PLANT MORPHOLOGY, DENDROLOGY AND TAXONOMY: Lecture Guide 2020

Ma.Visitacion D. Guingab

CHAPTER 2
PLANT MORPHOLOGY
A. Introduction

Because the identification and classification of plants is based chiefly on the details of their
external features, knowledge of the terminology of plant morphology is essential. The
description of plant structures is called phytography, and it includes the descriptive terminology
of whole plants and their component parts. Mastery of selected terms will allow one to use most
manuals. The best way to learn the terms is to study them concurrently with selected plant
material. The learning experience is much more pleasant and rewarding if critical features are
seen in actual plant material.

B. Leaf Morphology

Leaf - an expanded, usually green, organ borne on the stem of a plant, arising at a node and
possessing a bud in its axil

1. Leaf composition
1) simple leaf – one blade (lamina)
2) compound leaf – blade divided into leaflets

How to determine if a leaf is simple or compound? Determine by looking for the bud
(young shoot/flower bud). Only by finding the bud will you know for certain.

Palmately compound leaves:

1) Bifoliate – palmately compound leaf with two leaflets
2) Trifoliate – palmately compound leaf having three leaflets growing from the
same point
3) Quadrifoliate – palmately compound leaf with four leaflets arising at a common
point
4) Multifoliate – palmately compound leaf with five or more leaflets arising at a
common point
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Pinnately compound leaves:

1) Pinnate – a compound leaf having leaflets on each side on an axis or midrib (e.g.
tindalo, narra)
2) Paripinnate – pinnately compound leaf without terminal leaflet (e.g. tindalo)
3) Imparipinnate - pinnately compound leaf with an odd terminal leaflet (e.g.narra)
4) Bipinnate – the central axis produces secondary axis which bears the leaflets (e.g.
Acacia)
5) Tripinnate – the secondary axes produce the tertiary axis which bears the leaflets
(e.g. Morinda)
6) Decompound – more than thrice pinnate (e.g. Oroxylum indicum)

Leaf composition: A & B (imparipinnate); C (tripinnate); D (paripinnate); E

(bipinnate)

2. Leaf attachment and Stipule

1) Petiolate – leaves have a stalk (petiole) that attaches them to the stem
2) Sessile – leaves do not have a petiole and are attached directly to the stem
3) Clasping – leaves are sessile and have a base that wholly or partly wraps around the
stem
4) Stipulate – leaf with stipules
5) Exstipulate – leaf having no stipules
6) Amplexicaul – clasping or surrounding the stem
7) Auriculate – leaf with expanded bases surrounding stem
8) Decurrent – havng leaf base prolonged down stem as a winged expansion or rib
9) Perfoliate – a leaf with basal lobes so united as to appear as if stem ran through it

Leaf base of sessile leaves: A (decurrent); B (auriculate); C (amplexicaul); D (connate);

E (perfoliate)

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D E F

Type of Stipules: A (ochreate stipule of Polygonium); B (adnate stipule);

C (interpetiolar stipule of Ixora); D (spinous stipules of Zizyphus); E
(tendrillar stipule of Smilax); F (stipular spine of Acacia)

3. Leaf arrangement (phyllotaxy)

1) Alternate – a single leaf arising at each node
2) Opposite – two leaves arising at each node with the bases at the same level
3) Whorled or verticillate – three or more leaves per node
4) Opposite decussate – arranged in opposite pairs at right angles to one another
5) Distichous – leaves alternatively arranged in two different rows
6) Spiral - leaves alternatively arranged spirally

Phyllotaxy: A (alternate); B (opposite decussate); C & D (whorled)

4. Leaf venation
1) Arcuate – secondary veins bending toward apex
2) Cross-venulate – small veins connecting secondary veins
3) Dichotomous – veins branching symmetrically in pairs
4) Palmate – several primary veins diverging from the point
5) Parallel – veins arranged axially (most of monocots)
6) Pinnate – secondary veins paired oppositely
7) Reticulate – smaller veins forming a network (most of dicots)
8) Multicostate reticulate – having many principal veins
9) Unicostate reticulate – having only one principal vein
10) Triplenerved – three main veins

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Leaf venation: A (reticulate unicostate); B (reticulate multicostate-divergent);

C (reticulate multicostate-convergent); D (parallel unicostate); E (parallel);
F (multicostate-convergent)

5. Leaf shape
1) Acicular – needle-shaped
2) Acuminate – tapering to a long point
3) Aristate – spine-like tip
4) Cordate – heart-shaped
5) Cuneate – wedge shaped, acute base
6) Deltoid - triangular
7) Digitate – with finger-like lobes
8) Elliptic – oval shaped widest at middle
9) Falcate – hooked or sickle-shaped
10) Flabellate – fan-shaped
11) Hastate – triangular with basal lobes
12) Lanceolate – pointed at both ends; lanced-shape
13) Linear – parallel margins, elongate (many grasses)
14) Lobed – deeply indented margins
15) Obcordate – inverted cordate
16) Oblanceolate – inverted lanceolate
17) Oblique – leaf with two unequal halves; inequilateral
18) Oblong – wide and long lamina
19) Obovate – inverted ovate, narrow at base
20) Obtuse – bluntly tipped
21) Orbicular or round – circular
22) Ovate – egg-shaped, wide at base
23) Palmate – like a hand with fingers
24) Peltate – stem/petiole attached centrally
25) Perfoliate – stem seeming to pierce leaf
26) Pinnatisect – deep, opposite lobing
27) Reniform – kidney-shaped
28) Rhomboid – diamond-shaped
29) Sagittate – arrow-shaped

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30) Spatulate – spoon-shaped

31) Spear-shaped – pointed, barbed base
32) Subulate – tapering point, awl-shaped
33) Truncate - squared off apex

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6. Leaf apices/ bases

1) Acuminate – sharply pointed (G)
2) Acute – becoming gradually pointed (A)
3) Aristate –provided with a well-developed bristles (D)
4) Cirrhose – with prologation or mid-rib forming a tendril (E)
5) Caudate – tail-like apex (C)
6) Cuspidate – terminating a point; spinous (F)
7) Emarginate – having a notch at apex (K)
8) Mucronate – abrubtly terminated by sharp spine
9) Truncate – appearing to terminate abruptly, as if by cutting off (L)
10) Retuse – rounded or obtuse with a central shallow indentation (J)
11) Oblique – assymetrical/unequal
12) Obtuse – rounded end (B)
13) Sub-obtuse – imperfectly or less than completely obtuse

7. Leaf margins
1) Ciliate – with fine hairs
2) Crenate – with rounded teeth
3) Dentate – with symmetrical teeth
4) Denticulate – with fine dentation
5) Doubly serrate – serrate with sub-teeth
6) Entire – even, smooth throughout
7) Lobate – indented, but not midline
8) Serrate – teeth forward pointing
9) Serrulate – with fine serration
10) Sinuate –with wave-like indentations
11) Spiny - with sharp stiff points
12) Undulate – widely wavy

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8. Leaf and stem surfaces

1) Glaucous – covered with a whitish powder or waxy coating
2) Farinose – covered with a meal-like powder or minute particles
3) Scurfy – covered with small scale-like particles
4) Viscid (viscous) – covered with sticky or resinous secretion
5) Glutinous – about the same as viscid
6) Punctate – dotted with minute pits or translucent dots
7) Papillate (papillose) – bearing minute, pimple-like protuberances
8) Tuberculate/Verrucose – bearing tubercles or warty protuberances
9) Rugose – wrinkled (e.g.typical leaf of Lamiaceae)
10) Glabrous – without hairs of any kind
11) Pubescent – with a hairy surface

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C. Flower Structure

Flower – the reproductive structure of the angiosperms

Bisexual (of flower) – containing functionally female and male parts
(=hermaphroditic)
Dioecious – female and male flowers on different plants
Monoecious – having male and female flowers on the same plant
Actinomorphic (regular flower) – a flower with radial symmetry, any type of cut
through the center will divide the flower into two equal parts
Zygomorphic (irregular flower) – a flower with bilateral symmetry, a cut through
the center will divide the flower into similar halves in only one plane

1. Flower Major Parts

1) Sepal – a member of the calyx (usually green), the outer whorl of non-fertile part
surrounding the fertile part of a flower
2) Petal – a member of the corolla, the inner whorl of non-fertile part surrounding the
fertile part of a flower
3) Stamen – the male part of a flower, consisting of filament and anther, containing
the pollen
a. Anther –pollen-bearing part of the stamen
b. Filament – stalk of an anther
4) Carpel (Pistil) – the fertile part of a flower, almost always at the center usually
two or more in number
a. Ovary – the hollow base of the carpel containing one or more ovules
 Ovule – the egg-producing structure, becomes the seed
 Placenta – tissue inside the ovary to which the ovule is attached
b. Style – the usually elongated part of an ovary bearing at its top the stigma
(s)
c. Stigma – the apical sticky part of the style, receiving the pollen
5) Other parts
a. Pedicel – the stalk of a floret
b. Peduncle - the stalk of a solitary flower
c. Receptacle – the axis of a flower on which the perianth (sepal and petal),
androecium (stamen) and gynoecium (carpel) are borne
d. Bract – reduced leaf supporting an inflorescence or a single flower

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e. Bracteole – scale-like leaf borne on the pedicel supporting a flower

2. Inflorescence

Inflorescence – that part of the stem above the uppermost node with foliage leaves
that bears flowers; the cluster of flowers arising from the main stem axis or peduncle

1) Solitary – a simple flower on a caulescent or acaulesccent stem

2) Spike – unbranched inflorescence with sessile flowers
3) Raceme – unbranched inflorescence with flowers on pedicels
4) Panicle – a branched or compound raceme (i.e. main rachis with branches bearing
flowers on pedicels)
5) Corymb – flat-topped inflorescence with youngest flowers at the end of main axis
or rachis
6) Cyme - flat-topped inflorescence with oldest flowers at the end of main axis or
rachis
7) Umbel - flat-topped inflorescence with all the pedicels arising from a common
point
8) Catkin/ament – a spike-like inflorescence of unisexual, apetalous flowers, often
pendant and falling as a unit
9) Spadix – a thick, fleshy spike of unisexual, apetalous flowers, often surrounded by
a vase-shaped or funnel-like modified leaf or spathe which is often brightly
colored. the male flowers are typically clustered above the female flowers on an
erect phallus-like spike (e.g.Araceae)
10) Syconium – a hollow, spherical or flask-shaped inflorescence line on the inside
with numerous minute, apetalous, unisexual flowers. Male flowers consist of one
to five stamens, while female flowers consist of a single carpel with a long or

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short style. The flowers are pollinated by minute symbiotic female wasps that
enter the syconium through a pore (ostriole). A characteristic inflorescence of
Ficus (Moraceae).
D. The Fruit

A fruit is a matured ovary and is found only in the members of the Angiosperms. A fruit
developed solely from the ovary and its contents is known as a true fruit. A fruit
developed from the ovary and its contents plus additional parts of the flower such as the
receptacle, petals, and sepals is known as an accessory fruit (e.g. pineapple). The
following is a common classification of fruit types.

