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The refractive index variation in the core is giver by relationship

Where,
r = Radial distance from fiber axis
a = Core radius
n1 = Refractive index of core
n2 = Refractive index of cladding
α = Shape of index profile.
Comparison of Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Optic Fiber Configurations

Depending on the refractive index profile of fiber and modes of fiber there exist three
types of optical fiber configurations. These optic-fiber configurations are -
Single mode step index fiber.

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Multimode step index fiber.

Multimode graded index fiber.
Single mode Step index Fiber
In single mode step index fiber has a central core that is sufficiently small so that
there is essentially only one path for light ray through the cable. The light ray is propagated
in the fiber through reflection. Typical core sizes are 2 to 15 μm. Single mode fiber is also
known as fundamental or mono mode fiber.
Fig. 1.6.16 shows single mode fiber.

Single mode fiber will permit only one mode to propagate and does not suffer
from mode delay differences. These are primarily developed for the 1300 nm window but
they can be also be used effectively with time division multiple (TDM) and wavelength
division multiplex (WDM) systems operating in 1550 nm wavelength region.
The core fiber of a single mode fiber is very narrow compared to the wavelength
of light being used. Therefore, only a single path exists through the cable core through. which
light can travel. Usually, 20 percent of the light in a single mode cable actually travels down
the cladding and the effective diameter of the cable is a blend of single mode core and degree
to which the cladding carries light. This is referred to as the ‗mode field diameter‘, which is
larger than physical diameter of the core depending on the refractive indices of the core and
cladding.
The disadvantage of this type of cable is that because of extremely small size
interconnection of cables and interfacing with source is difficult. Another disadvantage of
single mode fibers is that as the refractive index of glass decreases with optical wavelength,
the light velocity will also be wavelength dependent. Thus the light from an optical
transmitter will have definite spectral width.
Multimode step Index Fiber

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Multimode step index fiber is more widely used type. It is easy to manufacture. Its
core diameter is 50 to 1000 μm i.e. large aperture and allows more light to enter the cable.
The light rays are propagated down the core in zig-zag manner. There are many paths that a
light ray may follow during the propagation.
The light ray is propagated using the principle of total internal reflection (TIR).
Since the core index of refraction is higher than the cladding index of refraction, the light
enters at less than critical angle is guided along the fiber.

Light rays passing through the fiber are continuously reflected off the glass
cladding towards the centre of the core at different angles and lengths, limiting overall
bandwidth.
The disadvantage of multimode step index fibers is that the different optical
lengths caused by various angles at which light is propagated relative to the core, causes the
transmission bandwidth to be fairly small. Because of these limitations, multimode step index
fiber is typically only used in applications requiring distances of less than 1 km.
Multimode Graded Index Fiber
The core size of multimode graded index fiber cable is varying from 50 to 100 μm
range. The light ray is propagated through the refraction. The light ray enters the fiber at
many different angles. As the light propagates across the core toward the center it is
intersecting a less dense to more dense medium. Therefore the light rays are being constantly
being refracted and ray is bending continuously. This cable is mostly used for long distance
communication.
Fig 1.6.18 shows multimode graded index fiber.

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The light rays no longer follow straight lines, they follow a serpentine path being
gradually bent back towards the center by the continuously declining refractive index. The
modes travelling in a straight line are in a higher refractive index so they travel slower than
the serpentine modes. This reduces the arrival time disparity because all modes arrive at
about the same time.
Fig 1.6.19 shows the light trajectory in detail. It is seen that light rays running
close to the fiber axis with shorter path length, will have a lower velocity because they pass
through a region with a high refractive index.

