Syllabus

URP 2105: Landscape Planning and Design

2.0 credits: 2 hours/week

1. Introduction to Landscape Planning and Design and its scope.

2. Historical references and preamble to modern concepts in Landscape Planning and
Design (Greek, Latin, English, French, Japanese, India, Islamic, etc.)
3. Landscape Planning and Design and its relationship with Ecosystem; Study of Ecology
and Geo-physical forces: its importance in Landscape Planning and Design.
4. Landscape Planning and Design-context, method and approaches; Elements of
Landscape Design; Introduction to landscape ingredients and their use to enrich the built
environment.
5. Plants in Landscape Planning and Design: Plantation and plantation design.
6. Site Planning for Landscape Planning and Design. Site development objectives and
principles; site selection, site development, topography, soils, grading, site utilities,
landscaping, and planting.
7. Hostile approach towards Landscape Planning and Design with case studies.

Recommended References

1. Simmonds, J. Ormspce (1988): Landscape Architecture

2. Time-saver Standard for Landscape Design
3. Mowla QA and Helal AKM. (Eds): Works of Japanese Landscape Architects in
Bangladesh 1977-87, compiled by M. Lida, Edited by Mowla and Helal. Published by
JOVA, Dhaka, 1988 (Revised and Expanded 1989).

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 Lecture 1

Introduction to Architecture

Definition of Architecture
● The process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings
or any other structures.
● Material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols.
● Design process results in functionally efficient, economically viable, and
aesthetically pleasant.
● Art and science.

Definition of architectural term

1. Aesthetics – beauty or the appreciations of beauty. Philosophy behind a pleasing
appearance, directly influenced by the artistic taste of the person.
2. Planning – systematic steps to be carried in order to achieve a given objective.
3. Designing – process of procuring a preliminary sketch of an object.
4. Creating – process of execution to convert the design into a physical reality.
5. Erecting – the process of assembling or putting into place the completed or
fabricated components of building.
6. Constructing – process of building any type of structure.
7. Executing – completing of all the activities connected with the construction.

Importance
● Designing the physical environment for people to live, work, move.
● Comfort, convenience.
● Health.
● Environment – protecting, connecting.
● Representation of our personalities, our cultures, and our traditions.
● Aesthetics.

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Architecture and art
● Aesthetics, creativity – both.
● Art – visual/entertainment – done by an individual for their own interests and
pleasure, no concern for others, need to justify their work to others.
● Architecture – have to consider in the proposed design, a plethora of people,
clients expectations and budget constraints, engineering expectations and
government regulations.

Elements of architecture
Prime generator of form – point, line, plane, volume.

1. Point
Indicates a position in space.
Characteristics:
● No length, width, depth.
● Static, directness, centralized.
● Point is projected onto vertical linear element.

● Two ends of a line

● Intersection of two lines
● Meeting of lines at the corner of a plane and volume
and center of a field
● Point at the center represents stable, rest and
dominance
● Off-center point- aggressive, creates visual tension
● Two points in a plane denotes a gateway; the same
points when elevated denote an approach

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2. Line
A point extended becomes a with properties of:
- Length,
- Direction,
- Position.
Characteristics:
● Line is created by extension of point
● Represents a point in motion
● Express direction, movement and growth
visually
● A line can serve to - join, link, support,
surround or intersect other visual elements
; describe the edges of and give shapes to
planes; articulate the surface of planes.

3. Plane
- A line extended becomes a with properties of:
- Length & width
- Shape
- Surface
- Orientation
Characteristics:
● A line extended becomes a plane
● Planes have shape
● Planes have colour and texture
● From the two dimensions of a plane to a three dimentional plane (volume)

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Types of plane
(a) The overhead plane: This can either be the roof plane, a building's primary
protection against climatic elements, or the ceiling plane, the sheltering element in
architectural space. [(Fig. 1.33(b)].
(b) The wall plane: Vertical wall planes are usually the most active in defining and
enclosing space [Fig. 1.33(a)].
(c) The base plane: The ground plane provides physical support and the visual base
for building forms. [(Fig. 1.33(b)].

4. Volume
A plane perpindicular to itself becomes a volume (Fig. 1.44).
Characteristics:
● A plane extended becomes a with properties of:
- Length, width, & depth
- Form/Space
- Surface
- Orientation
- Position
● A plane has only two dimensions, length and width, whereas a volume has three
dimension - length, width, and depth.
● All volumes can be analysed to consist of the following: points, liness, planes.

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Principles of design
The principles of design of a building are based on the function/ specific purpose and
the varied needs of the building. The following “ordering principles” are visual methods
that allow the form and space of a building to co-exist in order to make a design
complete (Fig. 1.46).
● Axis
● Symmetry
● Hierarchy
● Rhythm/ Repetition
● Datum
● Transformation

(a) Axis: A line drawn between two points in space and about which forms and spaces
can be arranged in a regular or irregular manner.
The axis is the most elenmentary means of organizing forms and spaces (Fig. 1.47).
Although imaginary and not visible, an axis is a powerful dominating and regulating
device. It helps to establish symmetry and balance.
● An axis is a linear condition (line) which has length and direction; it allows for
views and movement along its path.
● To define an axis, it should be terminated at both ends.
● An axis can be established by defining edges along its length. These edges can
be simply lines on the ground plan, or vertical planes that define a linear space
(Fig. 1.48).
● An axis can also be established by a symmetrical arrangement of forms and
spaces.

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(b) Symmetry: The balanced distribution of equivalent forms and spaces about a
common line (axis) or point (centre).
An axial condition can exist without a symmetrical condition, the converse is not
possible. A symmetrical condition requires a balanced arrangement of equivalent
patterns of form and space about a common line (axis) or point (centre). There are two
types of symmetry (Fig. 1.51):
(a) Bilateral symmetry: refers to the balanced arrangement of equivalent elements
about a common axis.
(b) Radial symmetry: consists of equivalent elements balanced about two or more
axes that intersect at a central point.

(c) Hierarchy: The importance or significance of a fom or space based on its size,
shape, or placement relative to other forms and spaces of the organization.
The principle of hierarchy is based on the fact that most architectural buildings have real
differences anmong their forms and spaces. These differences reflect the degree of
importance of these forms and spaces (Fig. 1.55). The way in which the functional or
symbolic differences among the building elements are shown helps in establishing a
visible, hierarchical order among the forms and spaces.