I. Simple Fruits - Fruits formed from one pistil/carpel. They may be either true or
accessory fruits.
1. Dry Fruits: - Fruits in which the coat becomes dry at maturity.
a) Dehiscent Fruits - Dry fruits which at maturity open by definite natural means to
shed the contained seeds
Types:
1) Legume A dry dehiscent fruit developed from one carpel and at maturity
splitting along both the dorsal and ventral sutures (e.g. ipil).
2) Follicle A dry dehiscent fruit developed from one carpel and at maturity
splitting along only one suture (e.g. dita)
3) Capsule A dry dehiscent fruit developed from several carpels.
i. Loculicidal capsule - one which splits along the outer median line
(lilies).
ii. Septicidal capsule - one which splits along the septa and opens at the
top. (agave)
iii. Silique - a special long slender capsule of 2 carpels.
iv. Silicle - a special short broad capsule of 2 carpels.
v. Pyxis - a capsule which has circumscissle dehiscence.
vi. Poricidal capsule - one which opens with round holes.

b) Indehiscent fruits - Dry fruits which do not open when mature to shed their seeds.
Many of this group is one seeded fruits.
Types:
1) Achene - A one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit; the one seed is attached to the
fruit wall at a single point. (buttercups, dandelion, sunflower)
2) Nut - A dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit similar to an achene but with the
wall greatly thickened and hardened. (coconut, note: because of extrafloral
bracts, or "husk", the latter two fruits are sometimes called "drupes")
3) Samara - A one- or two-seeded dry, indehiscent fruit in which part of the fruit
wall grows out into a wing (narra).
4) Grain - A one-seeded dry, indehiscent fruit in which the fruit wall and the
seed coat are fused (e.g. wheat, corn, grasses)
5) Schizocarp - A fruit formed from several carpels, each carpel of this pistil
enclosing a single ovule, at maturity the carpels separate as separate
indehiscent fruits.

2. Fleshy Fruits - A fruit in which the wall becomes soft and fleshy as it matures.

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a) Drupe - A one-seeded simple fruit developed from a superior ovary in which the
innermost portion of the wall (endocarp) becomes hard and stony, the outermost
part (exocarp) becomes a relatively thin skin, and the middle portion between the
skin and the stone (mesocarp) becomes either fleshy or fibrous. (coconut and
talisai) note: because of extrafloral bracts, or "husk", the latter two fruits are
sometimes called "drupes", but best called "nuts").
b) Berry - A simple fruit in which the ovary wall or at least its inner portions
become enlarged and usually juicy. (grape, banana).
Types:
 Hesperidium - This is a special type of berry in which a leathery rind forms;
the interior of the fruit divided by septa, indicating the number of carpels.
(citrus)
 Pepo - This is a special type of berry in which a relatively hard rind is formed;
the interior of fruit not divided by septa. (watermelon, gourds, squash)
c) Pome - An accessory fleshy fruit formed by a group of carpels more or less firmly
united with each other and surrounded by and united to the floral tube or
receptacle. (apple, pear)

II. Aggregate Fruit - A fruit formed by the development of a number of pistils from the
same flower. The individual units may be berries or other specific types (raspberry,
strawberry)

III. Multiple Fruit - A fruit formed by the development of a number of pistils often with
accessory parts, the pistils being from a number of flowers (mulberry, fig).

Fruit Types

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E. Phytography

Practical plant taxonomy is impossible without a thorough knowledge of and experience

in the art of making descriptions. Plant taxonomy is based on descriptions; specimens,
species, genera, families have to be compared in order to obtain identifications, to study
relationships or to obtain a reasonably dependable systems, be it based on outward
appearances (“phenetic”) or on actual contemporary and historical genetic
(“phylogenetic”) relationships. Phytography is essentially a subjective art. When a
description is made a certain sequence and terminology is essential. In this way, the
organs have a certain place within the description, whereby they can easily be found back.
While the various characters and their variability has a certain place in the sentence. For
all parts the dimensions should be given in the appropriate dimensions, mm, cm, m.
Although the length of a leaf of 110 mm is the same as 11 cm, the former suggests a
greater exactness and the latter should be preferred, on the other hand the length of a
sepal of 11 mm is to be preferred over 1.1 cm, which latter figure suggests a greater
measure of fault. When sizes are given, one traditionally first gives the length, then the
width, then the thickness, therefore 6-9 by 3-5 mm is always length by width, even when
the first dimensions are smaller than the second; 3-5 by 6-9 means less long than wide.
When the dimensions before ”by” are of the same type as those after it, it is not
mentioned; therefore not 6-9 mm by 3-5 mm, but 6-9 by 3-5 mm, while 6-9 cm by 3-5
mm is correct. Do not use “x” between such figures, but “by”, it makes a text easier to
read. Colors derived from dry material, as necessity is usual the case, should be followed
by ‘(is)’ (= in sicco, when dried). When taken from field notes or personal observations,
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by ‘(i.v)’ (= in vivo, alive). In older texts one may find remarks as ‘v.s’ (vidi sicco, seen
when dried) and ‘v.v’ (vidi vivo, seen alive)

C. Golden Rule in Phytography

1. Be concise
2. Wok from base to top, from outside to inside, from the total to the details
3. Always try to begin a sentence with its subject

Logical means that one should start to describe the whole and then the parts, that one
should begin at the base and finish at the top, that one should work from the outside
towards the inside.

Short means that all unnecessary words should be avoided, the text should be like a
telegram, where each word has to be paid for.

Example: This is a climbing plant. The seeds are red and the leaves are hairy on one side
and green on the other, while there are 10 stamens inserted on a blue corolla. There are no
stipules, but there are five sepals to the calyx, which have an acute apex and the bark is
brown. This shrub is perennial and has leaves which have serrate margins and an acute
base and are oblong.

Little sense should be made of this, instead it should have been:

Climbing shrub. Bark brown. Leaves oblong, base acute; margins serrate, green above,
densely pilose underneath. Stipules absent. Sepals 5, acute. Petals blue. Stamens 10,
inserted in the corolla tube. Testa red.
Three types of descriptions
1. Analytical description, here everything observed has been noted. It is wise to start
this way when you are dealing with a group you are unfamiliar with. In this way, you
will, hopefully, miss nothing essential.
2. Diagnostic description, only those characters by which the taxa differ are noted. This
can of course only be done when you know the group very well, so you should start
with an analytical description.
3. Bad description, characters are haphazardly noted. You, of course, would never
make one like that, but many others do.

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GLOSSARY
Accrescent (of calyx) – increasing in size with age
Actinomorphic (of flower) – regular, divisible along more than one plane of symmetry
Alternate (of leaves) – only one at each node, usually arranged in a spiral along the stem
Androgynophore – column carrying male and female parts of flower
Androphore – column carrying male parts of flower
Anemochorous – dispersed by wind
Anther –pollen-bearing part of the stamen
Anthocarp – false fruit consisting of true fruit + base of perianth
Apical – at the tip
Apocarpous – carpels free (e.g. Annonaceae)
Aquatic – living in water
Areole (of venation) – space between the veins
Aril – outgrowth of the funicle, surrounding the seed, usually fleshy
Arillate – provided with an aril
Arillode – aril-like structure derived from some other part of the seed
Axillary (of buds) – in the axil of a leaf
Baccate – berry-like (fruit)
Balance hairs – attached along their length, having two free ends
Basifixed (of stamens) – filament attached to the base of anther
Berry – a fleshy fruit, seeds embedded in fruit pulp (e.g. Psidium)
Bipulvinate (of petiole) – base and top of petiole swollen
Bisexual (of flower) – containing functionally female and male parts (=hermaphroditic)
Bract – reduced leaf supporting an inflorescence or a single flower
Bracteole – scale-like leaf borne on the pedicel supporting a flower
Bulbil – vegetative bud that acts as a diaspore
Buttress – triangular, often flat, outgrowths at base of tree trunk
Caducous – soon falling off
Capitate – in the form of a head
Capsule – dry dehiscent fruit
Carpel – the units of an ovary or a fruit, which can be free (apocarpous) or fused
(syncarpous)
Caruncle – a callus-like structure on the seed
Catkin – a spike with unisexual flowers; a male spike falls off as a whole after flowering
Cauliflorous – inflorescences borne on the trunk
Choripetalous – (flowers) with separate petals
Collateral – side by side
Colleter – small sausage-shaped body, e.g. at the lamina base of many Asclepiadaceae
Connective – tissue between the thecae
Contort (of corolla lobes or petal) – one margin of each lobe or petal covering the next
Corona – appendages of the corolla, together forming an”extra” corolla
Cotyledons – the first leaf-like structures of a seedling, sometimes remaining in the
seedcoat
Cymose – an inflorescence of which the terminal bud produces a flower, branches
produced by axillary buds
Cystolith – special containing crystals (e.g. of silica)
Deciduous – leaves dropped during unfavorable season
Decussate – arranged in opposite pairs that alternatively cross with each other

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Dehiscent (of fruit) – splitting open when dry