Rays on core edges offers reduced refractive index, hence travel more faster than axial
rays and cause the light components to take same amount of time to travel the length of fiber,
thus minimizing dispersion losses. Each path at a different angle is termed as ‗transmission
mode‘ and the NA of graded index fiber is defined as the maximum value of acceptance
angle at the fiber axis.
Typical attenuation coefficients of graded index fibers at 850 nm are 2.5 to 3
dB/km, while at 1300 nm they are 1.0 to 1.5 dB/km.
The main advantages of graded index fiber are:
1. Reduced refractive index at the centre of core.
2. Comparatively cheap to produce.
10. Mode Theory for Cylindrical Waveguide
To analyze the optical fiber propagation mechanism within a fiber, Maxwell equations
are to solve subject to the cylindrical boundary conditions at core-cladding interface. The

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core-cladding boundary conditions lead to coupling of electric and magnetic field

components resulting in hybrid modes. Hence the analysis of optical waveguide is more
complex than metallic hollow waveguide analysis.
Depending on the large E-field, the hybrid modes are HE or EH modes. The two
lowest order does are HE11 and TE01.
11. Overview of Modes
The order states the number of field zeros across the guide. The electric fields are
not completely confined within the core i.e. they do not go to zero at core-cladding interface
nd extends into the cladding. The low order mode confines the electric field near the axis of
the fiber core and there is less penetration into the cladding. While the high order mode
distribute the field towards the edge of the core fiber and penetrations into the cladding.
Therefore cladding modes also appear resulting in power loss. In leaky modes the fields are
confined partially in the fiber core attenuated as they propagate along the fiber length due to
radiation and tunnel effect.
Therefore in order to mode remain guided, the propagation factor β must satisfy
the Condition

Where, n1 = Refractive index of fiber core

n2 = Refractive index of cladding
k = Propagation constant = 2π / λ
The cladding is used to prevent scattering loss that results from core material
discontinuities. Cladding also improves the mechanical strength of fiber core and reduces
surface contamination. Plastic cladding is commonly used. Materials used for fabrication of
optical fibers are silicon dioxide (SiO2), boric oxide-silica.
Summary of Key Modal Concepts

Normalized frequency variable, V is defined as

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Where, a = Core radius

λ = Free space wavelength

The total number of modes in a multimode fiber is given by

Example 1.7.1 : Calculate the number of modes of an optical fiber having diameter of 50 μm, n1
= 1.48, n2 = 1.46 and λ = 0.82 μm.

Solution: d = 50 μm
n1 = 1.48
n2 = 1.46
λ = 0.82 μm

Number of modes is given by,

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Example 1.7.3: A multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of 80 μm and a relative index
difference of 1.5 % is operating at a wavelength of 0.85 μm. If the core refractive index is 1.48,
estimate the normalized frequency for the fiber and number of guided modes. [July/Aug.-2008,
6 Marks]

Solution:
Given : MM step index fiber, 2 a = 80 μm
 Core radians a = 40 μm
Relative index difference, Δ = 1.5% = 0.015
Wavelength, λ = 0.85μm
Core refractive index, n1 = 1.48
Normalized frequency, V =?
Number of modes, M =?
Numerical aperture

Normalized frequency is given by,

Number of modes is given by,

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Example 1.7.4: A step index multimode fiber with a numerical aperture of a 0.20 supports
approximately 1000 modes at an 850 nm wavelength.
i) What is the diameter of its core?
ii) How many modes does the fiber support at 1320 nm?
iii) How many modes does the fiber support at 1550 nm? [Jan./Feb.-2007, 10 Marks]

Solution:

i) Number of modes is given by,

ii)

iii)

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12. Mode Field Diameter and Spot Size

The mode filed diameter is fundamental parameter of a single mode fiber. This parameter
is determined from mode field distributions of fundamental LP01 mode.
In step index and graded single mode fibers, the field amplitude distribution is
approximated by Gaussian distribution. The mode Field diameter (MFD) is distance between
opposite 1/e – 0.37 times the near field strength amplitude and power is 1/e2 = 0.135 times.
In single mode fiber for fundamental mode, on field amplitude distribution the
mode filed diameter is shown in fig. 1.8.1.

The spot size ω0 is gives as –

MFD = 2 ω0
The parameter takes into account the wavelength dependent filed penetration into the
cladding. Fig. 1.8.2 shows mode field diameters variation with λ.