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(d) Rhythm/ Repetition: The use of recurring patterns to organize a series of like forms
or spaces.
Rhythm reters to the regular recurrence of lines, shapes, forms or colours. The concept
of rhythm is commonly used to organize forms and spaces in architecture. All building
types incorporate elements that are repetitive:
(a) Beams and columns repeat themselves to form repetitive structural bays (Fig.
1.60) and modules of space.
(b) Windows and doors are built into walls at regular intervals to allow light, air,
and people to enter its interiors, and to provide various viewpoints to the
surounding landscape.
The elements in a composition can be grouped according to
(a) their closeness to one another and
(b) the common visual characteristics.

Forms and spaces can be arranged in a repetitive order according to (Fig. 1.62)
● size
● shape
● detail characteristics

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(e) Datum: A line, plane, or volume that by its continuity and regularity helps to organize
a pattern of forms and spaces.
A series of elements can be arranged along an axis which serves as a datum. The
datum need not be a straight line, it can also be planar or volumetric in form. Given a
random organization of dissimilar elements, a datum can organize these elements in the
following ways. See Figs 1.71-1.75.

(a) A line can cut through or form a common edge for the pattern. A grid of lines
can also help to form a pattern.
(b) A plane can gather the elements beneath it as in (b) or serve as a
background and frame the elements in its field.
(c) A volume can collect the pattern within its boundaries as in (d) or organize
them along its perimeter as in (e).
(f) Transformation: A principle through which an architectural concept or organization
can be retained, strengthened, and built upon through a number of manipulations.
As with any discipline, the study of architecture also involves the study of the past (the
history). By studying the history, one learns about the past experiences and
achievements of others. The principle of transformation is based on this study. This
principle allows a designer to select a standard architectural model whose formal
structure and ordering of elements can be transfornmed, through a series of changes
(Fig. 1.76), to respond to the specific condition and context of the design, so that the
original design concept can be strengthened and built upon, rather than destroyed. See
Figs 1.77-1.80.

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Task
1. What is the importance of studying Architecture in Urban Planning Education?
2. Write down the names of world famous contemporary architectural constructions,
locations and their Architects.
3. Explain in brief, the influence of environment and religion on world Architecture.

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 Lecture 2

Aesthetic components of design

Some aesthetic components

1. Unity – key elements of unity

The principle of Unity deals with visual composition in
design. Composition means the relationship between
the visual elements. The brick work, timber and
concrete which we use as building materials for
protection from weather or for structural support form
the visual composition of architectural composition. To
get a good composition, the elements of unity should
be chosen carefully.

Unity therefore deals with the arrangement of building materials and building parts
(floor, wall, roof, column, beam, etc) to create a good composition.

7 key Elements of Unity

1. Texture
2. Colour
3. Tone
4. Direction
5. Proportion
6. Solid and Void
7. Form and Shape

Consider materials such as stone, glass and steel. They are available in a variety of
colours, tones, textures, shapes, proportions, etc. Various compositions of these
material properties are possible-the challenge lies in arising at the most pleasing
composition. The texture or colour of a single brick or wood panel will differ in effect
when it forms a part of the larger composition such as brick wall or a door frame set in a
wall.

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Texture
The word texture generally refers to the
appearance and feel of a surface. However, it
could also mean the physical composition or
structure of something, especially with
respect to its size, shape and arrangement of
its parts.

In this figure, a variety of textures can be

seen in the roofs, walls and paving. Strongly
identifiable shapes in roofs and battered walls
are seen as repeated units, presenting a definite and distinguishable feel of the surface.

Colour
Here colour refers to hue (colour range). Colour is one of the pronounced elements of
aesthetics and its selection is very crucial to the overall effect it has on aesthetics. A
variety of effects can be produced by varying luminance, fullness and its transparency.

Tone
Tone is related to the colour theory and varies from the neutral scale of white to black
through a range of greys. This plays an important role in drawings used to represent
buildings.

Direction
Every building has elements which suggest direction. In most buildings, these are
strong elements that suggest vertical and horizontal direction. The total shape of the
building, or parts of the building or its structural components (beam, column, wall,
ceiling etc) its windows and other openings all suggest the direction.

Proportion –proportioning system

In this context, proportion is the geometric relationship of the sides of volumes (e.g.,
rectangles). It is also the ratio and comparative size of individual parts of the
composition.

N.B. We will read proportioning systems in detail later.

Solid and Void

The relationship between solid (walls, roofs, etc) and void (windows and other
openings) structural units is very important to form a good composition.

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Form and Shape
Form and shape can be clearly observed in the overall arrangement of a building or in
parts of a building (windows, doors etc) which have geometric shapes. Repetition or
variation of a particular form can provide strong elements of composition.

Parts of a building, for example, windows depicting form represent geometric shapes
such as a square or a rectangle. Repetition of a window unit form a good element of
composition. Shape helps to identify different forms, for example, the pitch of a roof will
provide a certain form which is easy to identify and also easy to relate to other roofs
which have a similar pitch. When a roof is of a distinctly different shape, it will look
strongly dissimilar.

2. Proportion –proportioning system

N.B. We will read later

3. Scale – generic an human scale

● Generic scale- scale determined by manufacturers and designers.

● Human scale – based on dimension and proportion of human body.
● The Vitruvian Man, by Italian polymath Leonardo Da Vinci, is based on the
correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient
Roman architect Vitruvius.

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4. Balance (symmetry/asymmetry):

Balance creates a state of equilibrium of the visual forces as well as feeling of stability in
the composition. In a balanced design, visual forces of equal strength pull in opposite
directions towards the opposite sides of an axis or a central pivot.

● Balance is a psychological sense of equilibrium.

● A balanced design has a unity of composition.
● Balance could be symmetrical or asymmetrical as long as the building expresses
and maintains a sense of equilibrium.

Symmetrical Balance (formal/passive): If the elements are of

equal weight and value on either side of axis we refer to this as
symmetrically balanced. Usually when one or more elements are
mirrored on either side we refer to this as a stable or more formal
composition. symmetry is static and demands atten tion and
impose a strict formality.

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Asymmetrical Balance: Asymmetrical balance is
when both sides of the central axis are not
identical, yet appear to have the same visual
weight. There is a balance between a number of
items of smaller size on one side and a larger one
on the other. Asymmetric balance is more
dynamic than symmetric balance.

