ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL AND COLLEGE MANGLA CANTT

SCIENCE OF CLASS VIII (2023-2024)

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND

MEASUREMENT

Table of contents:
 1. Physical quantities
 2. Base and derived quantities
 3. International system of units
 4. Scientific notation
 5. Prefixes
 6. Estimation of physical quantities
 7. Measuring instruments for length, volume and time
 8. Significant figures and rounding off
 9. Sources of errors
 10. Precision and accuracy
 1. Physical quantities
In physics, a physical quantity is any physical property of a material or system that can
be quantified, that is, can be measured using numbers. Physical quantities consist of a
numerical value and a unit.
Examples: time, length, volume
Non-physical quantities
Non-physical quantities are those quantities which cannot be measured.
Example: sadness, happiness

2. Base and derived quantities

Base quantities
Base quantities are the quantities on the basis of which other quantities are expressed.
There are seven physical quantities which form the foundation for other physical
quantities. These physical quantities are called the base quantities. These are length,
mass, time, electric current, temperature, intensity of light and the amount of a
substance.
Base quantities are also known as fundamental quantities.

Base units
Units of base quantities are called base units.
Derived quantities
The quantities that are expressed in terms of base quantities are called derived quantities.
Those physical quantities which are expressed in terms of base quantities are called the derived
quantities. These include area, volume, speed, force, work, energy, power, electric charge,
electric potential, etc.
 Base/ Fundamental quantities Derived quantities

Derived units
The units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units. Derived units are
defined in terms of base units and are obtained by multiplying or dividing one or more
base units with each other.

3. International system of units

Measuring is not simply counting. For example, if we need milk or sugar, we must also
understand how much quantity of milk or sugar we are talking about. Thus, there is a
need of some standard quantities for measuring/comparing unknown quantities. Once
a standard is set for a quantity then it can be expressed in terms of that standard
quantity. This standard quantity is called a unit. With the developments in the field of
science and technology, the need for a commonly acceptable system of units was
seriously felt all over the world particularly to exchange scientific and technical
information. The eleventh General Conference on Weight and Measures held in Paris
in 1960 adopted a world-wide system of measurements called International System of
Units. The International System of Units is commonly referred as SI.
 4. Scientific notation
A simple but scientific way to write large or small numbers is to express them in some
power of ten. The Moon is 384000000 meters away from the Earth. Distance of the
moon from the Earth can also be expressed as 3.84 x10 8 m. This form of expressing a
number is called the standard form or scientific notation. This saves writing down or
interpreting large numbers of zeros. Thus
In scientific notation a number is expressed as some power of ten multiplied by a
number between 1 and 10. For example, a number 62750 can be expressed as
62.75x103 or 6.275x104 or 0.6275x105. All these are correct. But the number that has
one non-zero digit before the decimal i.e. 6.275x104 preferably be taken as the standard
form.
The exponent is positive if the number is very large and the exponent is negative if the
number is very small.
For example: 4500000 is written as 4.5 x 10 6
And 0.00453 is written as 4.53 x 10-3.

5. Prefixes
Some of the quantities are either very large or very small. For example, 250 000
m, 0.002 W and
0.00 002 g, etc. SI units have the advantage that their multiples and sub-multiples can
be expressed in terms of prefixes. Prefixes are the words or letters added before SI
units such as kilo, mega, giga and milli. These prefixes are given in Table 1.3. The
prefixes are useful to express very large or small quantities. For example, divide 20,000
g by 1000 to express it into kilogramme, since kilo represents 103 or 1000.

Thus

Table shows some multiples and sub- multiples of length. However, double prefixes are
not used. For example, no prefix is used with kilogram since it already contains the prefix
kilo. Prefixes given inTable are used with both types base and derived units.

(multiples and sub-multiples of length)

 6. Estimation of physical quantities
Orders of magnitude: while estimating values, it is best to give the estimate of an order
of magnitude to the nearest power of 10.
When a number is expressed in an order of 10, this is an order of magnitude.

Example: If a number is described as 3 × 108 then that number is actually 3 × 100 000
000.

The order of magnitude of 3 × 108 is just 108.

7. Measuring instruments
Measuring instruments are used to measure various physical quantities such as length,
mass, time, volume, etc. Measuring instruments used in the past were not so reliable
and accurate as we use today. For example, sundial, water clock and other time
measuring devices used around 1300 AD were quite crude. On the other hand, digital
clocks and watches used now-a-days are highly reliable and accurate. Here we shall
describe some measuring instruments used in Physics laboratory.
7.1 Measuring instrument for length
7.1.1 Meter rule or measuring tape
A meter rule is a device which is used to measure length of different objects. A meter
rule of length 1m is equal to 100 centimeters (cm). On meter rule, each cm is divided
further in to 10 divisions which are called millimeters (mm).
Least count
The least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest value in the measured quantity
that can be resolved on the instrument's scale.
Least count of meter rule
A meter scale normally has graduations at 1 mm (or 0.1 cm) spacing, as the smallest
division on its scale.
Calculation of least count of meter rule
The least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest and accurate value in the
measured quantity that can be resolved on the instrument's scale. The least count is
calculated by dividing the main scale reading with the total number of divisions on the
secondary scale.

