Testability Measures

Source: VLSI Test: Bushnell-Agrawal

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• Origins
• Controllability and observability
• SCOAP measures
• Sources of correlation error
• Combinational circuit example
• Sequential circuit example
• Test vector length prediction
• High-Level testability measures
• Summary

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 Purpose
• Need approximate measure of:
• Difficulty of setting internal circuit lines to 0 or 1 by
setting primary circuit inputs
• Difficulty of observing internal circuit lines by observing
primary outputs
• Uses:
• Analysis of difficulty of testing internal circuit parts –
redesign or add special test hardware
• Guidance for algorithms computing test patterns – avoid
using hard-to-control lines
• Estimation of fault coverage
• Estimation of test vector length

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 Origins
• Control theory
• Rutman 1972 -- First definition of controllability
• Goldstein 1979 -- SCOAP
• First definition of observability
• First elegant formulation
• First efficient algorithm to compute controllability and observability
• Parker & McCluskey 1975
• Definition of Probabilistic Controllability
• Brglez 1984 -- COP
• 1st probabilistic measures
• Seth, Pan & Agrawal 1985 – PREDICT
• 1st exact probabilistic measures
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 Testability Analysis
§ Involves Circuit Topological analysis, but no
test vectors and no search algorithm
§ Static analysis
§ Linear computational complexity
§ Otherwise, is pointless – might as well use
automatic test-pattern generation and calculate:
§ Exact fault coverage
§ Exact test vectors

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 Types of Measures
§ SCOAP – Sandia Controllability and Observability
Analysis Program
§ Combinational measures:
§ CC0 – Difficulty of setting circuit line to logic 0
§ CC1 – Difficulty of setting circuit line to logic 1
§ CO – Difficulty of observing a circuit line
§ Sequential measures – analogous:
§ SC0
§ SC1
§ SO

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Range of SCOAP Measures

§ Controllabilities – 1 (easiest) to infinity (hardest)

§ Observabilities – 0 (easiest) to infinity (hardest)
§ Combinational measures:
• Roughly proportional to # circuit lines that must be set to
control or observe given line
§ Sequential measures:
• Roughly proportional to # times a flip-flop must be clocked to
control or observe given line

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Goldstein’s SCOAP Measures
§ AND gate O/P 0 controllability:
output_controllability = min (input_controllabilities) + 1
§ AND gate O/P 1 controllability:
output_controllability = S (input_controllabilities) + 1
§ XOR gate O/P controllability
output_controllability = min (controllabilities of each input set) + 1
§ Fanout Stem observability:
S or min (some or all fanout branch observabilities)

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Controllability Examples

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More Controllability
Examples

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 Observability Examples
To observe a gate input:
Observe output and make other input values non-controlling

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More Observability Examples
To observe a fanout stem:
Observe it through branch with best observability

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Sequential Example

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Levelization Algorithm 6.1
§ Label each gate with max # of logic levels from
primary inputs or with max # of logic levels from
primary output
§ Assign level # 0 to all primary inputs (PIs)
§ For each PI fanout:
§ Label that line with the PI level number, &
§ Queue logic gate driven by that fanout
§ While queue is not empty:
§ Dequeue next logic gate
§ If all gate inputs have level #’s, label the gate
with the maximum of them + 1;
§ Else, requeue the gate
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Controllability Through Level 0
Circled numbers give level number. (CC0, CC1)

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Controllability Through Level 2

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Final Combinational Controllability

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 Combinational Observability for
Level 1
Number in square box is level from primary outputs (POs).
(CC0, CC1) CO

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Combinational Observabilities for
Level 2

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Final Combinational Observabilities

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Exercise

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Exercise-Ans-Controllability

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Exercise-Ans-Observability

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Sequential Measure Differences
§ Combinational
§ Increment CC0, CC1, CO whenever you pass
through a gate, either forwards or backwards
§ Sequential
§ Increment SC0, SC1, SO only when you pass
through a flip-flop, either forwards or
backwards, to Q, Q, D, C, SET, or RESET
§ Both
§ Must iterate on feedback loops until
controllabilities stabilize
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 D Flip-Flop Equations
§ Assume a synchronous RESET line.
§ CC1 (Q) = CC1 (D) + CC1 (C) + CC0 (C) + CC0 (RESET)

§ SC1 (Q) = SC1 (D) + SC1 (C) + SC0 (C) + SC0 (RESET) + 1

§ CC0 (Q) = min [CC1 (RESET) + CC1 (C) + CC0 (C), CC0 (D) +
CC1 (C) + CC0 (C)]
§ SC0 (Q) is analogous

§ CO (D) = CO (Q) + CC1 (C) + CC0 (C) + CC0 (RESET)

§ SO (D) is analogous

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 D Flip-Flop Clock and Reset
§ CO (RESET) = CO (Q) + CC1 (Q) + CC1 (RESET) + CC1 (C)
§ + CC0 (C)
§ SO (RESET) is analogous
§ Three ways to observe the clock line:
1. Set Q to 1 and clock in a 0 from D
2. Set the flip-flop and then reset it
3. Reset the flip-flop and clock in a 1 from D
§ CO (C) = min [ CO (Q) + CC1 (Q) + CC0 (D) +
CC1 (C) + CC0 (C),
CO (Q) + CC1 (Q) + CC1 (RESET) +
CC1 (C) + CC0 (C),
CO (Q) + CC0 (Q) + CC0 (RESET) +
CC1 (D) + CC1 (C) + CC0 (C)]
§ SO (C) is analogous
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Algorithm 6.2
Testability Computation
1. For all PIs, CC0 = CC1 = 1 and SC0 = SC1 = 0
2. For all other nodes, CC0 = CC1 = SC0 = SC1 =

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3. Go from PIs to POS, using CC and SC equations
to get controllabilities -- Iterate on loops until
SC stabilizes -- convergence guaranteed
4. For all POs, set CO = SO =

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5. Work from POs to PIs, Use CO, SO, and
controllabilities to get observabilities
6. Fanout stem (CO, SO) = min branch (CO, SO)
7. If a CC or SC (CO or SO) is , that node is

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uncontrollable (unobservable)
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Sequential Example Initialization

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After 1 Iteration

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After 2 Iterations

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After 3 Iterations

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Stable Sequential Measures

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Final Sequential Observabilities

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Source NPTEL
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Test Vector Length Prediction

§ First compute testabilities for stuck-at faults

• T (x sa0) = CC1 (x) + CO (x)
• T (x sa1) = CC0 (x) + CO (x)
• Testability index = log S T (f i)
fi

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Number Test Vectors vs. Testability Index

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 Summary
• Testability approximately measures:
• Difficulty of setting circuit lines to 0 or 1
• Difficulty of observing internal circuit lines
• Uses:
• Analysis of difficulty of testing internal circuit parts
• Redesign circuit hardware or add special test hardware
where measures show bad controllability or observability
• Guidance for algorithms computing test patterns – avoid using
hard-to-control lines
• Estimation of fault coverage – 3-5 % error
• Estimation of test vector length

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