Radial balance: Radial balance is arranged around a central

element. The elements placed in a radial balance seem to
'radiate' out from a central point in a circular fashion. Creates
focal point at centre of the composition.

5. Symmetry
6. Rhythm or repetition
7. Not the least

Reference- Previous chapter.

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Task
1. What do you feel about aesthetic?

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 Lecture 3

Proportioning Systems

Definition

Proportion refers to the relative size and scale of the various elements in a design. The
issue is the relationship between objects, or parts, of a whole.

Main feature of various masses or spaces. The primary properties of mass are height,
width and depth. Proportion is the visual relationship of these properties with respect to
each other.

Three facets of proportion

1. Material proportion- stiffness, durability, hardness

2. Structural proportion- height, width, depth of structural elements
3. Manufactural proportion

Proportioning systems

1. Golden section
2. Regulating lines
3. Classical orders
4. Renaissance theories
5. Modular
6. Ken
7. Anthropometry

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Golden section

The Greek have found the nature uses a proportion law that is called Golden section
(and Fibonakki series), that produces things that look pleasing to us. Golden section
describes as the law of beautiful proposition. According to the law, two quantities are
called the golden section if the ratio of the sum of quantities (a+b) to the larger quantity
(a) is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity (a) to the smaller one(b).

Golden rectangle - A rectangle whose sides are proportioned to Golden Section. If a

Golden rectangle is divided by drawing a square in it, the remaining rectangle is again a
golden section rectangle.

It was found that the pattern of seeds in the plats and nautilus shells follow this
logarithmic spiral.

Pentagon Pattern - The pentagon and star pentagram have golden section
proportions, as the ratios of the sides of the triangles in a star pentagram is 1:1.618.
The same pentagon/pentagram relationships can be found in the sand dollar and in
snowflakes.

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Human beings also are proportioned according to Golden Section. Human hands, arms,
teeth, etc. are in phi (golden section) proportions.

Regulating lines

The line that indicate the common alignments of elements are called lines. They are
used to control the proportion and placement of elements in architecture. They reassure
the perception of order and fix the fundamental geometry of work.

Le Corbusier argues from historical evidence that great architecture of the past has
been guided by the use of what came to be known in English as Regulating Lines.

If the diagonals of two rectangle and parallel or perpendicular to each other, they
indicate that the two rectangles have the similar proportions. These diagonal lines that
indicate the common alignment of elements are called regulating lines.

Villas la Roche-Jeanneret by Le Corbusier with regulating lines -

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Classical orders

Classical order is one of the ancient styles of classical architecture, distinguished by its
proportions and characteristic details, and mostly by the type of column employed. It is
a way of proportioning the elements. Three ancient orders of architecture - the Doric,
Ionic, and Corinthian - originated in Greece. To these the Romans added the Tuscan,
which they made simpler than Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental
than the Corinthian.

To Greeks and Romans, the Orders represented the perfect beauty and harmony. The
basic unit of dimension was the diameter of the column. From this module, the
dimensions of the shaft were derived, as well as the dimensions of the capital, the
pedestal below and the entablature above. The spaces between the columns were also
based on the diameter the column. In this system, the intention was to ensure that all of
the parts of any one building were proportionate and in harmony with one another.

The Parthenon is a temple of the Doric order with eight columns at the facade, and
seventeen columns at the flanks, conforming to the established ratio of 9:4. This ratio
governed the vertical and horizontal proportions of the temple as well as many other
relationships of the building like the spacing between the columns and their height.

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The three major classical orders are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The orders describe
the form and decoration of Greek and later Roman columns, and continue to be widely
used in architecture today.

Renaissance theories

The architects of the renaissance, believing that their buildings had to belong to a higher
order, returned to the Greek mathematical system proportions. Just as the Greeks
conceived music to be geometry translated into sound. Renaissance architects believed
that architecture was mathematics translated into spatial units. Applying Pythagoras’
theory of means to the ratios that formed the basis for the proportions of their
architecture. These series of ratios manifested themselves not only in the dimension of
a room or a facade, but also in the interlocking properties of a sequence of spaces or an
entire plan.

Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy

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Modular

Modulor is an anthropometric scale of proportions devised by the Swiss- born French

architect Le Corbusier (1887–1965). It was developed as a visual bridge between two
incompatible scales, the Imperial and the metric systems. It is based on the height of a
man with his arm raised.

The graphic representation of the Modulor, a stylised human figure with one arm raised,
stands next to two vertical measurements.

A red series based on the figure's navel height (1.13 m) and segmented according to
Phi. A blue series based on the figure's entire height, double the navel height (2.26 m),
segmented similarly.

A spiral, graphically developed between the red and blue segments, seems to mimic the
volume of the human figure.

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Ken
Ken is the Japanese unit of measure. It originally designated the interval between two
columns and it was standardized later for residential architecture. Ken was used as the
absolute measurement for the construction of buildings and as an aesthetic module that
ordered the structure, materials and space of Japanese architecture.

Together with ken, another module also affected the design of Japanese spaces, which
was the tatami (or the traditional Japanese floor mat). Tatami was originally
proportioned to accommodate two persons sitting or one person sleeping. The smaller
side of a tatami was equal to the size(s) of ken and two kens equaled the length of a
tatami. The Japanese inner spaces were formed according to ken modules and the
placement of tatamis. The size of a room was designated by the number of tatamis.

Anthropometry
Anthropometry refers to the size and proportions of the human body. Anthropometric
proportioning methods search for the functional dimensions for the human body. They
say that forms and spaces in architecture are either containers or extensions of the
human body. and therefore they should be designed according to its dimensions.

The sizes and shapes of building elements and components are the outcomes of
human dimensions and his/her certain functions. Every furniture that man created are
produced according to his/her dimensions. For this reason, in the past, dimensions of
human organs (such as the finger, foot, arm etc.) were used as the standard dimension
units:

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 Topic 4

Form

Form is an inclusive term. It may refer to an external appearance that can be

recognised.

Characteristics of form
● Shape – the outline of the form
● Size – the dimensions of the form, proportions and scale
● Colour – the colour of the form will affect its visual weight
● Texture – the texture of a form will affect how light is reflected or absorbed
● Position – where the form is located in relation to its environment
● Orientation – the position of the form in relation to the ground, compass points or
the person viewing the form
● Visual inertia- the degree of concentration and stability of form

Primary shapes and solids

The most significant primary shapes are the circle, triangle and square. Two
dimensional.
The primary solids are the sphere, cylinder, cone, pyramid and cube. Three
dimensional, created from primary shapes.