Dentate (of leaf margin) – provided with teeth
Dbh – diameter at breast height, the width of a tree trunk at c. 1.50 m above ground
Diaspore – any part of a plant that serves for propagation (seed, fruit, bulbil)
Didynamous – with two long and two short stamens
Dimerous (of stamens) – number of stamens twice that of petals
Dimorphic – appearing in two different forms
Dioecious – female and male flowers on different plants
Disc – a glandular outgrowth of the receptacle, usually producing nectar
Distichous – arranged in two different rows
Domatium – hairy or membranous structure on the underside of the leaves, usually in the
axils of midrib and lateral nerve
Dorsifixed – filament attached to the back of the anther
Drupe – a fleshy fruit consisting of a thin outer layer (exocarp), a fleshy inner layer
(mesocarp) and a bony or woody inner layer (endocarp), surrounding the seed(s)
Endemic (of distribution) – a species (or other taxon) confined in its distribution to a
limited area, e.g. an island
Endosperm – nutritive tissue in seed, of mixed maternal and paternal origin
Endozoochorous – dispersed internally by animals
Entire (of margin) – smooth, no teeth
Epicalyx – extra calyx-like segments surrounding the calyx proper
Epilithic – growing on rocks
Epipetalous (of stamens) – borne opposite the petals or/on the corolla (oppositipetalous)
Epiphyte – a plant living upon another plant but usually not directly parasitizing it
Epizoochorous – plants dispersed externally by animals
Exstipulate – without stipules
Extrafloral nectary – gland outside the flower producing a sugary substance
Exudate – liquid oozing out from cuts, can be milky, resinous, colorless, etc.
Fascicle – a contracted inflorescence, rachis very short, pedicels often of unequal length
Female (pistillate) flower – a flower only bearing functionally female parts
Filament – stalk of an anther
Funicle – the connection between placenta and seed
Gamopetalous – with petals fused
Geniculate – knee-shaped
Glaucous – bluish or grayish tinge caused by a thin layer of wax (e.g. on the underside of
leaves)
Gynophore – elongated receptacle bearing the pistil
Gynostegium – fusion of stigma with stamens
Hemiparasite – a plant deriving part of its nutrition from a host plant
Heterostylous – with styles in the same flower of different length
Hermaphroditic – same as bisexual
Holoparasite – a plant completely dependent for nutrition on its host
Hook – a curved woody climbing organ
Hydrochorous – dispersed by water
Hypanthium – cup-shaped or tubular receptacle, free from the ovary
Hypocotyl – part of seedling between root and cotyledons
Imbricate (of flower parts) – with one part overlapping another
Imparipinnate (of compound leaf) – with apical leaflet present
Indo-Australia – tropical Asia, Malesia, tropical Australia (and usually the tropical Pacific)

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Indo-Malesia – tropical Asia, Malesia (and the tropical Pacific)

Inferior (of ovary) – with sepals/petals/stamens borne on top of the ovary
Interpetiolar stipules – stipules fused between two opposite petioles (e.g. Rubiaceae)
Intrapetiolar stipules – stipules fused, borne between the stem and the petiole
Intramarginal vein – a vein running inside, and parallel to, the margin of a leaf
(Myrtaceae)
Isomerous – having the same number of members in successive whorls
Jaculator – hook-like outgrowth inside the fruit carrying a seed (e.g. Acanthaceae)
Laticiferous – with milky sap
Lepidote – covered with scales
Liana – woody climber
Ligule – scale-like structure borne on base of blade (e.g. Graminae)
Male (staminate) flower – a flower bearing only functionally male parts
Malesia – the plant-geographic unit covered by the Flora Malesiana project, comprising:
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea
Margin – the edge of leaf blade, or other flat organ
Moniliform (of fruit) – shape like a string of beads (e.g. Alyxia)
Monoecious – having male and female flowers on the same plant
Monopodial growth – elongation growth by a terminal bud
Mycorrhiza – fungi living in roots of higher plants helping these to obtain nutrients
Myrmecophilous – provided with structures liked by ants
Nectary – gland producing sweet exudates, usually inside o flower
Neotropical – occurring in the tropics of the New World (Central & South America)
Nigrescent – turning black
Nut – a one-seeded, non-dehiscent fruit with a hard coat
Obdiplostemonous (of stamens) – number of stamens twice that of petals and alternating
with them
Opposite (of leaves) – two leaves attached on either side of a stem at the same level
Orthotropic (of branches) – growing vertically
Paleotropical – occurring in the tropics of the Old World (Africa, Asia)
Palminerved (of leaves) – with midrib and primary veins meeting at junction of petiole
and lamina (Malvaceae)
Pantropical – occurring all over the tropics
Parasite – a plant deriving all or part of its nutrition from a host plant
Parietal (placentation) – attached to outer wall of ovule
Paripinnate (of compound leaf) – lacking an apical leaflet
Pellucid (translucent) dots (in leaf) – clear dots (oil glands) becoming visible when leaf is
held against the light, e.g. in Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, etc.
Peltate (of leaves) – petiole fixed to a point away from the margin
Penninerved (of leaves) – with one midrib (primary vein) from which secondary veins
arise
Perianth – outer flower parts not differentiated into calyx and corolla
Petiole – stalk of a leaf
Pinnae – the leaflets of a compound leaf
Pinnate leaf – a compound leaf with leaflets arranged along a main rachis
Placenta – part of the ovary bearing the ovules
Plagiotropic (of branches) – growing horizontally
Pneumatophore – breathing root, e.g. the vertically growing branches of the roots of
Sonneratia and other mangrove species

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Pod – a monocarpellate fruit normally splitting longitudinally into two halves (also
legume)
Pollination – the process of transferring pollen to the stigma which may lead to
fertilization of the ovules
Pollinium – pollen glued together into a small body
p.p. – pro parte, partially
Protandrous (flower) – the stamens ripen before the ovary
Protogynous (flower) – the ovary ripens before the stamen
Pseudostipules – as here used: stipule-like organs at base of petiole, the basal pair of
leaflets in a compound leaf, looking different from normal leaflets
Pulvinus – more or less swollen joint, e.g. between leaf blade and petiole
Pyrene (stone) – woody or bony cover around seed, itself usually surrounded by softer
tissue
Quincuncial (in 5-merous flowers) – two petals outermost, two innermost, one partly
covering an inner and partly covered by an outer petal
Racemose (of an inflorescence) – with main axis not terminating in a flower (see cymose)
Receptacle – axis of a flower upon which the flower parts are inserted
Rhizome – underground, usually horizontally growing stem
Ruminate (of endosperm) – divided into compartments by ingrowths of seedcoat
Samara – a winged nut (e.g.Acer)
Saprophyte – a plant without chlorophyll that obtains its nutrition entirely from leaf litter
with the help of mycorrhiza (not parasitic)
Sarcotesta – fleshy outer layer of seed
Scalariform – ladder-like
Schizocarp (fruit) – breaking apart into 1-seeded indehiscent parts
Semi-inferior (of ovary) – with sepals/petals/stamens borne halfway along its length or
nearly so
Serial – arranged in a row
Spadix – a spike with a fleshy axis (e.g. Araceae)
Spathe – a large bract completely covering the inflorescence (e.g. Araceae)
Spike – an inflorescence with sessile flowers arranged on along axis
Spikelet – partial inflorescence consisting of dry scales containing the flower (e.g.
Graminae)
Spine (thorn) – a stiff sharp organ derived from branches, stipules, leaves, etc.
Spur – a hollow appendage of a flower, usually containing nectar (e.g. Impatiens)
Spurious (fruit) – false, i.e. not only consisting of the developed ovary
Stamen – the male part of a flower, consisting of filament and anther, containing the
pollen
Staminode – non-functional stamen
Stigma – the apical sticky part of the style, receiving the pollen
Stilt roots – roots arising above ground from trunk or branches (e.g. Mangrove trees)
Stipel – appendage at base of a leaflet
Stipule – a leaf-like appendage at the side of the leaf insertion
Stolon – a long thin prostrate stem growing on the surface of the ground and producing
new plants
Strobilus – a cone consisting of overlapping scales, as in Pinus
Style – the usually elongated part of an ovary bearing at its top the stigma (s)
Sulcate – grooved

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Superior (of ovary) – free from receptacle, so perianth + stamens inserted between pedicel
+ ovary base
Sympetalous – with petals united (see gamopetalous)
Sympodial branching – terminal bud of a branch dies off or slows down and elongation
growth is continued from an axillary bud (e.g. Baccaurea, Terminalia)
Syncarp – several fruits grown together to form one single false fruit (e.g. Ananas,
Artocarpus)
Synsepalous – with sepals united
Taxon – any taxonomic unit (e.g. variety, species, family)
Tendril – a thread-like organ used for climbing (e.g.Cucurbitaceae, Vitaceae)
Terminal – at the end (of a branch)
Terrestrial –living on the ground
Theca (plural thecae) – the pollen-containing parts of an anther
Triplenerved – a leaf with midrib and a pair of strong veins reaching leaf tip (e.g.
Melastoma)
Triplenerved at base – leaf with a pair of veins at base not reaching leaf tip
Umbel – inflorescence consisting of a main axis with several flowers on pedicels of
similar length inserted at one point at the tip
Unguiculate – lower part stalk-shaped (clawed)
Unisexual (flower) – bearing either male or female parts
Valvate (of flower parts) – adjacent parts touching edge to edge but not overlapping
Venation – the system of veins in a leaf
Verticillate (of leaves) – in whorls of three or more
Vivipary – seeds germinating when fruit is still attached to mother plant (e.g. Rhizophora)
Zygomorphic (of flowers) – flower consisting of two symmetric halves (e.g. Lamiaceae), i.e.
with one plane of symmetry only

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APPENDICES

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Appendix 1

COMPLETE SYNONYMY OF PHILIPPINE PLANT FAMILY NAMES

(SPERMATOPHYTES)

PTERIDOPHYTES (FERN AND FERN ALLIES)

1. MARATTIACEAE 12. LYCOPODIACEAE

2. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 13. PSILOTACEAE
3. HYMENOPHYLLACEAE 14. SELAGINELLACEAE
4. CYATHEACEAE 15. EQUISETACEAE
5. POLYPODIACEAE 16. DAVALLIACEAE
6. PARKERIACEAE 17. DIPTERIDACEAE
7. GLEICHENIACEAE 18. ASPLENIACEAE
8. SCHIZAEACEAE 19. LYGODIACEAE
9. OSMUNDACEAE 20. BLECHNACEAE
10. MARSILEACEAE 21. PTERIDACEAE
11. SALVINIACEAE 22. WOODSIACEAE

GYMNOSPERMAE

1. ARAUCARIACEAE = Pinales 4. PINACEAE = Pinales

2. CYCADACEAE = Cycadales 5. PODOCARPACEAE = Pinales
3. GNETACEAE = Gnetales 6. TAXACEAE = Pinale

ANGIOSPERMAE (MONOCOTYLEDON)