7.1.2 Vernier Caliper

The accuracy obtained in measurements using a meter rule is up to 1 mm. However an
accuracy greater than 1 mm can be obtained by using some other instruments such as
a Vernier Caliper. A Vernier Calipers consists of two jaws, one is a fixed jaw with main
scale attached to it. Main scale has centimeter and millimeter marks on it. The other jaw
is a moveable jaw. It has vernier scale having 10 divisions over it such that each of its
division is 0.9 mm. The difference between one small division on main scale division
and one vernier scale division is 0.1 mm. It is called least count (LC) of the Vernier
Calipers. Least count of the Vernier Calipers can also be found as given below:
Least count of vernier calipers = smallest reading on main scale / number of divisions
on vernier scale
Least count of vernier calipers = 1mm / 10 divisions = 0.1 mm
(0.1mm = 0.01 cm)
Working of vernier calipers
First of all find the error, if any, in the measuring instrument. It is called the zero error of
the instrument. Knowing the zero error, necessary correction can be made to find the
correct measurement. Such a correction is called zero correction of the instrument. Zero
correction is the negative of zero error.
Zero error and zero correction
To find the zero error, close the jaws of Vernier Calipers gently. If zero line of the vernier
scale coincides with the zero of the main scale then the zero error is zero (figure a). Zero
error will exist if zero line of the vernier scale is not coinciding with the zero of main scale
. Zero error will be positive if zero line of vernier scale is on the right side of the zero of
the main scale and will be negative if zero line of vernier scale is on the left side of zero of the
main scale (figure b)

Figure a

Figure b
Working of vernier calipers
Let us find the diameter of a solid cylinder using Vernier Calipers. Place the solid cylinder
between jaws of the Vernier Calipers as shown in figure. Close thejaws till they press the
opposite sides of the object gently.
Note the complete division of the main scale past the vernier scale zero in the tabular
form. Next find the vernier scale division that is coinciding with the main scale division.
Multiply with the least count of the vernier calipers and add it in the main reading. This
is equal to the diameter of the solid cylinder. Add zero correction to get correct
measurement. Repeat the experiment at least three times to get the correct answer.
 7.1.3 Screw gauge
A screw gauge is an instrument that is used to measure small lengths with accuracy
greater than a Vernier Caliper. It is also called as micrometer screw gauge. A simple
screw gauge consists of a U-shaped metal frame with a metal stud at its one end as
shown in figure. A hollow cylinder (or sleeve) has a millimeter scale over it along a line
called index line parallel to its axis. The hollow cylinder acts as a nut. It is fixed at the
end of U-shaped frame opposite to the stud. A Thimble has a threaded spindle inside it.
As the thimble completes one rotation, the spindle moves 1 mm along the index line. It is
because the distance between consecutive threads on the spindle is 1 mm. This distance
is called the pitch of screw on the spindle.

The thimble has 100 divisions around its one end. It is the circular scale of the screw gauge.
As thimble completes one rotation, 100 divisions pass the index line and the thimble moves
1 mm along the main scale. Thuseach division of circular scale crossing the index line
moves the thimble through 1/100 mm or 0.01 mm on the main scale. Least count of a
screw gauge can also be found as given below.
Least count = pitch of the screw gauge / no. of divisions on circular scale
Least count = 1mm / 100 = 0.01mm = 0.001 cm
Working of the screw gauge
First step is to find the zero error of screw gauge.
To find the zero error, close the gap between the spindle and the stud of the screw gauge
by rotating the ratchet in the clockwise direction. If zero of circular scale coincides with the
index line, then the zero error will be zero as shown in figure a.
As zero of circular scale is exactly on
the index line hence there is nozero
error.