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Task
● Types and characteristics of primary solids with diagram.
● Example of an architectural design that look like different primary solids.
● Take Help: https://www.slideshare.net/fdjaipur/theory-of-design-form

Types of form based on regularity

● A regular form is considered to be a form that is
consistent and orderly. They are generally
symmetrical about one or more axes. The
sphere, cylinder, cone and cube are examples
of regular forms. These forms can be changed
by the addition or subtraction of elements, but
can still remain regular.
● An irregular form is one whose parts are
dissimilar and generally inconsistent and
asymmetrical. A regular form can be contained
within an irregular form.

Transformation of form
Many variations of a form can be generated from the
primary solids, by manipulating dimensions of the solids, or
adding or subtracting elements. These are transformed
forms.
● Dimensionally changed form: A cube can be
transformed by altering its dimensions
● Subtracted form: A cube can be transformed by
subtracting portions of its volume.
Subtractive forms will have portions removed from
its volume, but they often retain their identity until
the profile is drastically altered.
● Additive form: A cube can be transformed with the addition of elements to its
volume.
Additive forms are produced by relating or attaching one or more subordinate
forms to its volume. This can be broken down into different types of contact.

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Patterns of additive forms
● Spatial tension – where the forms are within close proximity to one
another
● Edge to Edge – where the forms are sharing a common edge
● Face to Face – where the forms have corresponding surfaces which
are parallel to one another
● Interlocking – where the forms are inter connected to one another,
creates composite form

Relationship of forms- organisation of form

● Organisation of form- It is process of organise different forms in different manner
to create a visual pattern in the real world structure i.e. buildings.
● Additive forms often grow and merge with other forms, creating relationships that
can be categorised as below:

Relationship of forms
1. Centralised- Centralised forms are often freestanding, and isolated within their
context. Forms are clustered about a dominant, central parent form.
2. Linear- A linear form is often a response to a topography or site context. They
tend to demonstrate a selection of forms along a line.
3. Radial- A radial form features a centrally located core with linear forms extending
outwards from the centre. Radial forms can create a network of centres linked by
the linear forms.
4. Clustered- A clustered form tends to be a collection of varying forms. They are
often based on a more functional requirement, and tend not to be regular or
formal. A clustered form can be interlocking, face to face, or edge to edge
amongst others.
5. Grid- A grid form demonstrates a form that is focused on a grid layout. These
forms tend to be considered in third dimension and are of a modular framework.

Task
● Example of names of building of different types of organisation of forms.
● Ref: https://www.slideshare.net/yossyweezy/organization-of-forms

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Collisions of geometry- composite form
There are often occasions where two geometries will collide to create a new composite
form. This may occur in many circumstances:
● To suit the functional requirements of the internal space
● To display a symbolic importance
● To direct a space toward or away from a specific site context feature
● To create a volume of space within an existing form
● To demonstrate the nature of the structure
● To create a symmetry in the building
● To respond to site context or topography
● To respond to an existing path or movement through the site

Types of composite form

● Two forms can subvert their identities and merge to create
a new composite form.
● One of the form can receive the other form totally within
the volume.
● The two forms can retain their individual identities and
share the interlocking portion of their volumes.
● The two forms can separate and be linked by a third
element that recall the geometry of one of the original
forms.

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 Topic 5

Timeline of Architecture
When did Western architecture begin? Long before the magnificent structures of ancient
Greece and Rome, humans were designing and constructing. The period known as the
Classical Era grew from ideas and construction techniques that evolved centuries and
eons apart in distant locations.

This review illustrates how each new movement builds on the one before. Although our
timeline lists dates related mostly to American architecture, historic periods do not start
and stop at precise points on a map or a calendar. Periods and styles flow together,
sometimes merging contradictory ideas, sometimes inventing new approaches, and
often re-awakening and re-inventing older movements. Dates are always
approximate—architecture is a fluid art.

11,600 BCE to 3,500 BCE — Prehistoric Times

Before recorded history, human constructed earthen mould, stone circles, megaliths,
and structures that often puzzle modern-day archaeologists. Prehistoric architecture
includes monumental structures such as Stonehenge, cliff dwelling in the America and
thatch and mud structures lost to time.

Archaeologists "dig" prehistory. Göbekli Tepe in present day Turkey is a good example
of archaeological architecture. Before recorded history, humans constructed earthen
mounds, stone circles, megaliths, and structures that often puzzle modern-day
archaeologists. Prehistoric architecture includes monumental structures such as
Stonehenge, cliff dwellings in the Americas, and thatch and mud structures lost to time.
The dawn of architecture is found in these structures.

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Prehistoric builders moved earth and stone into geometric forms, creating our earliest
human-made formations. We don't know why primitive people began building geometric
structures. Archaeologists can only guess that prehistoric people looked to the heavens
to imitate the sun and the moon, using that circular shape in their creations of earth
mounds and monolithic henges.

Many fine examples of well-preserved prehistoric architecture are found in southern

England. Stonehenge in Amesbury, United Kingdom is a well-known example of the
prehistoric stone circle. The nearby Silbury Hill, also in Wiltshire, is the largest
man-made, prehistoric earthen mound in Europe. At 30 meters high and 160 meters
wide, the gravel mound is layers of soil, mud, and grass, with dug pits and tunnels of
chalk and clay. Completed in the late Neolithic period, approximately 2,400 BCE, its
architects were a Neolithic civilization in Britain.
The prehistoric sites in southern Britain (Stonehenge, Avebury, and associated sites)
are collectively a UNESCO World Heritage Site. "The design, position, and
inter-relationship of the monuments and sites," according to UNESCO, "are evidence of
a wealthy and highly organized prehistoric society able to impose its concepts on the
environment." To some, the ability to change the environment is key for a structure to be
called architecture. Prehistoric structures are sometimes considered the birth of
architecture. If nothing else, primitive structures certainly raise the question, what is
architecture?

Stonehenge in Amesbury, United Kingdom. Jason Hawkes/Getty Images

Why does the circle dominate man's earliest architecture? It is the shape of the sun and
the moon, the first shape humans realized to be significant to their lives. The duo of
architecture and geometry goes way back in time and may be the source of what
humans find "beautiful" even today.

