
usually pressed against the stem sealing and the leaf-sheath or petiole.

The upper surface of the leaf is the adaxial (towards the body axis) surface, while the
lower surface is called the abaxial (away from the body axis surface. The lower end of the blade
attached to the leaf-stalk is the base while the opposite end is the tip and the outer edges of the
blade is the margin. In most leaves, there is a major vein much stronger than the others, the
midrib running along the center of the blade from base to tip from which smaller veins, the
primary branches or lateral veins or nerves branch off into the blade producing branches in turn
and anastomosing or connecting with each other. The ultimate divisions are called veinlets or
nervules. The arrangement of the veins is known as venation.

According to type, a leaf is simple when the blade is of one piece, regardless of how
much it may be cut up, and compound when the blade is divided into two or more separate parts
called leaflets with stalks called petiolules. The extension of the petiole above the lowest leaflets
in compound leaves is called the rachis. Some compound leaves have their leaflets or petiolules
subtended by variously shaped, usually small appendages called stipels, corresponding to the
stipules of the leaves. Leaflets are stipellate when stipels are present and exstipellate when
stipels are absent corresponding to stipulate and exstipulate as applied to the entire leaf.

According to insertion, leaves are cauline when they are attached on the aerial stem and
radical when the leaves or the flowers are borne on a short stem with short internodes close to
the ground in acaulescent plants. Radical leaves that are spread in a circle on the ground forming
a rosette are called rosulate.

A leaf without a leaf-stalk is called sessile. Sessile leaves are called amplexicaul or stem
clasping when the leaf-base clasps the stem; perfoliate when the lobes meet around the stem so
that the blade appears as though it were pierced by the stem; decurrent when the lower edges of
the leaf extend downward along the stem as ridges or wings; and sheathing when the base of the
blade is attached more or less encircling the stem (Fig. 2a).

The two main kinds of venation are: parallel venation when the apparent veins (visible to,
the unaided eye) run parallel to each other not dividing and subdividing to form meshes; and
netted venation or reticulate venation when the apparent veins branch and rebranch into finer and
finer veinlets which unite with each other to form apparent meshes. Parallel-veined leaves are
simple parallel when the veins run from the base or near the base to the apex or near the apex;
and pinnate parallel, or pinniparallel when the veins run from the midrib to the margins.
Netted-veined leaves are pinnate net or pinnately netted when major veins runs from the side of
the midrib to the margins and palmate net or palmately netted or digitately nerved or, in peltate
leaves, radiately nerved when several equally strong veins radiate from the top of the petiole.

Palmately netted leaves, with the veins all starting from the base are called 3-nerved,
5-nerved, etc., according to the number of major nerves, but when some of the major veins start
just above the base they are called 3-plinerved, 5-plinerved, etc. When the nerves are obscured
and not evident to the naked eye, they are referred to as obsolete or wanting.

According to shape or outline leaves may be linear when very narrow with nearly parallel
margins and several times longer than wide; lanceolate when shaped more or less like a lance,
three
when two or three times as long as wide, broadest below and tapering upward or both upward
and downward; oblanceolate, the reverse of lanceolate, widest above the middle and tapering
downward; oblong when two or three times as long as wide, the sides nearly parallel and not
conspicuously narrowed; elliptic when shaped like an ellipse, broadest at the middle. tapering,
more or less equally to the base and tip, the width not distinctly more than one half of the length;
ovate, when twice or less as long as wide, widest below the middle and more or less narrowed
upward; obovate, the reverse of ovate, widest above the middle and tapering downward;
orbicular when circular in outline; spatulate when narrow, more or less rounded above, and
tapering from near the apex to the base; cundate or wedge-shaped syken broad above, tapering
by nearly straight lines to the base; falcate when more or less curve; flabellate or fan-shaped
when broad and rounded at the top, narrowed below like a fan; deltoid when broad below
tapering upwards and shaped like a triangle; reniform when broader than long, shaped somewhat
like a kidney.

Combinations like ovate-lanceolate, oval-elliptic, etc., are used to describe intermediate

forms while oblong to elliptic means both oblong and elliptic leaves are on the same plant or
oval to obovate means both kinds are on the same plant. The prefix "sub" when prefixing a root
word should be read as almost (e.g. suborbicular means almost orbicular).