10

95

(a)

Zero error will be positive if zero of circular scaleis behind the index line. In this case,
multiply the number of divisions of the circular scale that has not crossed the index line
with the least count of screw gauge to find zero error as shown in figure b.
Zero error is positive if zero of
circular scale has not reached zero
of main scale. Here zero error is
+0.18 mm as 18th divisionon circular
scale is before the

30

25
0
20

15

(b)

Zero error will be negative if zero of circular scalehas crossed the index line. In this case,
multiply the number of divisions of the circular scale that has crossed the index line with
the least count of screw gauge to find the negative zero error as shown in figure c
 Zero error is negative if zero of circular scale
has passed zero of main scale. Here zero
error is

–0.05 mm as 5 divisions of circular

0
95

90

Example
Find the diameter of wire by using screw gauge.
Solution
The diameter of a given wire can be found asfollows:
 Close the gap between the spindle and the stud of the screw gauge by
turning the ratchet in the clockwise direction.
 Note main scale as well as circular scale readings to find zero error and
hence zero correction to the screw gauge.
 Open the gap between stud and spindle of the screwgauge by turning the ratchet in
anti-clockwise direction. Place the given wire in the gap. Turn the ratchet so that the
object is pressed gently between the studs and the spindle.
 Note main scale as well as circular scale readings to find the diameter of the given wire.
 Apply zero correction to get the correct
diameter of wire.
 Repeat steps iii, iv and v at different places of the wire to obtain its average
diameter.
Zero correction
Closing the gap of the screw gauge (figure 1.12).
Main scale reading = 0 mm
circular scale reading
m = 24 x 0.01 Zero
error of the screw gauge = 0 mm+0.24 mm
USEFUL INFORMATION
= + 0.24 mm Least count of ruler is 1
Zero correction Z.C. = -0.24 mm mm. It is 0.1 mm for Vernier
Callipers and 0.01mm for
Diameter of the wire
micrometer screw gauge.Thus
Main scale reading = 1 mm measurements taken by
micrometer screw gauge are
the most precise than theother
two.
No. of divisions on circular scale= 85 div
Circular scale reading= 85x0.01 mm =0.85mm
Observed diameter of the given wire=1mm+0.85 mm= 1.85mm
Correct diameter of the given wire= 1.85 mm - 0.24 mm = 1.61mm
The diameter of the given wire is 1.61mm.
Pitch of screw gauge
The screw gauge's pitch is defined as the distance moved by the spindle per revolution.
It is measured by moving the head scale over the pitch scale to complete one full rotation.
The formula of the pitch of a screw gauge is p = d x n. Here, d is the distance moved by
a screw and n is the number of rotations given.
Zero error of screw gauge
If the zero marks in the main scale and in the thimble scale don't coincide at the time
when the anvil and the spindle touch each other, it has zero error.
In positive zero error (+Z) the thimble scale zero-mark advances beyond the main scale
zero mark when the anvil and the spindle touch each other. In negative zero error (-Z) the
thimble scale zero mark is left behind the main scale zero mark when the anvil and the
spindle touch each other.
7.2 Measuring instruments for volume
7.2.1 Measuring cylinder
A measuring cylinder is a glass or transparent plastic cylinder. It has a scale along its
length that indicates the volume in milli-liters (mL).
Measuring cylinders have different capacities from 100 mL to 2500 mL. They are used to
measure the volume of a liquid or powdered substance. It is also used to find the volume of
an irregular shaped solid insoluble in a liquid by displacement method. The solidis lowered
into a measuring cylinder containing water/liquid. The level of water/liquid rises. The
increase in the volume of water/liquid is the volume ofthe given solid object.
How to use measuring cylinder?
While using a measuring cylinder, it must be kept vertical on a plane surface. Take a
measuring cylinder. Place it vertically on the table. Pour some water into it. Note that the
surface of water is curved. The meniscus of the most liquids curve downwards while the
meniscus of mercury curves upwards. The correct method to note the level of a liquid in
the cylinder is to keep the eye at the same level as the meniscus of the liquid. It is incorrect
to note the liquid level keeping the eye above the level of liquid. When the eye is above
the liquid level, the meniscus appears higher on the scale. Similarly when the eye is below
the liquid level, the meniscus appears lower than actual height of the liquid.
How to measure volume of irregular shaped solid?
Measuring cylinder can be used to find the volume of a small irregular shaped solid that
sinks in water. Let us find the volume of a small stone. Take some water in a graduated
measuring cylinder. Note the volume Vi of water in the cylinder. Tie the solid with a thread.
Lower the solid into the cylinder till it is fully immersed in water. Note the volume V f of
water in the cylinder. Volume of the solid will be Vf – Vi. (Vi = initial volume and Vf = final
volume)
7.3 Measuring instruments for time
7.3.1 Stopwatch
A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval of an event. There are two types of
stopwatches; mechanical and digital as shown in figure. A mechanical stopwatch can
measure a time interval up to a minimum 0.1 second. Digital stopwatches commonly used
in laboratories can measure a time interval as small as 1/100 second or 0.01 second.
How to use mechanical stopwatch ?
A mechanical stopwatch has a knob that is used to wind the spring that powers the watch.
It can also be used as a start-stop and reset button. The watch starts when the knob is
pressed once. When pressed second time, it stops the watch while the third press brings
the needle back to zero position.
How to use digital stopwatch?
The digital stopwatch starts to indicate the time lapsed as the start/stop button is pressed.
As soon as start/stop button is pressed again, it stops and indicates the time interval
recorded by it between start and stop of an event. A reset button restores its initial zero
setting.
How to measure period of oscillation?
If we are trying to measure the period of oscillation of pendulum, the method to find the
mean time is slightly different. A pendulum is a mass that swings back and forth about a
fixed point.