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3,050 BCE to 900 BCE — Ancient Egypt
3050 BC to 900 BC in ancient Egypt, powerful rulers constructed monumental pyramids,
temples, and shrines. Far from enormous structures such as the Pyramids of Giza were
feats of engineering capable of recaching great heights.

In ancient Egypt, powerful rulers constructed monumental pyramids, temples, and

shrines. Far from primitive, enormous structures such as the Pyramids of Giza were
feats of engineering capable of reaching great heights. Scholars have delineated the
periods of history in ancient Egypt.

Wood was not widely available in the arid Egyptian landscape. Houses in ancient Egypt
were made with blocks of sun-baked mud. Flooding of the Nile River and the ravages of
time destroyed most of these ancient homes. Much of what we know about ancient
Egypt is based on great temples and tombs, which were made with granite and
limestone and decorated with hieroglyphics, carvings, and brightly colored frescoes.
The ancient Egyptians didn't use mortar, so the stones were carefully cut to fit together.

The pyramid form was a marvel of engineering that allowed ancient Egyptians to build
enormous structures. The development of the pyramid form allowed Egyptians to build
enormous tombs for their kings. The sloping walls could reach great heights because
their weight was supported by the wide pyramid base. An innovative Egyptian named
Imhotep is said to have designed one of the earliest of the massive stone monuments,
the Step Pyramid of Djoser (2,667 BCE to 2,648 BCE).

Builders in ancient Egypt didn't use load-bearing arches. Instead, columns were placed
close together to support the heavy stone entablature above. Brightly painted and
elaborately carved, the columns often mimicked palms, papyrus plants, and other plant
forms. Over the centuries, at least thirty distinct column styles evolved. As the Roman
Empire occupied these lands, both Persian and Egyptian columns have influenced
Western architecture.

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 The Pyramid of Khafre (Chephren) in Giza, Egypt. Lansbricae (Luis Leclere)/Getty Images (cropped)

Archaeological discoveries in Egypt reawakened an interest in the ancient temples and

monuments. Egyptian Revival architecture became fashionable during the 1800s. In the
early 1900s, the discovery of King Tut's tomb stirred a fascination for Egyptian artifacts
and the rise of Art Deco architecture.

850 BCE to CE 476 — Classical

850 BC to 476 AD from the rise of ancient Greece until the fall of the Roman empire
great building were constructed according to precise rules. The classical orders, which
defined column styles and entablature designs, continues to influence building design in
modern times.

Classical architecture refers to the style and design of buildings in ancient Greece and
ancient Rome. Classical architecture shaped our approach to building in Western
colonies around the world.

From the rise of ancient Greece until the fall of the Roman empire, great buildings were
constructed according to precise rules. The Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius, who
lived during first century BCE, believed that builders should use mathematical principles
when constructing temples. "For without symmetry and proportion no temple can have a
regular plan," Vitruvius wrote in his famous treatise De Architectura, or Ten Books on
Architecture.

In his writings, Vitruvius introduced the Classical orders, which defined column styles
and entablature designs used in Classical architecture. The earliest Classical orders
were Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

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Although we combine this architectural era and call it "Classical," historians have
described these three Classical periods:

700 to 323 BCE — Greek: The Doric column was first developed in Greece and it was
used for great temples, including the famous Parthenon in Athens. Simple Ionic
columns were used for smaller temples and building interiors.

323 to 146 BCE — Hellenistic: When Greece was at the height of its power in Europe
and Asia, the empire built elaborate temples and secular buildings with Ionic and
Corinthian columns. The Hellenistic period ended with conquests by the Roman Empire.

44 BCE to 476 CE — Roman: The Romans borrowed heavily from the earlier Greek
and Hellenistic styles, but their buildings were more highly ornamented. They used
Corinthian and composite style columns along with decorative brackets. The invention
of concrete allowed the Romans to build arches, vaults, and domes. Famous examples
of Roman architecture include the Roman Colosseum and the Pantheon in Rome.

The Pantheon, A.D. 126, Rome, Italy. Werner Forman Archive/Heritage Images/Getty Images (cropped)

Much of this ancient architecture is in ruins or partially rebuilt. Virtual reality programs
like Romereborn.org attempt to digitally recreate the environment of this important
civilization.

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527 to 565 — Byzantine
527 to 565 AD. After Constantine move the capital of the Roman empire to Byzantium
(now Istambul) in 330 AD. Roman architecture evolved into a graceful, classically-
inspired style that used brick instead of stones, domed roof, elaborate mosaics, and
classical forms. Emperor Justinian (527 to 565 AD) led the way.

After Constantine moved the capital of the Roman empire to Byzantium (now called
Istanbul in Turkey) in 330 CE, Roman architecture evolved into a graceful,
classically-inspired style that used brick instead of stone, domed roofs, elaborate
mosaics, and classical forms. Emperor Justinian (527 to 565) led the way.

Church of Hagia Eirene in the First Courtyard of the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, Turkey. Salvator
Barki/Getty Images (cropped)

Eastern and Western traditions combined in the sacred buildings of the Byzantine
period. Buildings were designed with a central dome that eventually rose to new heights
by using engineering practices refined in the Middle East. This era of architectural
history was transitional and transformational.

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800 to 1200 — Romanesque
800 to 1200 AD. As Rome spread across Europe, heavier, stocky Romanesque
architecture with rounded arches emerged. Churches and castles of the early Medieval
period were constructed with thick walls and heavy piers.

As Rome spread across Europe, heavier, stocky Romanesque architecture with

rounded arches emerged. Churches and castles of the early Medieval period were
constructed with thick walls and heavy piers.

Romanesque Architecture of the Basilica of St. Sernin (1070-1120) in Toulouse, France. Anger
O./AgenceImages courtesy Getty Images

Even as the Roman Empire faded, Roman ideas reached far across Europe. Built
between 1070 and 1120, the Basilica of St. Sernin in Toulouse, France is a good
example of this transitional architecture, with a Byzantine-domed apse and an added
Gothic-like steeple. The floor plan is that of the Latin cross, Gothic-like again, with a
high alter and tower at the cross intersection. Constructed of stone and brick, St. Sernin
is on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela.

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1100 to 1450 — Gothic
1100 to 1450 AD. Pointed arches ribbed vaulting, flying buttress, and other innovations
led to tailor, more graceful architecture. Gothic ideas gave rise to magnificent cathedrals
like Chartres and Notre Dame.