The different types of leaf tips or apexes (Fig 2b) are: rounded, that is, broad and
semicircular in outline; truncate, cut off square or nearly so; acute, ending in acute angle with the
sides straight; acuminate, pointed, but tapering lines incurved; obtuse, blunt or narrowly rounde;
retuse, slightly notched at the apex (authors like Porter, 1967 and fenderson et al, 1963 defines
retuse as having a broad shallow or rounded notch at the apex jemarginated, prominently notched
at the apex); obcordate, with a sinus and two-rounded lobes; cuspidate, tipped with a cusp or
sharp point, muchonate, abruptly tipped by a small short point, aristate, the mucronate point is
longer and more or less bristle-like; and caudate, similar to aristate but the appendage broader
and not bristle-like. Some or all of those terms are also applicable to the base of the leaf and to
other organs of the plant.
 The base of the leaf may be cordate or heart-shaped when the outline of its rounded base
is turned in forming a sinus where the petiole is attached; auricled or eared, when with a pair of
small projections at the base; sagitate or arrow-shaped when the ears or lobes are acute and
turned downwards; hastate when the acute basal lobes point outwards and oblique or
inequilateral when the two sides of the base are unequal or not at the same level. A peltate or
shield-shaped leaf has the petiole attached to the lower surface and towards the center of the
blade some distance from the base, the ribs or veins of the leaf radiating from the point of
insertion, the leaf appearing somewhat like an umbrella.
Fig. 2a. Complete the figure by filling the blanks with the descriptive terms for types of sessile
leaves )(1-4), venation (5-9) and leaf outline (10-22). Measure to the nearest mm the
length (L) and width (W) of sketches no. 10-15 and record the measurements where
indicated. Check if the length-width relationship for that type of leaf outline is satisfied.
Refer to the definition of terms in the text.
 The different types of margin in simple leaves are: entire, that is, even, without teeth or
indentations, serrate, with sharp teeth pointing forward (towards the tip) like the teeth of a saw;
serrulate, diminutive or serrate; dentate or toothed, with sharp teeth pointing outward, not
forward; denticulate, diminutive of dentate; crenate, with rounded teeth; crenulate, diminutive of
crenate; repand or undulate with a wavy margin; sinuate, strongly undulate; incised or cut, with
deep, sharp, irregular teeth; lobed, deeply cut, but the incisions not reaching much more than
halfway to the midrib; cleft, almost like lobed, but the incisions extend more than halfway to the
midrib; parted, with incisions extending nearly to the midrib; and divided, with incisions
extending quite to the midrib. According to the number of lobes, clefts, etc., leaves may be
5-lobed, 7-cleft, many-cleft, etc.

In pinnately-veined simple leaves the incisions all point toward the midrib, and in
palmately veined ones they point toward the apex of the petiole. Pinnately veined leaves may be
pinnately-lobed, pinnately-cleft or pinnatifid, pinnately-parted, and pinnately-divided or
pinnatisect. In palmately veined leaves the same combinations are applied with palmately
substituted for pinnately. When using the number of lobes or divisions, we may have palmately
3-lobed, -3-cleft or trifid, 3-parted leaves, etc. and with higher numbers palmately many-lobe,
many-cleft or multifid, etc. The same combinations are made with the substitution of pinnate for
palmate.

There are two principal kinds of compound leaves, corresponding to the principal kinds of
division in simple leaves, pinnately compound and palmately compound. Pinnate compound
leaves are those where the leaflets are attached along the sides of a main stalk or rachis, the
leaflets corresponding to the lobes of a simple, pinnately lobed leaf. When there is an odd or end
leaflet, such leaves are termed odd-pinnate, uneven pinnate, or imparipinnate and when there is
no odd terminal leaflet they are called evenly or abruptly pinnate. Simple pinnate compound
leaves are those with a double row of leaflets along an unbranched rachis; bipinnate or twice
pinnate or 2-pinnate leaves are those where the rachis bears branches, the branches bearing the
leaflets in which cases the branches are termed pinnae; the division may be carried still further
and we may have 3- or tripinnate, 4- or quadripinnate or pinnately decompounds leaves, etc.