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13. Fiber Materials

Requirements of Fiber Optic Material
1. The material must be transparent for efficient transmission of light.
2. It must be possible to draw long thin fibers from the material.
3. Fiber material must be compatible with the cladding material.
Glass and plastics fulfills these requirements.
Most fiber consists of silica (SiO2) or silicate. Various types of high loss and low
loss glass fibers are available to suit the requirements. Plastic fibers are not popular because
of high attenuation they have better mechanical strength.
Glass Fibers
Glass is made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides having refractive index of 1.458
at 850 nm. For changing the refractive index different oxides such as B2O3, GeO2 and P2O5
are added as dopant. Fig. 1.8.3 shows variation of refractive index with doping concentration.

The principal raw material for silica is sand and glass. The fiber composed of pure
silica is called as silica glass. The desirable properties of silica glass are :-
Resistance to deformation even at high temperature.
Resistance to breakage from thermal shocks (low thermal expansion).

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Good chemical durability.

Better transparency.
Other types of glass fibers are
Halide glass fibers.
Active glass fibers
Chalgenide glass fibers
Plastic optical fibers
Fiber Fabrication Methods
The vapor-phase oxidation process is popularly used for fabricating optical fibers.
In this process vapors of metal halides such as SiCl4 and Gecl4 reactive with oxygen and
forms powder of SiO2 particles. The SiO2 particles are collected on surface of bulk glass and
then sintered to form a glass rod called Preform. The preforms are typically 10-25 mm
diameter and 60-120 cm long from which fibers are drawn. A simple schematic of fiber
drawing equipment
The preform is feed to drawing furnace by precision feed mechanism. The
preform is heated up in drawing furnace so that it becomes soft and fiber can be drawn easily.

The fiber thickness monitoring decides the speed of take up spool. The fiber is then
coated with elastic material to protect it from dust and water vapor.

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Outside Vapor-Phase Oxidation (OVPO)

The OVPO process is a lateral deposition process. In OVPO process a layer of
SiO2 (Soot) is deposited from a burner on a rotating mandrel so as to make a perform.
Fig, 1.8.5 shows this process.

During the SiO2 deposition O2 and metal halide vapors can be controlled so the
desired core-cladding diameters can be incorporated. The mandrel is removed when
deposition process is completed; this preform is used for drawing thin filament of fibers in
fiber drawing equipment.
Vapor-Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
In VAD process, the SiO2 particles are deposited axially. The rod is continuously
rotated and moved upward to maintain symmetry of particle deposition.
The advantages of VAD process are - Both step and graded index fibers are
possible to fabricate in multimode and single mode.
The performs does not have the central hole.
The performs can be fabricated in continuous length.
Clean environment can be maintained.
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
The MCVD process involves depositing ultra fine, vaporized raw materials into a
premade silica tube. A hollow silica tube is heated to about 1500 oC and a mixture of oxygen
and metal halide gases is passed through it. A chemical reaction occurs within the gas and
glass ‗500t‘ is formed and deposited on the inner side of the tube. The soot that develops
from this deposition is consolidated by heating. The tube is rotated while the heater is moved
to and along the tube and the soot forms a thin layer of silica glass. The rotation and heater
movement ensures that the layer is of constant thickness. The first layer that is deposited

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forms the cladding and by changing the constituents of the incoming gas the refractive index
can be modified to produce the core. Graded index fiber is produced by careful continuous
control of the constituents.
The temperature is now increased to about 1800 oC and the tube is collapsed to
form a solid rod called a preform. The preform is about 25 mm in diameter and 1 meter in
length. This will produce 25 km of fiber.

The preform is placed at a height called a pulling tower and its temperature is
increased to about 2100 oC. To prevent contamination, the atmosphere is kept dry and clean.

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The fiber is then pulled as a fine strand from the bottom, the core and cladding flowing
towards the pulling point. Laser gauges continually monitor the thickness of the fiber and
automatically adjust the pilling rate to maintain required thickness. After sufficient cooling
the primary buffer is applied and the fiber is drummed.
Fig. 1.8.6 (Refer Fig. 1.8.6 on previous page) shows the overall MCVD process.

Plasma-Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)

PCVD process is similar to MCVD process where the deposition occurs on silica
tube at 1200 oC. It reduces mechanical stress on glass films. There is no soot formation and
hence sintering is not required. Non-isothermal microwave plasma at low pressure initiates
the chemical reaction.