Early in the 12th century, new ways of building meant that cathedrals and other large
buildings could soar to new heights. Gothic architecture became characterized by the
elements that supported taller, more graceful architecture— innovations such as pointed
arches, flying buttresses, and ribbed vaulting. In addition, elaborate stained glass could
take the place of walls that no longer were used to support high ceilings. Gargoyles and
other sculpting enabled practical and decorative functions.

Many of the world's most well-known sacred places are from this period in architectural
history, including Chartres Cathedral and Paris' Notre Dame Cathedral in France and
Dublin's St. Patrick's Cathedral and Adare Friary in Ireland.

Gothic architecture began mainly in France where builders began to adapt the earlier
Romanesque style. Builders were also influenced by the pointed arches and elaborate
stonework of Moorish architecture in Spain. One of the earliest Gothic buildings was the
ambulatory of the abbey of St. Denis in France, built between 1140 and 1144.

The Gothic Cathedral of Notre Dame de Chartres, France. Alessandro Vannini/Getty Images (cropped)

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Originally, Gothic architecture was known as the French Style. During the Renaissance,
after the French Style had fallen out of fashion, artisans mocked it. They coined the
word Gothic to suggest that French Style buildings were the crude work of German
(Goth) barbarians. Although the label wasn't accurate, the name Gothic remained.

While builders were creating the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe, painters and
sculptors in northern Italy were breaking away from rigid medieval styles and laying the
foundation for the Renaissance. Art historians call the period between 1200 to 1400 the
Early Renaissance or the Proto-Renaissance of art history.

Fascination for medieval Gothic architecture was reawakened in the 19th and 20th
centuries. Architects in Europe and the United States designed great buildings and
private homes that imitated the cathedrals of medieval Europe. If a building looks Gothic
and has Gothic elements and characteristics, but it was built in the 1800s or later, its
style is Gothic Revival.

1400 to 1600 — Renaissance

1400 to 1600 AD. A return to classic ideas ushered an ‘age awaking’ in Italy, France,
and England. Andrea Palladio and other builders looked classical orders of ancient
Greece and Rome. Long after the Renaissance era ended architects in the Western
world found inspiration in the beautifully proportioned architecture of the period.

A return to Classical ideas ushered an "age of awakening" in Italy, France, and England.
During the Renaissance era architects and builders were inspired by the carefully
proportioned buildings of ancient Greece and Rome. Italian Renaissance master
Andrea Palladio helped awaken a passion for classical architecture when he designed
beautiful, highly symmetrical villas such as Villa Rotonda near Venice, Italy.

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More than 1,500 years after the Roman architect Vitruvius wrote his important book, the
Renaissance architect Giacomo da Vignola outlined Vitruvius's ideas. Published in
1563, Vignola's The Five Orders of Architecture became a guide for builders throughout
western Europe. In 1570, Andrea Palladio used the new technology of movable type to
publish I Quattro Libri dell' Architettura, or The Four Books of Architecture. In this book,
Palladio showed how Classical rules could be used not just for grand temples but also
for private villas.

Villa Rotonda (Villa Almerico-Capra), near Venice, Italy, 1566-1590, Andrea Palladio. Massimo Maria
Canevarolo via Wikimedia Commons, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
(CC BY-SA 3.0)

Palladio's ideas did not imitate the Classical order of architecture but his designs were
in the manner of ancient designs. The work of the Renaissance masters spread across
Europe, and long after the era ended, architects in the Western world would find
inspiration in the beautifully proportioned architecture of the period. In the United States
its descendant designs have been called neoclassical.

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1600 to 1830 — Baroque
1600 to 1830 AD. In Italy, the Baroque style is reflected in opulent and dramatic
churches with irregular shapes and extravagant ornamentation. In France, the
ornamented Baroque style combined with Classic restraint. Russian aristocrats were
impressed by Versailles in France and incorporate Baroque ideas in the building of St.
Petersburg. Elements of elaborated Baroque styles are found throughout Europe.

Early in the 1600s, an elaborate new architectural style lavished buildings. What
became known as Baroque was characterized by complex shapes, extravagant
ornaments, opulent paintings, and bold contrasts.

In Italy, the Baroque style is reflected in opulent and dramatic churches with irregular
shapes and extravagant ornamentation. In France, the highly ornamented Baroque style
combines with Classical restraint. Russian aristocrats were impressed by the Palace of
Versailles, France and incorporated Baroque ideas in the building of St. Petersburg.
Elements of the elaborate Baroque style are found throughout Europe.

The Baroque Palace of Versailles in France. Loop Images Tiara Anggamulia/Getty Images (cropped)

Architecture was only one expression of the Baroque style. In music, famous names
included Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi. In the art world, Caravaggio, Bernini, Rubens,
Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Velázquez are remembered. Famous inventors and scientists
of the day include Blaise Pascal and Isaac Newton.

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1650 to 1790 — Rococo
1650 to 1790 AD. During last phase of Baroque period builders constructed graceful
building with sweeping curves. These Rocco buildings were elegantly decorated with
scrolls, vines, shell-shapes and delicate geometric patterns.

During the last phase of the Baroque period, builders constructed graceful white
buildings with sweeping curves. Rococo art and architecture is characterized by elegant
decorative designs with scrolls, vines, shell-shapes, and delicate geometric patterns.

Catherine Palace Near Saint Petersburg, Russia. Saravut Eksuwan/Getty Images

Rococo architects applied Baroque ideas with a lighter, more graceful touch. In fact,
some historians suggest that Rococo is simply a later phase of the Baroque period.

Architects of this period include the great Bavarian stucco masters like Dominikus
Zimmermann, whose 1750 Pilgrimage Church of Wies is a UNESCO World Heritage
site.

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1730 to 1925 — Neoclassicism
1730 to 1925 AD. A keen interest in ideas of Renaissance architect Andrea Palladia
inspired a return of classic shapes in Europe, Great Britain and United States. These
buildings were proportioned according to the classic orders with the details borrowed
from ancient Greece and Rome.

By the 1700s, European architects were turning away from elaborate Baroque and
Rococo styles in favor of restrained Neoclassical approaches. Orderly, symmetrical
Neoclassical architecture reflected the intellectual awakening among the middle and
upper classes in Europe during the period historians often call the Enlightenment.
Ornate Baroque and Rococo styles fell out of favor as architects for a growing middle
class reacted to and rejected the opulence of the ruling class. French and American
revolutions returned design to Classical ideals—including equality and
democracy—emblematic of the civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome. A keen
interest in ideas of Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio inspired a return of Classical
shapes in Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. These buildings were
proportioned according to the classical orders with details borrowed from ancient
Greece and Rome.