1. ALISMATACEAE = Alismatales 16. HYDROCHARITACEAE =

2. AMARYLLIDACEAE = Asparagales Alismatales
3. APONOGETONACEAE = (Najadaceae
Alismatales = HYDROCHARITACEAE =
4. ARACEAE = Alismatales Alismatales)
(Lemnaceae = ARACEAE = 17. IRIDACEAE = Asparagales
Alismatales) 18. JUNCACEAE = Poales
5. ARECACEAE = Arecales 19. LILIACEAE = Liliales
Palmae = ARECACEAE = Arecales) 20. MARANTACEAE = Zingiberales
6. ASPARAGACEAE=Asparagales 21. MUSACEAE = Zingiberales
7. BROMELIACEAE = Poales 22. ORCHIDACEAE = Asparagales
8. BURMANNIACEAE = Dioscoreales 23. PANDANACEAE = Pandanales
9. CANNACEAE = Zingiberales 24. PHILYDRACEAE = Commelinales
10. CENTROLEPIDACEAE = Poales 25. POACEAE = Poales
11. COMMELINACEAE = Commelinales (Graminae = POACEAE = Poales)
12. COSTACEAE=Zingeberales (Bambusaceae =POACEAE = Poales)
13. CYPERACEAE = Poales (Bromaceae = POACEAE = Poales)
14. ERIOCAULACEAE = Poales 26. PONTEDERIACEAE = Commelinales
15. FLAGELLARIACEAE = Poales 27. POTAMOGETONACEAE =
Alismatales
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28. RAFFLESIACEAE = Malpighiales 32. TYPHACEAE = Poales

29. STEMONACEAE = Pandanales 33. XYRIDACEAE = Poales
30. TACCACEAE = Dioscoreales 34. ZINGIBERACEAE = Zingiberales
31. TRIURIDACEAE = Pandanales

ANGIOSPERMAE
(COTYLEDON)

1. ACANTHACEAE = Lamiales 32. CELASTRACEAE = Celastrales

2. ACHARIACEAE=Malpighiales (Stackhousiaceae = CELASTRACEAE =
3. ACTINIDIACEAE=Ericales Celastrales)
4. AIZOACEAE = Caryophyllales (Hippocrateaceae = CELASTRACEAE =
5. AMARANTHACEAE = Celastrales)
Caryophyllales 33. CENTROPLACACEAE=Malpighiales
(Chenopodiaceae 34. CERATOPHYLLACEAE =
= AMARANTHACEAE = Caryophyllales) Ceratophyllales
6. ANACARDIACEAE = Sapindales 35. CHLORANTHACEAE =
7. ANNONACEAE = Magnoliales Chloranthales
8. APIACEAE = Apiales 36. CHRYSOBALANACEAE=Malpighial
(Umbelliferae = APIACEAE = Apiales) es
9. APOCYNACEAE = Gentianales 37. CLETHRACEAE = Ericales
(Asclepiadaceae = APOCYNACEAE = 38. CLUSIACEAE =
Gentianales) MalpighialesCHRYSOBAAL
10. AQUIFOLIACEAE = Aquifoliales (Guttiferae = CLUSIACEAE =
11. ARALIACEAE = Apiales Malpighiales)
12. ARISTOLOCHIACEAE = Piperales 39. COMBRETACEAE = Myrtales
13. ASTERACEAE=Asterales 40. CONNARACEAE = Oxalidales
(Compositae=Asteraceae=Asterales) 41. CONVOLVULACEAE = Solanales
14. BALANOPHORACEAE = Santalales 42. CORIARIACEAE = Cucurbitales
15. BALSAMINACEAE = Ericales 43. CORNACEAE = Cornales
16. BASELLACEAE = Caryophyllales (Alangiaceae = CORNACEAE = Cornales)
17. BEGONIACEAE = Cucurbitales 44. CRASSULACEAE = Saxifragales
18. BERBERIDACEAE = Ranunculales 45. CRYPTERONIACEAE=Myrtales
19. BIGNONIACEAE = Lamiales 46. CUCURBITACEAE = Cucurbitales
20. BIXACEAE = Malvales 47. CUNONIACEAE = Oxalidales
21. BORAGINACEAE = unplaced asterid 48. DATISTICACEAE=Cucurbitales
I 49. DICHAPETALACEAE =
22. BRASSICACEAE = Brassicales Malpighiales
(Cruciferae = BRASSICACEAE = 50. DILLENIACEAE = Dilleniales
Brassicales) 51. DIOSCOREACEAE = Dioscoreales
23. BURSERACEAE = Sapindales 52. DIPTEROCARPACEAE = Malvales
24. BUXACEAE = Buxales 53. DROSERACEAE = Caryophyllales
25. CACTACEAE = Caryophyllales 54. EBENACEAE = Ericales
26. CALOPHYLLACEAE=Malpighiales 55. ELAEAGNACEAE = Rosales
27. CAMPANULACEAE = Asterales 56. ELAEOCARPACEAE = Oxalidales
28. CAPPARACEAE = Brassicales 57. ELATINACEAE = Malpighiales
29. CAPRIFOLIACEAE = Dipsacales 58. ERICACEAE = Ericales
30. CARICACEAE = Brassicales (Epacridaceae = ERICACEAE = Ericales)
31. CASUARINACEAE = Fagales
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59. ERYTHROXYLACEAE = 95. OLACACEAE= Santalales

Malpighiales 96. OLEACEAE = Lamiales
60. EUPHORBIACEAE = Malpighiales 97. ONAGRACEAE = Myrtales
61. FABACEAE = Fabales 98. OPILIACEAE = Santalales
(Leguminosae = FABACEAE = Fabales) 99. OROBANCHACEAE = Lamiales
62. FAGACEAE = Fagales 100. OXALIDACEAE = Oxalidales
63. GENTIANACEAE = Gentianales 101. PAPAVERACEAE = Ranunculales
64. GESNERIACEAE = Lamiales 102. PASSIFLORACEAE = Malpighiales
65. GOODENIACEAE = Asterales 103. PEDALIACEAE = Lamiales
66. HAMAMELIDACEAE = Saxifragales 104. PHYLLANTHACEAE =
67. HERNANDIACEAE = Laurales Malpighiales (Bischofiaceae
68. HYPERICACEAE=Malpighiales = PHYLLANTHACEAE =
69. ICACINACEAE = Near Garryales Malpighiales)
70. JUGLANDACEAE = Fagales (Antidesmataceae
71. LAMIACEAE = Lamiales = PHYLLANTHACEAE =
(Labiatae = LAMIACEAE = Lamiales) Malpighiales)
72. LAURACEAE = Laurales (Aporusaceae
73. LECYTHIDACEAE = Ericales = PHYLLANTHACEAE =
74. LENTIBULARIACEAE = Lamiales Malpighiales)
75. LOGANIACEAE = Gentianales 105. PIPERACEAE = Piperales
76. LORANTHACEAE = Santalales 106. PITTOSPORACEAE = Apiales
77. LYTHRACEAE = Myrtales 107. PLANTAGINACEAE = Lamiales
(Punicaceae = LYTHRACEAE = Myrtales) (Callitrichaceae = PLANTAGINACEAE =
(Sonneratiaceae = LYTHRACEAE = Lamiales)
Myrtales) 108. PLUMBAGINACEAE =
78. MAGNOLIACEAE = Magnoliales Caryophyllales
79. MALPIGHIACEAE = Malpighiales 109. PODOCARPACEAE = Pinales
80. MALVACEAE = Malvales 110. POLYGALACEAE = Fabales
(Bombacaceae = MALVACEAE = (Xanthophyllaceae
Malvales) = POLYGALACEAE = Fabales)
(Byttneriaceae = MALVACEAE = 111. POLYGONACEAE =
Malvales) Caryophyllales
(Sterculiaceae = MALVACEAE = 112. PORTULACACEAE =
Malvales) Caryophyllales
(Tiliaceae = MALVACEAE = Malvales) 113. PRIMULACEAE = Ericales
81. MARTYNIACEAE = Lamiales (Myrsinaceae = PRIMULACEAE =
82. MELASTOMATACEAE = Myrtales Ericales)
83. MELIACEAE = Sapindales (Ardisiaceae = PRIMULACEAE =
84. MENISPERMACEAE = Ranunculales Ericales)
85. MONIMIACEAE = Laurales 114. PROTEACEAE = Proteales
86. MORACEAE = Rosales 115. PUTRAMJIVACEAE=Malpighiale
87. MORINGACEAE = Brassicales 116. RAFFLESIACEAE=Malpighiales
88. MYRICACEAE = Fagales 117. RANUNCULACEAE =
89. MYRISTICACEAE = Magnoliales Ranunculales
90. MYRTACEAE = Myrtales 118. RHAMNACEAE = Rosales
91. NEPENTHACEAE = Caryophyllales 119. RHIZOPHORACEAE = Malpighiale
92. NYCTAGINACEAE = Caryophyllales 120. ROSACEAE = Rosales
93. NYMPHAEACEAE = Nymphaeales 121. RUBIACEAE = Gentianales
94. OCHNACEAE = Malpighiales 122. RUTACEAE = Sapindales

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123. SABIACEAE = Sabiales 136. STYRACACEAE = Ericales

124. SALICACEAE = Malpighiales 137. SYMPLOCACEAE = Ericales
(Flacourtiaceae = SALICACEAE = 138. THEACEAE = Ericales
Malpighiales) 139. THYMELAEACEAE = Malvales
125. SALVADORACEAE = Brassicales (Gonystylaceae = THYMELAEACEAE =
126. SANTALACEAE = Santalales Malvales)
127. SAPINDACEAE = Sapindales (Aquilariaceae = THYMELAEACEAE =
(Aceraceae = SAPINDACEAE = Malvales)
Sapindales) 140. TROPAEOLACEAE = Brassicales
128. SAPOTACEAE = Ericales 141. ULMACEAE = Rosales
129. SAURURACEAE = Piperales 142. URTICACEAE = Rosales
130. SAXIFRAGACEAE = Saxifragales 143. VERBENACEAE = Lamiales
131. SCHISANDRACEAE=Austrobailey 144. VIOLACEAE = Malpighiales
ales 145. VITACEAE = Vitales
132. SIMAROUBACEAE = Sapindales (Leeaceae = VITACEAE = Vitales)
133. SOLANACEAE = Solanales 146. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE =
134. STAPHYLEACEAE = Zygophyllales
Crossosomatales 147. WINTERACEAE=Canellales
135. STYLIDIACEAE = Asterales