A simple palmate compound leaf has the leaflets attached to the tip of the petiole and
when there are only three leaflets, the leaf is called a ternate leaf. The division may be carried
further in twice palmate or when the division is in three's, twice ternate or biternate; if the
division goes still further the leaf is called palmately decompound.

According to the number of leaflets, leaves are called 1-foliolate, or unifoliolate; 2-foliolate
or bifoliolate; 3-foliolate or trifoliolate, etc.; and pinnately 5-foliolate; palmately trifoliolate, etc.
In pinnately compound leaves the terms 2- or bijugate, 3- or trijugate, multijugate, (juga= pairs)
etc., are used to express the number of pairs of leaflets, pinnae, etc. The terms ternate (in three's)
and binate (in pairs) are also used to refer to the mumber of other parts or units (e.g.
inflorescences).

Special forms of leaves include equitant, with the leaves more or less vertical, each leaf
overlapping the next as if they were folded together lengthwise; plicate, folded into pleats like a
fan; acicular, very slender and sharp, like needles; and subulate or awl-shaped, narrow and
tapering from fle base to a fine tip. Leaves may be modified and reduced in size as bracts or as
smaller scale leaves.
 As to consistence, leaves (and other plant parts) are fleshy, that is, thick and soft;
succulent, with more juice; coriaceous, firm or tough like leather; chartaceous, paper-like in
texture; and membranaceous, thin and more or less flexible.
Fig. 2b. Complete the figure by filling the blanks with the descriptive terms for types of leaf tips
(1-12), leaf bases (13-18), leaf margins (19-29) and compound leaves (30-34). Refer to
the definition of terms in the text.
 Surfaces of leaves, stems, fruits, and other plant parts may be glabrous, smooth and
without any projections; glabrescent, becoming glabrous at maturity; rugose, wrinkled or with
irregular raised and depressed lines; striate, marked with parallel lines; scabrid, roughened by
small projections; tuberculate, covered with small wart-like projections (other authors use
verrucose for tuberculate and verruculose as the diminutive); muricate, with protuberances that
are hard and pointed; and echinate, with projections that are stiffer and longer, almost awn-like.

The indumentums or covering of leaves and other organs may be pubescent, with fine
soft hairs; puberulent, with very short and soft hairs; pilose, with long and soft hairs; hirsute,
with stiff and spreading hairs; hispid, with short, stiff bristly hairs; strigose, with short, stiff hairs
closely appressed to the surface, all pointing in one direction; tomentose, wooly or lanate, with
soft hairs more or less matted together; cansecent, with grayish hairs not distinct to the naked
eye; mealy or farinose, with very short hairs with the appearance of meal, glaucous, with
pale-bluish or bluish green waxy bloom; glaucuscent, almost glaucous and furfuraceous, surfy or
lepidote, covered with small, spreading scales.

Leaves and other plant parts like pedicels, petals, sepals, etc. may be more or less covered
with small waxy glands, being then called glandular.

II. Procedure
Study the terms used in the description of leaves referring to available references for
additional information. Label the sketches in the figures after referring to the definitions of the
descriptive terms. Indicate the length (L) and width (W) to the nearest millimeter (mm) of some
of the sketches illustrating leaf outline where there is a length-width relationship required, by
measuring the sketch. If necessary, make sketches to illustrate the different descriptive terms.

Collect specimens of leaves as instructed by your teacher by cutting off with a pair of
scissors or a cutter a short length of shoot containing both young and mature leaves. Tag each
specimen and place them inside a plastic bag making sure no part of the plant extends outside the
bag to prevent wilting or drying up and bring your specimens to the laboratory. Keep your
specimens fresh by immersing their cut ends in water in a bottle.

Describe the leaves of each specimen following the guide below:

a. Leaf type (simple or compound?)
If simple, describe b to f: If compound, describe only b below:
b. Venation (specific) b. Specific type of compound leaf
c. Outline
d. Tip
e. Base
f. Margin