The U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. Architect of the Capitol

In the late 1700s and early 1800s, the newly-formed United States drew upon Classical
ideals to construct grand government buildings and an array of smaller, private homes.

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1890 to 1914 — Art Nouveau
1890 to 1914 AD. Known as the New Style. Art Nouveau was firstly expressed fabrics
and graphic design. The style spread to architecture and furniture in the 1890s. Art
Nouveau buildings often have asymmetrical shapes, arches and decorative surfaces
with curves, plant like designs.

Known as the New Style in France, Art Nouveau was first expressed in fabrics and
graphic design. The style spread to architecture and furniture in the 1890s as a revolt
against industrialization turned people's attention to the natural forms and personal
craftsmanship of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Art Nouveau buildings often have
asymmetrical shapes, arches, and decorative Japanese-like surfaces with curved,
plant-like designs and mosaics. The period is often confused with Art Deco, which has
an entirely different visual look and philosophical origin.

The 1910 Hôtel Lutetia in Paris, France. Justin Lorget/chesnot/Corbis via Getty Images

Note that the name Art Nouveau is French, but the philosophy—to some extent spread
by the ideas of William Morris and the writings of John Ruskin—gave rise to similar
movements throughout Europe. In Germany it was called Jugendstil; in Austria it was
Sezessionsstil; in Spain it was Modernismo, which predicts or event begins the modern
era. The works of Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926) are said to be influenced
by Art Nouveau or Modernismo, and Gaudi is often called one of the first modernist
architects.

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1895 to 1925 — Beaux Arts
1895 to 1925 AD. Also known as Beaux Arts classicism, Academic Classicism, or
Classical Revival. Beaux Arts architecture is characterized by order, symmetry, formal
design, grandiosity, and elaborate.

Also known as Beaux Arts Classicism, Academic Classicism, or Classical Revival,

Beaux Arts architecture is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design, grandiosity,
and elaborate ornamentation.

The Paris Opera by Beaux Arts Architect Charles Garnier. Francisco Andrade/Getty Images (cropped)

Combining classical Greek and Roman architecture with Renaissance ideas, Beaux
Arts architecture was a favored style for grand public buildings and opulent mansions.

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1905 to 1930 — Neo-Gothic
1925 to 1937 AD. Zigzag pattern and vertical lines create dramatic effect on jazz-age.
Art Deco building. Interestingly many art deco motifs were inspired by the architecture of
ancient Egypt.

In the early 20th century, medieval Gothic ideas were applied to modern buildings, both
private homes and the new type of architecture called skyscrapers.

Gothic Revival was a Victorian style inspired by Gothic cathedrals and other medieval
architecture. Gothic Revival home design began in the United Kingdom in the 1700s
when Sir Horace Walpole decided to remodel his home, Strawberry Hill. In the early
20th century, Gothic Revival ideas were applied to modern skyscrapers, which are often
called Neo-Gothic. Neo-Gothic skyscrapers often have strong vertical lines and a sense
of great height; arched and pointed windows with decorative tracery; gargoyles and
other medieval carvings; and pinnacles.

The Neo-Gothic 1924 Tribune Tower in Chicago. Glowimage/Getty Images (cropped)

The 1924 Chicago Tribune Tower is a good example of Neo-Gothic architecture. The
architects Raymond Hood and John Howells were selected over many other architects
to design the building. Their Neo-Gothic design may have appealed to the judges
because it reflected a conservative (some critics said "regressive") approach. The
facade of the Tribune Tower is studded with rocks collected from great buildings around
the world. Other Neo-Gothic buildings include the Cass Gilbert design for the Woolworth
Building in New York City.

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1925 to 1937 — Art Deco
With their sleek forms and ziggurat designs, Art Deco architecture embraced both the
machine age and ancient times. Zigzag patterns and vertical lines create dramatic effect
on jazz-age, Art Deco buildings. Interestingly, many Art Deco motifs were inspired by
the architecture of ancient Egypt.

The Art Deco style evolved from many sources. The austere shapes of the modernist
Bauhaus School and streamlined styling of modern technology combined with patterns
and icons taken from the Far East, classical Greece and Rome, Africa, ancient Egypt
and the Middle East, India, and Mayan and Aztec cultures.

Art Deco buildings have many of these features: cubic forms; ziggurat, terraced pyramid
shapes with each story smaller than the one below it; complex groupings of rectangles
or trapezoids; bands of color; zigzag designs like lightening bolts; strong sense of line;
and the illusion of pillars.

The Art Deco Chrysler Building in New York City. CreativeDream/Getty Images

By the 1930s, Art Deco evolved into a more simplified style known as Streamlined
Moderne, or Art Moderne. The emphasis was on sleek, curving forms and long
horizontal lines. These buildings did not feature zigzag or colorful designs found on
earlier Art Deco architecture.

Some of the most famous art deco buildings have become tourist destinations in New
York City—the Empire State Building and Radio City Music Hall may be the most
famous. The 1930 Chrysler Building in New York City was one of the first buildings
composed of stainless steel over a large exposed surface. The architect, William Van
Alen, drew inspiration from machine technology for the ornamental details on the
Chrysler Building: There are eagle hood ornaments, hubcaps, and abstract images of
cars.

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1900 to Present — Modernist Styles
1900 the present. The 20th and 21th centuries have seen dramatic changes and
astonishing diversity. Modern day trends include Art Modern and Bauhaus school
coined by Walter Gropius. Deconstructism, Formalism and Modernism and
Structuralism.

The 20th and 21st centuries have seen dramatic changes and astonishing diversity.
Modernist styles have come and gone—and continue to evolve. Modern-day trends
include Art Moderne and the Bauhaus school coined by Walter Gropius,
Deconstructivism, Formalism, Brutalism, and Structuralism.

Modernism is not just another style—it presents a new way of thinking. Modernist
architecture emphasizes function. It attempts to provide for specific needs rather than
imitate nature. The roots of Modernism may be found in the work of Berthold Luberkin
(1901–1990), a Russian architect who settled in London and founded a group called
Tecton. The Tecton architects believed in applying scientific, analytical methods to
design. Their stark buildings ran counter to expectations and often seemed to defy
gravity.