Note: Families with all capital letters are the correct family names; families with
the first letter capitalized are synonyms

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Appendix 2

PORTRAITS OF WOODY PLANT FAMILIES

AT THE ISU WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Guide to the identification of plant families (Balgooy, 1998)

FAMILY CHARACTERS
ANACARDIACEAE Always: Woody; aromatic; bark on cross section with a pale wavy
sclerenchymatic band; leaves penninerved, exudate black or turning
black or brown upon exposure; exstipulate; disk present, 1 ovule per
cell.
Usually/often: Non-climbing, trees or shrubs; ovary superior; leaves
spiral (simple or compound), petiole swollen at base, leaf shape
oblanceolate, margin entire; inflorescence paniculate, terminal; flowers
small, 5-merous, petals free; style excentric. Fruit a drupe, nut or samara
with fleshy and resinous, sometimes waxy or oily mesocarp
Striking features: Leaves opposite (Bouea); climber (Pegia, Rhus
nodosa); fruits winged (Gluta, Swintonia); ovary (semi-) inferior
(Drimycarpus, some Semecarpus); fleshy hypocarp (Anacardium,
Semecarpus).
Different from: Burseraceae: usually no black sap, flowers often 3-
merous, 2 ovules per cell.
ANNONACEAE Always: Woody; odoriferous, bark fibrous, medullary rays stellate on
cross section (widening outwards), continued in bark; leaves distichous
(all Asian genera), simple entire, penninerved, exstipulate; ovary
superior, seed with ruminate endosperm.
Usually/often: Bark blackish, twigs with longitudinal ridges; leaves
with minute dots; flowers 3-merous, large, stamens numerous, many
free carpels (apocarpous), caili- or ramiflorous.
Striking features: Fruit a syncarp (Annona); climber with hooks
(Artobotrys); carpels moniliform (Desmos, Dasymaschalon, Orophea,
Xylopia); carpels dehiscent (Anaxagorea, Xylopia).
Different from: Ebenaceae: not odoriferous, no stellate medullary rays,
bark not fibrous, carpels fused. Magnoliaceae: stipules, no stellate
medullary rays, weak bark. Monimiaceae: leaves opposite, dentate,
weak bark. Myristicaceae: flowers tiny, single carpel, no stellate
medullary rays, red sap, weak bark.
APOCYNACEAE Always: Woody; laticiferous; leaves simple, entire, penninerved, corolla
4- or 5-merous, sympetalous, lobes contorted in bud, stamens 5,
epipetalous, ovary superior, 2-locular
Usually/often: Leaves simple, decussate, no stipules but sometimes a
ridge between leaves of one pair; anthers fused with stigma, stigma
club-shaped, hairs or scales in corolla throat; fruit of 2, often separate,
carpels; seeds many, often with a tuft of hairs.
Striking features: Leaves spiral (Cerbera, Lepiniopsis, Plumeria,
Thevetia); leaves whorled (Alstonia, some Alyxia, Dyera, some
Rauvolfia); intramarginal nerve, black glands underside of leaves
(Chilocarpus, Leuconotis); climbers with hooks (Willughbeia); carpels
moniliform (Alyxia, Parameria); fruit spiny (Allamanda); herbaceous

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climbers, often trichomes at base of leaf blade, corolla star-shaped or

urceolate, seeds usually flat (Telosma, Dischidia).
ARALIACEAE Always: Woody, stems resinous with thick pith; leaves spiral; ultimate
branch of inflorescence an umbel; sepals absent or small, petals free,
caducous, large disk; ovary inferior; fruit a drupe, 1-many-carpellate,
one seed in each pyrene.
Usually/often: Plants aromatic; petiole with ligule, leaves
compound; inflorescence terminal, endosperm ruminate.
Striking features: Petiole with crests at base (Osmoxylon); leaves
bipinnate (Aralia, some Polyscias)
Different from: Umbelliferae; never woody in Malesia, fruit a 2-
carpellate schizocarp – Cornaceae: leaves opposite, always simple, not
ligulate, flowers not in umbels.
ARECACEAE Always: Woody; leaves plicate in bud, exstipulate, petiole sheathing
(sheaths sometimes open); inflorescence covered by large bract (spatha)
with over 250,000 flowers flowers; actinomorphic; ovary superior, 1
ovule per cell.
Usually/often: Stem unbranched; leaves spiral, variously dissected
(palmate or pinnate); flowers unisexual, 3-merous, stamen 6, ovary 3-
locular; fruit 1-seeded drupe
Striking features: Stemless mangrove plant (Nypa); monocarpic (dying
after flowering) Corypha, some Metroxylon; leaves bipinnate (Caryota);
climbing (rattans)
Different from: Pandanaceae: leaves linear, usually 3-ranked, leaf
blade spiny; flowers without perianth. Cycadaceae: resinous,
inflorescence a unisexual terminal strobilus.
ASTERACEAE Always: Exstipulate; flowers in an inflorescence head, petals fused,
style bifid, ovary inferior, 1-locular, 1 ovule.
Usually/often: Herbaceous, leaves spiral; two types of flower; inner
actinomorphic, tubular (disk flowers), outer zygomorphic (ray florets),
calyx transformed to hairy pappus
Striking features: Trees (Vernonia arborea, some Olearia, some
Senecio)
BIGNONIACEAE Always: Woody (climbers or trees); leaves or leaflets penninerved,
exstipulate; flowers large and showy, synsepalous, sympetalous; ovary
superior, 2-locular, numerous superposed ovules.
Usually/often: Leaves compound, decussate, glands on underside of
leaves; 4-didynamous stamens, 1 staminode, fruit a flat woody capsule,
with many winged seeds.
Striking features: Leaves simple, whorled, with large glands above at
base (Deplanchea); leaves bipinnate (Millingtonia, Oroxylum,
Radermachera); seeds with corky ridges (Dolichandrone spathacea)
Different from: Gesneriaceae: rarely woody, never lianas, leaves
simple; seeds not winged. –Verbencaeae: ovules fewer, never
superposed, seeds not winged.
BIXACEAE Always: Woody; leaves spiral, simple, entire, penninerved, red-dotted;
flowers 5-merous, petals free, stamens numerous; ovary superior, 1-
locular; ovules many on three parietal placentas; fruit a spiny capsule.
Usually: Small trees, stipules tiny, caducous.

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Different from: Flacourtiaceae: leaves never red-dotted fruit not spiny.

Tiliaceae: usually stellate hairs, ovary 2-5 locular
Note: Bixa orellana is the only species of this family
BORAGINACEAE Always: Leaves alternate (rarely partly subopposite), simple; flowers 5-
(Ehretiaceae) merous, calyx persistent, corolla sympetalous.
Usually/often: Leaves rough to the touch by short stiff hairs;
inflorescence scorpioid; ovary 2-locular, or 4-locular by false septa, one
ovule per cell.
Striking features: Climbers (Tournefortia); beach shrub, leaves silvery
hairy (Tournefolia argentea); tree with winged fruit (Pteleocarpa)
BURSERACEAE Always; Woody; very exceptionally climbing; resiniferous, bark with
strong aromatic smell with a light-colored wavy sclerenchymatic band,
resinous ducts on the inside of this; the same feature only known in
Anacardiaceae; leaves imparipinnate, spiral, leaflets penninerved; petals
free, disk present; ovary superior, ovules 2 per cell; fruit with 1 seed per
cell.
Usually/often: Trunk buttressed; pith in twigs with vascular strands;
leaflets entire, pulvinate; dioecious, flowers 3-merous; fruit a drupe.
Striking features: Fruit 3-winged (Triomma); pseudostipules (some
Canarium, Dacryodes and Garuga); excentric stigma (Santiria); leaflets
dentate (some Canarium).
CANNABACEAE Always: Woody, non-climbing; leaves simple, distichous, stipulate;
stamens opposite the tepals; ovary superior. 1-celled, 1 pendulous ovule.
Usually/often: Bark fibrous; leaves oblique, triplenerved, dentate;
inflorescence often paired and/ or with basal buds; flowers unisexual,
stigma bifid.
Striking features: Leaves pinnately nerved (Aphananthe philippinensis,
A. cuspidata; Gironniera), leaves tough, fallen stipules leaving
annular scars (Gironniera); stipules intrapetiolar connate (Parasponia);
winged fruit (Ulmus).
Different from: Moraceae: milky sap, inflorescence condensed.
Urticaceae: usually cystoliths, style mostly one
CAPPARACEAE Always: leaves spiral, flowers (sub-)zygomorphic; ovary superior on
(andro-)gynophore
Usually/often: Woody; leaves simple, stipules present; flowers 4-
merous,petals free, unguiculate, stamens numerous, ovary 1-locular;
fruit a many-seeded berry
Striking features: Leaves with pellucid dots, sepals 6, petals absent,
ovary 3-locular, fruit 1-seeded (Stixis ); tree with 3-foliolate leaves
(Crateva); thorny climbers or shrubs (Capparis)
Different from: Cruciferae: herbaceous, ovary 2-locular, flowers
actinomorphic.
CASUARINACEAE Always: Trees; twigs jointed; leaves scaly, in whorls; flowers unisexual,
male flowers in slender spikes, female flowers in globular heads
Usually/often: Fruit a woody cone, seeds winged.
Striking features: Twigs round, scales in whorls of 6 or more
(Casuarina); twigs quadrangular, scales in whorls of 4
(Gymnostoma).
Different from: Coniferales: no vessels in wood, twigs not