Double-Crucible Method
Double-crucible method is a direct melt process. In double-crucible method two
different glass rods for core and Cladding are used as feedstock for two concentric crucibles.
The inner crucible is for core and outer crucible is for cladding. The fibers can be drawn from
the orifices in the crucible. Fig. 1.8.7 shows double crucible method of fiber drawing.

Major advantage of double crucible method is that it is a continuous production process.

14. Fiber Optic Cables
The fiber optic cable is to be used under variety of situations such as underground,
Outdoor poles or submerged under water. The structure of cable depends on the situation where
it is to be used, but the basic cable design principles remain same.

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Mechanical property of cable is one of the important factor for using any specific
cable. Maximum allowable axial load on cable decides the length of the cable be reliably
installed.
Also the fiber cables must be able to absorb energy from impact loads. The outer
sheath must be designed to protect glass fibers from impact loads and from corrosive
environmental elements.
Fiber Arrangements
Several arrangements of fiber cables are done to use it for different applications.
The most basic form is two fiber cable designs. Fig. 1.10.1 shows basic two fiber cable
design. It is also known as basic building block of fiber cable.
For providing strength to the core several coatings of different materials are
applied as shown in fig 1.10.1.

Multiple fiber cable can be combined together using similar techniques. Fig. 1.10.2
shows commonly used six fiber cables.
The basic fiber building blocks are used to form large cable. These units are
bound on a buffer material which acts as strength element along with insulated copper
conductor. The fiber building blocks are surrounded by paper tape, PVC jacket, yarn and
outer sheath.

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Fiber Optic Cable Ducts

Number of cores is bundled in plastic ducts. To ease identification, individual
fibers are colour coded Table 1.10.1 shows an example of the colour coding used by
manufacturers

If there are more than 12 fibers in a tube they are usually bundled together in
quantities of 12 and held together with a coloured binding yarn.

Plastic Fiber Optic Cables

Fibers can also be manufactured from transparent plastic which offers advantages
of larger diameter (1 mm), increased flexibility, can be cut using a hot razor blade, ease of
termination. But because of high intrinsic loss use of plastic fibers is normally restricted to
only few metres.
Plastic optic fiber (POF) offers noise immunity and low cable weight and volume
and is competitive with shielded copper wire making it suitable for industrial applications.

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Silica (glass) optical fiber has better transmission characteristics (Low loss) than
POF. Also, silica fiber can tolerate higher temperature than plastic fiber. On the other hand,
POF is more flexible, less prove to breakage, easier to fabricate and cost is low than glass
fibers.
Another advantage of glass/glass fiber is that very clean fracture surface can be
obtained which ensures that fiber cladding inside the connector retains its optical
characteristics right upto the end face to fiber. Whereas in plastic glass/plastic fiber some
additional losses exists due to fracture zone of plastic which even after grinding and
polishing still have microscope end face absorption areas. These advantages and
disadvantages are summarized in Table 1.10.3.

Recommended Questions
1. State and explain the advantages and disadvantages of fiber optic communication systems?
2. State and explain in brief the principle of light propagation?
3. Define following terms with respect to optical laws –
A) Reflection
B) Refraction
C) Refractive index
D) Snell‘s law
E) Critical angle
F) Total internal reflection (TIR)
4. Explain the important conditions for TIR to exit in fiber.?

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5. Derive an expression for maximum acceptance angle of a fiber?

6. Explain the acceptance come of a fiber?
7. Define numerical aperture and state its significance also?
8. Explain the different types of rays in fiber optic?
9. Explain the following –?
A) Step index fiber
B) Graded index fiber
10. What is mean by mode of a fiber?
11. Write short notes on following –
A) Single mode step index fiber
B) Multimode step index fiber
C) Multimode graded index fiber.
12. Explain the fiber materials used in fabrication requirements?
13. In case of glass fibers how the refractive index can be varied?
14. Briefly explain following techniques of fabrication?
i) OVPO ii) VAD iii) MCVD iv) PCVD

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