De La Warr Pavilion, 1935, Bexhill on Sea, East Sussex, United Kingdom. Peter Thompson Heritage
Images/Getty Images

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The expressionistic work of the Polish-born German architect Erich Mendelsohn
(1887–1953) also furthered the modernist movement. Mendelsohn and Russian-born
English architect Serge Chermayeff (1900–1996) won the competition to design the De
La Warr Pavilion in Britain. The 1935 seaside public hall has been called Streamline
Moderne and International, but it most certainly is one of the first modernist buildings to
be constructed and restored, maintaining its original beauty over the years.

Modernist architecture can express a number of stylistic ideas, including Expressionism

and Structuralism. In the later decades of the 20th century, designers rebelled against
the rational Modernism and a variety of Postmodern styles evolved.

Modernist architecture generally has little or no ornamentation and is prefabricated or

has factory-made parts. The design emphasizes function and the man-made
construction materials are usually glass, metal, and concrete. Philosophically, modern
architects rebel against traditional styles. For examples of Modernism in architecture,
see works by Rem Koolhaas, I.M. Pei, Le Corbusier, Philip Johnson, and Mies van der
Rohe.

1972 to Present — Postmodernism

1972 to present. A reaction against the Modernism approaches gave rise to new
buildings that reinvited historical details and familiar motifs. These architectural
movements likely to find ideas that date back to classical and ancient time.

A reaction against the Modernist approaches gave rise to new buildings that re-invented
historical details and familiar motifs. Look closely at these architectural movements and
you are likely to find ideas that date back to classical and ancient times.

Postmodern architecture evolved from the modernist movement, yet contradicts many
of the modernist ideas. Combining new ideas with traditional forms, postmodernist
buildings may startle, surprise, and even amuse. Familiar shapes and details are used
in unexpected ways. Buildings may incorporate symbols to make a statement or simply
to delight the viewer.

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Philip Johnson's AT&T Headquarters is often cited as an example of postmodernism.
Like many buildings in the International Style, the skyscraper has a sleek, classical
facade. At the top, however, is an oversized "Chippendale" pediment. Johnson's design
for the Town Hall in Celebration, Florida is also playfully over-the-top with columns in
front of a public building.

Postmodern Architecture at 220 Celebration Place, Celebration, Florida. Jackie Craven

Well-known postmodern architects include Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown;
Michael Graves; and the playful Philip Johnson, known for making fun of Modernism.

The key ideas of Postmodernism are set forth in two important books by Robert Venturi.
In his groundbreaking 1966 book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, Venturi
challenged modernism and celebrated the mix of historic styles in great cities such as
Rome. Learning from Las Vegas, subtitled "The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural
Form," became a postmodernist classic when Venturi called the "vulgar billboards" of
the Vegas Strip emblems for a new architecture. Published in 1972, the book was
written by Robert Venturi, Steven Izenour, and Denise Scott Brown.

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1997 to Present — Neo-Modernism and Parametricism
Throughout history, home designs have been influenced by the "architecture du jour." In
the not far off future, as computer costs come down and construction companies
change their methods, homeowners and builders will be able to create fantastic
designs. Some call today's architecture Neo-Modernism. Some call it Parametricism,
but the name for computer-driven design is up for grabs.

Zaha Hadid's Heydar Aliyev Centre, 2012, Baku, Azerbaijan. Christopher Lee/Getty Images

How did Neo-Modernism begin? Perhaps with Frank Gehry's sculpted designs,
especially the success of the 1997 Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain. Maybe it
began with architects who experimented with Binary Large Objects—BLOB architecture.
But you might say that free-form design dates back to prehistoric times. Just look at
Moshe Safdie's 2011 Marina Bay Sands Resort in Singapore: It looks just like
Stonehenge.

Ref:
https://www.slideshare.net/farhaansb/timeline-of-architecture
History and Research:
Silbury Hill, English Heritage Foundation,
http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/silbury-hill/history-and-research/ ;
Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, United
Nations, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/373
Additional photo credits:
Tribune Tower, Jon Arnold/Getty Images; Stonehenge / Marina Bay Sands Resort,
Images (cropped) by Archive Photos/Archive Photos Collection/Getty Images (left) and
AT Photography/Moment Collection/Getty Images (right)

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 Topic 6

Architectural Important Matters

Factors of architectural design

● Requirements – residential, educational,
● Circulation – movements
● Anthropometrics- Human scale
● Space standard – convenient space
● Site planning – surrounding
● Landscape design – aesthetics
● Climate- temperature, sunlight, air circulation
● Integration of basic services – water, drainage
● Safety regulations – fire safety
● Building rules and regulations – building construction, planning

Important terms of architectural drawing

Floor plan
A floor plan is essentially a map showing a buildings internal arrangement in relation to
its external walls and environment. Each floor or level of the building will require its own
plan, which as a rule of thumb is a horizontal slice taken across the building.

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Site plan
Site plans show an aerial view of the whole building or group of buildings within its
neighboring context, with clear boundaries and access points. The drawing can also
show neighboring structures and streets if they are relevant to the building design.

Elevation
An elevation is a drawing of an interior or exterior vertical surface or
plane, that forms the skin of the building. Externally an elevation is
most commonly used to describe the vertical interface between the
interior and exterior of a building, where the external facing walls and
surfaces of each side of the proposal are drawn.

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Cross section
A cross-section drawing refers to a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal cut that results in the
removal of one of the selected parts to reveal the objects inner elements.
A good example of this is the process of cutting an apple in half to reveal its core and
pips, or a cake with all its layers.

Isometric and axonometric projections

Isometric and axonometric projections depict three-
dimensional volumes and their spacial relationship to
one another.
An isometric uses a plan grid at 30 degrees from the
horizontal in both directions, which distorts the plan
shape.
An axonometric uses a 45 degree plan grid, which
keeps the original orthogonal geometry of the plan.

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Detail drawings
A detailed drawing shows a small section of a construction project in detail, and aims to
demonstrate how the various elements and materials of a building come together. For
example window openings, floor and wall junctions and structural connections.

Perspective
Perspective drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface of an image as it
is perceived by the eye.

Characteristics of contemporary architecture

-Current style of architecture
● Unconventional material
● Bright open interior
● Flat roof
● Geometrical simplicity
● Lack of ornament
● Harmony with nature
● Use of natural light
● Curved lines
● Clean lines
● Rounded forms
● Unconventional volumes
● Asymmetry
● Free-form shapes

Task
● List 20 famous architecture names and their architects in Bangladesh

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