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articulate.
CELASTRACEAE Always: Woody; leaves simple; disk present, distinct (except in
Microtropis); stamens isomerous, opposite the sepals, ovary superior
Usually/often: Leaves pale gray-green in herbarium; leaves
opposite, dentate; stipules small, caducous; petals free, overy 2-5
celled; fruit capsular, seeds arillate.
Striking features: Pneumatophores (Lophopetalum); petiole
bipulvinate, scalariform venation (Bhesa); lianas (Celastrus,
Hippocratea, Reissantia, Salacia); ovary many-celled (Siphonodon);
seeds winged (Kokoona, Lophopetalum)
Different from: Aquifoliaceae: disk absent, stigma broad, sessile;
fruit a drupe with 3 or more pyrenes; Flacourtiaceae: leaves spiral,
ovary 1-locular, parietal placentation; Rhamnaceae: leaves rarely
opposite, stigma opposite the petals.
CLUSIACEAE Always: Woody, non-climbing; colored sap in bark (often yellow);
(Hypericaceae) leaves simple, decussate, entire, penninerved; flowers actinomorphic,
petals free, stamens numerous; ovary superior.
Usually/often: Leaves with latex glands or canals.
Sriking features: Reddish sap, capsule with winged seeds
(Cratoxylum); leaves with very dense, parallel venation
(Calophyllum); fine, dark resin ducts crossing the veins, basal
excavations and stipule-like structures at base of petiole (Garcinia);
(sub)shrubs, flowers yellow (Hypericum); flowers unisexual
(Garcinia, Mammea, and some Calophyllum)
COMBRETACEAE Always: Woody; leaves simple, entire, penninerved; ovary inferior, 1-
locular
Usually/often: Leaves spiral with fine pellucid dots; glands at base of
lamina or on petiole; calyx valvate; petals 4 or 5, free; stamens twice the
number of petals, disk present; 2- ovules; fruit 1 – seeded, winged.
Sriking features: Climber; fruits crowned by accresent sepals
(Calycopteris); trees with sympodial horizontal branching; leaves
crowded, no petals (Terminalia); leaves opposite, with scales, fruit
winged (Combretum); petiolar spines (Quisqualis)
CONNARACEAE Always: Woody; leaves spiral, entire, penninerved, exstipulate; sepals
and petals free; ovary superior, two collateral ovules; fruit a 1-seeded
capsule; seed arillate
Usually/often: Climbers, leaves imparipinnate; flowers 5-merous; 1-5
carpels; stamens 10
Striking features: Tree with unifoliolate leaves (Ellipanthus); leaves
pellucid punctuate (Connarus); leaves trifoliolate, dried leaflets with
minute pits above; fruit warty (Agelaea).
Different from: Fabaceae: stipules present, sepals connate, ovules
serial, fruit mostly with more than one seed.
CYCADACEAE Always: Trees, dioecious; resinous; stems palm-like, tuberous,
unbranched; leaves pinnately compound and fern-like, spirally inserted,
crowded terminating the stem, young leaves circinate, exstipulate, leaf
bases remaining after the leaves drop; strobili terminal, males in cone,
females solitary in clusters; seeds usually drupelike and often brightly
colored. Not usually propagated by seeds but produces suckers at the

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base of the stem which is easily transplanted.

Usually/often: Unbranched
Different from: Palmae: not resinous, true flowers. Note: In the
Philippines, it occurs wild from Batanes and Northern Luzon to
Mindanao consisting of only one paleotropical genus, Cycas, occurs
mostly in lowland rainforest, also coastal and on limestone.
CLORANTHACEAE Always: More or less woody, erect, twigs with swollen nodes; leaves
simple, decussate (incl. verticillate), dentate, penninerved, interpetiolar
ridge or stipule; ovary inferior; fruit a 1-seeded drupe.
Usually: Inflorescence terminal, flowers reduced (without perianth)
Striking features: Drupes ripening white (Chloranthus); ripening red
(Sarcandra)
Different from: Acanthaceae: flowers well-developed, cystolith.
Piperaceae: leaves mostly alternate, entire, ovary superior.
DILLENIACEAE Always: Leaves spiral, simple, penninerved, exstipulate (but petiolar
wings may resemble stipules), sepals persistent in fruit; petals free,
stamens numerous, styles free.
Usually: Woody; leaves dentate/serrate; flowers yellow; fruit more or
less apocarpous, dehiscent; seeds arillate
Striking features: Trees, often stilt-rooted, trunk when slashed
produces hissing sound (Dillenia)
Different from: Guttifeae: leaves opposite, entire, yellow or white sap.
Ochnaceae: stipulate. Theaceae: carpels completely united.
DIPTEROCARPACEAE Always: Tall to very tall trees with resinous exudate. Leaves simple,
distichous; margin entire; stipules present, often caducous.
Inflorescences axillary, Sepals 5 free, persistent. Petals 5, free,
imbricate, longer than the sepals. Stamens few to many, the connective
with manifest apical appendages. Ovary superior or inferior, 4-5 locular,
style and stigma 1; placentation axilar, ovules (2--) 3 per locule.
Usually/often: Secondary and tertiary veins parallel, petiole thickened
apically, hairs in fascicles (tufts), domatia present; infloresence a
panicle. Fruit dry, indehiscent, nut enclosed between the grown, usually
wing-like calyx lobes (ovary superior) or nut under the calyx lobes
(ovary inferior).
Sriking features: Larhe amplexicaul stipules (Dipterocarpus, some
Shorea, some Parashorea); fruit wingless (several Vatica, some
Dipterocarpus and Shorea); dense numerous parallel secondary nerves
(Drybalanos, all reaching margin, and some Hopea); ovary semi-
inferior (Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus); bole smooth with horizontal rings,
large glands on underside of leaves (Vatica).
EBENACEAE Always: Trees or shrubs, non-climbing; stipules absent; dioecious;
calyx 3-5 lobed, accresent in fruit, petals fused, contorted, with brown
hairs; ovary superior, 3 to several cells.
Usually/often: Bark black; leaves simple, distichous, glandular below,
often turning blackish upon drying; margin entire, penninerved, midrib
sunken above; inflorescences axillary, fascicled; fruit a many-seeded
berry, seeds with ruminate endosperm.
ELAEOCARPA- Always: Woody, non-climbing; stipulate, leaves simple (except in some
CEAE juvenile Sloanea); flowers actinomorphic, sepals free valvate, petals free

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(except some Sloanea); anthers basifixed; disk present; ovary superior,

2-5 (-7) –locular, style 1; ovules axile in two rows.
Usually/often: Petiole bipulvinate, leaves spiral, serrate, domatia
present, inflorescence racemose, flowers hermaphroditic, 5-merous
(rarely 4- or 6-merous), petals fimbriate; stamens numerous (>10).
Striking features: Petals fimbriate (Eleaocarpus, some Sloanea); leaves
withering red, drupes blue (most Eleaocarpus); leaves opposite
(Aceratium and Sericolea)
Different from: Sterculiaceae and Tiliaceae: dorsifixed anthers, stellate
hairs, mucilage cells; Simaroubaceae (Irvingia): stipules leaving
annular scar
EUPHORBIACEAE Always: Stipules present; flowers unisexual, plants monoecious of
dioecious (some Aporosa spp.have bisexual flowers); ovary superior;
ovules 1or 2 per cell, pendulous; ovule with ventral raphe.
Usually/often: Woody; laticiferous; leaves spiral, simple dentate;
glands on petiole/leaf blade; petiole bipulvinate; ovary 3-locular; fruit a
capsule, central columella persisting after the valves have fallen;
micropyle covered by a caruncle.
Stiking features: Leaves in whorls of 3 (Borneodendron); climbers
with stinging hairs (Cnesmone, Megistostigma, Pachystylidium);
numerous small glands on surface of leaf (most Macaranga, Mallotus,
and Octospermum); inflorescence a cyahtium (Euphorbia);
inflorescence leaf-opposed (Suregada); fruit winged (Hymenocardia);
FABACEAE Subfamily Caesalpiniaceae
Leaves simple or unifoliolate, pinnate or bipinnate. Stipules usually
present, often caducous. Flowers zygomorphic, rarely actinomorphic,
uni- or bisexual. Sepals 4 or 5, connate or free, usually imbricate. Petals
absent or 1—5, free, imbricate. Stamens usually 10, free or basally
connate.
Subfamily Mimosaceae
Leaves mostly bipinnate, often with glands on the petiole and/or rachis.
Stipules usually present, caducous. Flowers often umbeliform or
capitulate clusters; actinomorphic, unisexual, bisexual or neuter. Sepals
(3--) 5, connate, valvate. Petals (3--) 5 (--7), free or shorly connate,
valvate. Stamens (4--) 10 to many, free or united; anthers sometimes
with a small gland at the apex
Subfamily Papilionaceae
Leaves unifoliolate or simple, imparipinnate, trifoliolate, rarely digitate.
Stipules usually present, caducous or not. Flowers usually zygomorphic,
usually bisexual. Sepals 5, connate. Petals usually 5 at least free in the
basal part (claws). Stamens usually 10, rarely a few or more, all connate
into a tube (monodelphous), or 9 connate and the upper one free
(diadelphous), or in 2 bundles of 5.
GNETACEAE Always: Woody, twigs with swollen nodes; leaves simple, decussate,
entire, exstipulate; penninerved; dioecious, inflorescence a spike.
Usually/often: Climbers, leaves with translucent lines, dried leaved
nigrescent
Striking features: Trees (Gnetum gnemon, G. costatum)
Different from: Celastraceae (Salacia): no swollen nodes;