The time taken to complete single oscillation is called period. To measure the period of a
pendulum, we usually measure the time taken for 10 oscillations and then calculate the
mean. That is we divide the total length of time by 10, to get the period of one oscillation.
This will reduce the error in the measurement as human reflexes are usually too slow to
be completely accurate, and inaccuracy can have a major impact on something as small
as period.

8. Significant figures and rounding off

The value of a physical quantity is expressed by a number followed by some suitable unit.
Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt to find its true value. The accuracy in
measuring a physical quantity depends upon various factors:
+ the quality of the measuring instrument
+ the skill of the observer
+ the number of observations made
For example, a student measures the length of a book as 18 cm using a measuring tape.
The numbers of significant figures in his/her measured value are two. The left digit 1 is
the accurately known digit. While the digit 8 is the doubtful digit for which the student may
not be sure.
Another student measures the same book using a ruler and claims its length to be 18.4
cm. In this case all the three figures are significant. The two left digits 1 and 8 are
accurately known digits. Next digit 4 is the doubtful digit for which the student may not be
sure.
A third student records the length of the book as 18.425 cm. The measurement is made
using the same ruler. The numbers of significant figures is again three; consisting of two
accurately known digits 1, 8 and the first doubtful digit 4. The digits 2 and 5 are not
significant. It is because the reading of these last digits cannot be justified using a ruler.
Measurement up to third or even second decimal place is beyond the limit of the
measuring instrument.
An improvement in the quality of measurement by using better instrument increases the
significant figures in the measured result. The significant figures are all the digits that are
known accurately and the one estimated digit. More significant figure means greater
precision. The following rules are helpful in identifying significant figure:
 Non-zero digits are always significant
 Zeros between two significant figures are also significant
 Final or ending zeros on the right in decimal fraction are significant.
 Zeros written on the left side of the decimal point for the purpose of spacing the
decimal point are not significant
 In whole numbers that end in one or more zeros without a decimal point. These
zeros may or may not be significant. In such cases, it is not clear which zeros will
serve to locate the position value and which are actually parts of the measurement.
In such cases, express the quantity using scientific notation to find the significant
zero.
Rules to find significant digits in measurement
 Digits other than zero are always significant. 27 has two significant digits and 275
has 3 significant digits.
 Zeros between significant digits are also significant. 2705 has 4 significant digits.
 Final zero or zeros after decimal are significant. 275.00 has 5 significant digits.
 Zeros used for spacing the decimal point are not significant. Here zeros are place
holders only. 0.027 has 2 significant digits only.

9. Sources of errors
Error
The deviation of the measured quantity from the actual quantity or true value is called
error.
Measurement error
The difference between the real value and the estimated value of a quantity is known as
measurement error.
Types of errors
The common sources of errors include instrumental, environmental, procedural and
human.
All the errors can either be random or systematic depending on how they impact the
result.
Random error
Random error occurs due to chance. It may be caused by slight fluctuations in an
instrument, the environment or the way a measurement is read, that do not cause the
same error every time. In order to address random error, scientists utilized replication.
Replication is repeating a measurement many times and taking an average.
Systematic error
Systematic error gives measurements that are consistently different from the true value
in nature, often due to limitations of either the instruments or the procedure. Systematic
error is one form of bias. Bias is often caused by instruments that consistently offset the
measured value from the true value, like a scale that always reads 5 grams over the real
value. Since systematic error arises from the equipment, so the most direct way to
eliminate it is to use calibrated equipment, and eliminate any zero errors.

10. Precision and accuracy

Precision and accuracy are two ways that scientists think about an error.
Precision
Precision refers to how close measurements of the same item are to each other. Precision
is independent of accuracy.

Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.
For example if we are playing dart game and if we are say we are simply accurate, that
means we are throwing darts that are landing close to the bull’s eye, but we are not hitting
the bull’s eye every time. If we say we are simply precise, that means our darts are landing
close to one another, but not necessarily close to the bull’s eye.

Created for: APSACS class VIII

Created by: Minahil Athar