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inflorescence never a spike; Clusiaceae (Garcinia): milky or yellow

sap, inflorescence never a spike.
LAMIACEAE Always: Leaves decussate (incl. verticillate), exstipulate; calyx
persistent, often accrescent; corolla sympetalous, ± zygomorphic; ovary
superior; 4-(or 5-) locular.
Usually/often: Woody, stem quadrangular; leaves simple with
glands; fruit indehiscent, 4-(5-8) seeded.
Striking features: Herbs (Phyla, Priva, Premna herbacea, Verbena*);
climbers (Congea, Faradaya, Hosea, Petraeovitex, Sphenodesme,
Symphorema); leaves palmately compound (Garrettia, Hosea,
Petraeovitex, Teysmanniodendron p.p. Vitex p.p.); leaves bipinnate
(Petraeovitex, p.p.); involucre enlarging under capitate inflorescence
(Congea, Hosea, Sphenodesme, Symphorema); calyx (5-lobed) enlarged
in fruit (Petraeovitex); thorny (Gmelina p.p.); cauliflorous (Callicarpa,
Premna,both rare); petiolules pulvinate ((Teysmanniodendron)
LAURACEAE Always: Woody; leaves simple, sntire, exstipulate; flowers 3-merous;
anthers opening with valves; ovary 1-locular with one apical ovule; fruit
a berry or drupe.
Usually/often: Trees; leaves spiral or alternate; often coriaceous,
triplenerved, glaucous below; aromatic; ovary superior.
Striking featuresb: Twining parasite (Cassytha); leaves mostly
opposite, triplenerved (Cinnamomum); leaves crowded, often brown-
hairy (Actinodaphne); overy inferior (Cassytha, Cryptocarya,
Eusideroxylon); fruit stalk swollen, fleshy (Alseodaphne, Dehaasia);
leaves drying blackish (most Dehaasia, some Lindera).
Different from: Icacinaceae: 2 ovule, anthers not opening by valves.
Monimiaceae: leaves (sub) opposite, dentate
LECYTHIDACEAE Always: Woody, non-climbing; leaves spiral, penninerved; flowers
hermaphroditic; stamens numerous; ovary (semi-)inferior, 1-6-locular.
Usually/often: Leaves crowded at the end of the branches, exstipulate,
dentate; fruit with fibrous mesocarp.
Striking features: Winged fruit (Combretodendron); tiny stipules,
inflorescence racemose (Barringtonia)
LOGANIACEAE Always: Leaves decussate (incl. verticillate), simple; interpetiolar ridge
sometimes resembling interpetiolar stipules; flowers actinomorphic,
hermaphroditic, sympetalous, ovary superior.
Usually/often: Woody; leaves entire, flowers 5-merous
Striking features: Climbers (Gardneria, some Fagraea, most
Strychnos); plants with hooks and triplenerved leaves (Strychnos);
excavation at base of petiole (Fagraea)
Different from: Apocynaceae: milky sap, swollen stigma; Rubiaceae:
interpetiolar stipules, ovary inferior, often raphides
LORANTHACEAE Always: Woody hemiparasite on branches of trees; leaves simple,
entire; flowers with well-developed corolla, calyx much reduced;
stamens oppositipetalous, ovary inferior; fruit a one–seeded berry, seed
surrounded by a slimy layer.
Usually/often: Attached to the host with several haustoria; leaves
opposite, drying opaque, olive green; venation very indistinct, stem with
or without swollen nodes; flowers bisexual, sympetalous

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Striking features: Young parts rusty hairy, fruit club-shaped (Scurulla);

inflorescense covered by many red bracts (Lepideria, Lepeostegeres)
Different from: Olacaceae: leaves rarely opposite, leaf surface finely
tuberculate; Santalaceae: seeds not surrounded by slimy layer, parasitic
on roots
LYTHRACEAE Always: Leaves opposite (incl. verticillate), entire, simple, exstipulate;
(Sonneratiaceae) flowers bisexual, ovary superior, 1-6 –celled; fruit a capsule, seeds
numerous.
Usually/often: Woody, inflorescence terminal, flowers actinomorphic,
hypanthium present, calyx cup-shaped, lobes valvate, petals clawed,
free, crinkled.
Striking features: Herb, petals wanting (Ammania); ovary partly
attached to persistent calyx (Sonneratia)
Different from: Crypteroniaceae: flowers unisexual; Myrtaceae: leaves
with translucent dots, ovary inferior
MAGNOLIACEAE Always: Woody, non-climbing; leaves spiral, simple, entire,
penninerved, stipule amplexicaul, leaving ring-like scar; flowers
solitary, hermaphroditic, tepals free, in several series, imbricate; with
free stamens in basal part and free carpels in upper part.
Usually/often: Flowers terminal, large, aromatic; fruit more of less
woody, dehiscent, ripe seeds dangling from thin threads (spirally
thickened vessels of funicle).
Striking features: Stipules adnate to petiole (Magnolia)
Different from: Annonaceae, Lauraceae Winteraceae: exstipulate.
MALVACEAE Always: Woody, non-climbing; leaves spiral, simple, no domatia,
(Sterculiaceae, stipulate; flowers 5-merous, actinomorphic, hermaphroditic; sepals
Tiliaceae, connate, petals free, stamens numerous, filaments fused in a tube, and
Bombacaceae, this fused to base of petals; ovary superior.
Byttneriaceae) Usually/often: Trees or shrubs, bark fibrous; leaves simple, entire (but
often lobed), penninerved or palminerved, stellate hairs, epicalyx, petals
contort, fruit a capsule.
Striking features: Gland on midrib below (Hibiscus); fruit spiny
(Urena); armed trunk, leaves digitate, seeds embedded in hairs on fruit
wall (Bombax, Ceiba*); leaves notched (some Neesia)
MELASTOMATACEAE Always: Leaves decussate (incl. verticillate), simple, exstipulate;
flowers choripetalous, connective variously prolonged or appendaged,
ovary (half) inferior.
Usually/often: Woody; leaves triplenerved, flowers hermaphroditic,
petals showy; anthers opening by apical pores; ovary 4-or 5-celled with
numerous axile ovules.
Striking features: Herbs with 3-merous flowers (Sonerila); epiphyte,
with auricled leaves (Pogonanthera); pseudostipules (Dalenia,
Dissochaeta, Medinilla, rare); epiphyte with urn-shaped fruits
(Pachycentria); fruit 1-locular, 1- or 2-seeded, top with star-shaped
ridges, leaves usually penninerved, venation often indistinct
(Memecylon)
MELIACEAE Always: Woody; non-climbing; exstipulate, flowers choripetalous;
ovary superior.
Usually/often: Trees; leaves spiral, compound; flowers hermaphroditic;

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filaments forming a tube ( nearly free in Cipadessa, Toona, Walsura);

stigma broad; placentation axile; seed arillate. Fruit a capsule, berry or
drupe. Seeds winged or not and having a fleshy aril or sarcotesta or a
combination of these.
Striking features: Leaves simple or unifoliolate (Vavaea, sometimes in
Aglaia, Turraea and Walsura); leaves bipinnate (Melia); leaves
trifoliolate (Sandoricum someties in Aglaia and Walsura); leaf-tip
continuing growth in adult leaf (Chisocheton); brown scales or stellate
hairs (Aglaia); milky sap (Aglaia, Aphanamixis, Chisocheton (rare),
Lansium); flowers on the rachis (Chisocheton but rare); long spicate
infloresence (Aphanamixis).
Different from: Anacardiaceae: sap turning black, stamen free.
Burseraceae: sap resinous, flowers mostly unisexual, often 3-merous.
Rutaceae: leaves with pellucid dots, stamen free. Sapindaceae: leaves
often with free rachis tip, flowers often unisexual, stamen free
MORACEAE Always: Trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers or (hemi) with usually white
latex. Leaves always stipulate, simple, spiral; margin always entire.
Inflorescences condensed into a compact structure in pairs and with a
basal bud or single with a basal bud; axillary or cauliflorous. Flowers
unisexual (plants monoecious or dioecious). Ovary superior, 1 locular, 1
pendant ovule, Fruit fleshy, an achene or drupelet.
Striking features: Herbs (Fatoua), climbers or (hemi) epiphytes (Ficus
p.p. Maclura, Malaisia); leaves triplenerved at base, stipule cigar-
shaped, amplexicaul (Ficus); thorny (Maclura, some Streblus);
compound leaves (Artocarpus, rare); inflorescence a fig (Ficus)
MORINGACEAE Always: Treelets; leaves spiral, 2-4 pinnate, rachis thickened at nodes,
exstipulate; flowers bisexual, zygomorphic, 5-merous; petals free, 5
oppositipetalous stamens, 5 staminodes; ovary superior, 1-celled, ovules
many on three parietal placentas; fruit a linear capsule.
Usually/often: deciduous, seeds 3-winged.
Different from: Bignoniaceae: leaves opposite, flowers sympetalous.
Capparaceae: leaves not pinnate. Fabaceae: stipulate, one placenta
MYRTACEAE Always: Woody, non-climbing; leaves simple, entire, pellucid dots
(sometimes not distinct), exstipulate; flowers hermaphroditic; ovary
inferior (rarely half inferior), stamens inflexed in bud, petals free,
imbricate.
Usually/often: Bark flaky; leaves opposite, intramerginal vein; stamens
numerous, sometimes in phalanges. Fruit a berry or capsule, rarely a
drupe, usually with one to few seeds.
Striking features: Dwarf shrubs (some Decaspermum and
Leptospermum); bark peeling off in long scrolls, leaves spiral
(Tristaniopsis); leaves triplenerved (Rhodamnia, Rhodomyrus) or with
3-7 parallel veins (Melaleuca), often leathery.
NYCTAGINACEAE Always: Leaves simple, entire, exstipulate; flowers actinomorphic;
perianth tubular, undifferentiated; ovary superior, 1-celled, 1 erect
ovule.
Usually/often: Leaves (sub) opposite; flowers bisexual; anthocarp in
fruit persistent often viscid.
Striking features: Spiny stem (Bougainvillea, Pisonia aculeata)

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Different from: Rubiaceae: stipules, flowers with calyx and corolla,

ovary inferior. Verbenaceae: flowers with calyxand corolla
OLACACEAE Always: Woody; leaves simple, alternate or spiral, exstipulate; sepals
connate; stamens oppositipetalous; ovule pendulous
Usually/often: Leaves entire, penninerved, finely tubercled, flowers
hermaphroditic, actinomorphic; petals free, valvate, often hairy inside,
stamens twice the number of petals, ovary 1-locular or 3-5-locular in the
lower half, (often seemingly) inferior; fruit a one-seeded drupe
Striking features: Climbers with tendrils, leaves palminerved
(Erythropalum); crushed parts smelling of garlic (Scorodocarpus); calyx
strongly accresent in fruit (Hermandia); corolla tubular (Schoepfia);
some milky sap, secondary and tertiary veins parallel (Ochanostachys);
spiny shrub, petals bearded inside (Ximenia).
Different from: Opiliaceae: stamens the same number as tepals, no
sepals, ovary superior, 1-locular. Santalaceae: ovary inferior, ovule
basal, no petals.
OLEACEAE Always: Woody; leaves decussate, penninerved, exstipulate; flowers
hermaphroditic; actinomorphic, sympetalous; stamens 2; ovary superior,
2-celled, 1 or 2 ovules per cell.
Usually: Leaves simple, entire; flowers 4-merous.
Striking features: Climbers, leaves with longitudinal veins, leaves
glandular below (Myxopyrum); leaves pinnate (Fraxinus, Jasminum);
dried plant with pale stem and dark petioles (Chionanthus); fruit a
deeply 2-lobed berry (Jasminum); fruit winged (Fraxinus)
Different from: Apocynaceae: milky sap, stamens 5. Loganiaceae:
stipules or interpetiolar ridge, stamens 4 or 5. Rubiaceae: stamens more
than 2.
OXALIDACEAE Always: Flowers actinomorphic; petals free, stamens 10, filaments
connate at base; ovary superior, 5-locular, 5 styles.
Usually/often: Woody; leaves compound, spiral, stipules absent; seeds
arillate
Striking features: Herbs with underground tubers, leaves digitately
compound (Oxalis); subshrubs with paripinnate leaves (Biophytum);
mature trunk deeply fluted (some Sarcotheca)
PHYLLANTHA- Always: Stipules present; flowers unisexual, plants monoecious or
CEAE dioecious.
Usually/often: Woody; leaves simple usually alternate, often with
glands on petiole or lamina; margin entire to serrate; Flowers usually
small, generally unisexual.
Striking features: Leaves digitately compound (Bischofia, Hevea);
twigs mimicking pinnate leaves (Breynia, Glochidion, Phyllanthus,
Sauropus); fruit a drupe (Antidesma, stone flattened, sculpted)
PINACEAE Always: Woody; non-climbing; wood vesselless, resinous; leaves
simple, entire; flowers in unisexual strobili (plants dioecious or
monoecious).
Usually/often: Trees prostrate, branches whorld or opposite; leaves
evergreen, needle-like, arranged in fascicles; cone scales flattened and
distinct from the subtending bract, bract usually shorter than the scale;
plants monoecious, reproduced by seeds.

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PITTOSPORACEAE Always: Woody, non-climbing; leaves simple, penninerved, spiral,

exstipulate; flowers actinomorphic, sepals and petals imbricate, nearly
free.
Usually/often: Plants aromatic; leaves partly crowded, entire; flowers
5-merous, bisexual, anthers basifixed, placentation parietal; fruit a 2-
carpellate capsule; seeds many, in sticky pulp.
Striking features: Spiny shrub, fruit indehiscent (Citrobatus)
PODOCARPA- Always: Woody, non-climbing, wood vesselless, resinous; leaves
CEAE simple, entire, leaves spiral, venation longitudinal; female flowers
simple in unisexual strobili; dioecious, reproduced by seeds or stem
cuttings.
Striking features:Leaves scale-like or needle-like, spiral (Dacrycarpus
and Dacrydium); leaves broad, opposite, parallel venation (Nagea);
twigs flat, resembling leaves (Phyllocladus)
PRIMULACEAE Always: Leaves spiral or alternate, simple, penninerved, exstipulate;
petals connate at base, contorted, stamens oppositipetalous; ovary 1-
locular.
Usually/often: Woody, innovations rusty-red; leaves with colored
(often red or blackish) dots; flowers 5-merous, hermaphroditic, calyx
persistent, often with whitish margin; ovary superior, several ovules on
a basal placenta.
Striking features: Leaves without dots, ovary (half) inferior (Maesa);
climbers (Embelia and Grenacheria); plagiotropic branches swollen at
base, leaving large scars when shed (Ardisia); flowers unisexual in
axillary clusters (Rapanea/Myrsine); flowers unisexual,little branched
plants with large leaves (Tapeinosperma); viviparous shrubs of the
mangrove (Aegiceras); herbs (Labisia, some Ardisia)
Different from: Myristicaceae: red sap, seed arillate. Plumbaginaceae:
no dots, ovary with one ovule. Ochnaceae: no dots, stipulate.
RHAMNACEAE Always: Woody; leaves simple, spiral; flowers actinomorphic, stamens
isomerous, opposite the free petals, intrastaminal disk; ovules basal.
Usually/often: Leaves distichous, serrate or dentate, palminerved,
scaliriform tertiary venation, stipules small; fruit a drupe.
Striking features: Climbers with axillary tendrils (Gouania) or hooks
(Smythea, Ventilago); fruit a samara (Smythea, Ventilago) or 3-winged
(Gouania); scramblers with prickles (Ziziphus).
Different from: Celastraceae; leaves usually opposite, stamens
alternating with petals. Euphorbiaceae: flowers unisexual, stamens not
opposite the petals, ovules apical.
RUBIACEAE Always: Leaves decussate, incl. verticillate (sometimes one leaf of a
pair reduced), simple, entire, interpetiolar (rarely intrapetiolar) fused
stipules; corolla tubular, stamens isomerous, alternate with lobes.
Usually/often: Leaves with raphides; flowers hermaphroditic,
actinomorphic, corolla 4-or5-lobed; ovary inferior, 2-locular,
placentation axile; fruit a drupe, berry, capsule, or schizocarp; seeds
usually with well-developed endosperm, rarely without endosperm.
Striking features: Herbs, leaves of a pair unequal, flowers like those of
Solanum (Argostemma); stipules ochreate, ovary superior (Gaertnera);
climber with hooks (Uncaria); one sepal enlarged and showy (most

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Mussaenda); epiphytes with swollen hollow stems inhabited by ants

(Anthorrhiza, Hydnophytum, Myrmecodia, Myrmephytum); cauliflorous
treelets (Praravinia suberosa); herbs, leaves verticillate, fruit with
hooks (Galium)
RUTACEAE Always: Woody; exstipulate, pellucid dots in leaves (rarely hardly
visible); petal free, disk present; ovary superior, 4- or more-locular.
Usually/often: Non-climbing, plants aromatic; leaves compound;
flowers hermaphroditic; stigma capitate; fruit a capsule, or separating
into follicles, or sometimes a fleshy berry, samara or drupe. Seeds
usually 1 per carpel.
Striking features: Trunk or stem spiny (Citrus, Zanthoxylum); fruits
and seeds winged (Tetractomia); embryo with folded cotyledons
(Micromelum); shrubs, leaves simple with stellate indumentum
(Lunasia)
SALICACEAE Always: Woody; non-climbing; leaves simple; ovary 1-locular with
parietal placentation
Usually/often: Stipules small or absent; leaves spiral or distichous,
serrate/dentate, penninerved, often with basal nerves; glands on petiole
and leaf blade; flowers hermaphroditic; petals, if present, often with
scale inside; stamens numerous; ovary superior.
Striking features: Leaves bipulvinate (Ryparosa, Trichadenia, some
Hydnocarpus); leaves with transparent dots and dashes (Casearia) twigs
mimic pinnate leaves (Paropsia); T-shaped hairs (Ryparosa); stem
spiny (some Flacourtia, Hemiscolopia, Scolopia, Xylosma);
intramarginal vein (Scaphocalyx); ovary (semi-) inferior (Homalium);
winged seeds (Itoa)
SAPINDACEAE Always: Woody; non-climbing; leaves spiral; ovary superior, stamens
free.
Usually/often: Leaves paripinnate, leaflets alternate, rachis tip free,
exstipulate; flowers unisexual, plants monoecious or dioecious; disk
extrastaminal; seeds with fleshy sarcotesta or aril; style excentric;
petals with appendages inside; ovary 3-locular, 1 ovule per cell.
Striking features: Herbaceous climber (Cardiospermum); leaves
bipinnate (Tristiropsis); pseudostipules (Lepisanthes, Pometia,
Rhysotoechia); leaves simple, glandular, fruits winged (Dodonaea);
leaves trifoliolate (not always) (Allophylus, Atalaya, Paranephelium);
leaves with black glands below (Xerospermum); leaves imparipinnate
(some Lepisanthes, Paranephelium, Sapindus).
SAPOTACEAE Always: Woody; milky sap, at least in some organ; leaves simple,
entire; indumentum, if present, of balance hairs with unequal arms; no
extrafloral glands; flowers actinomorphic, sympetalous; ovary superior,
1 ovule per cell, 1 style; seed with brown shining testa.
Usually/often: Leaves spiral, stipulate; indumentum golden to brown;
inflorescence an axillary fascicle; flowers hermaphroditic;
alternipetalous stamens sterile, plants monoecious or dioecious; disk
extrastaminal; disk present (often adnate to ovary); fruit a berry, very
hard when dry; seed with a large scar.
Striking features: Leaves opposite, branched inflorescence
(Sarcosperma); shining part of testa very small (Burckella, Pouteria);

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PLANT MORPHOLOGY, TAXONOMY and DENDROLOGY: Lecture Guide 2020
Ma.Visitacion D. Guingab

sepal 2 rows of 3 (Palaquium); sepals 5 quincuncial (Planchonella, also

in Pouteria); sepals 2 row of 2 (Ganua, Madhuca, also in Payena);
cauliflorous (Aulandra, Magodendron).
THYMELAEA- Always: Leaves simple, entire, exstipulate; flowers hermaphroditic;
CEAE tepals united (at least at base); ovary superior; 1 ovule per cell.
(Gonystylaceae) Usually: Woody; bark with fine, tough, silky fibers; leaves alternate;
stamens twice the number of tepals.
Striking features: Cauliflorous treelets (some Phaleria); leaf margin
thickened, intramarginal veins (Aquilaria, Gyrinops); leaves with
pellucid dots, close parallel veins (Gonystylus).
Different from: Icacinaceae: no silky fibers, petals present. Oleaceae:
no silky fibers, corolla present, 2 stamens.
URTICACEAE Always: Leaves simple, stipulate; flowers minute; stamens incurved,
opposite the tepals, ovary superior, 1-locular, 1 basal ovule.
Usually/often: Leaves spiral, dentate, triplenerved, cystoliths present;
inflorescence condensed, paired and/or with basal bud; flowers
unisexual (plants monoecious or dioecious), style 1
Striking features: Stinging hairs (Dendrocnide, Girardinia, some
Laportea, Urtica); leaves white below (Leucosyke, Gibbsia, Maoutia)
Different from: Moraceae: milky sap, ovule apical, styles often 2;
Ulmaceae: no cystoliths, stamens erect, ovule apical, styles 2
VITACEAE Always: Leaves distichous, dentate, base of petiole expanded to form
(Leeaceae) clasping stipular structure; inflorescence leaf-opposed; flowers bisexual,
actinomorphic, 4 – or 5-merous, choripetalous, staminodal tube joined
to corolla; ovary 4-8-locular, 1 ovule per cell; fruit a berry with
ruminate endosperm.
Usually/often: Woody, leaves imparipinnate, rachis noded; underside of
leaf with pearl glands; climbers with tendrils

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