Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

BONE GROWTH
Bone Growth occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other
connective tissue. As osteoblasts deposit a new bone matrix on the surface of bones
between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix, the bone increases in width, or
diameter.
Lamellar Bone
•is a mature bone that results from the
remodeling of immature woven bone. Is PARTS OF BONE(KNEE)
HIGHLY ORGANIZED STRESS- •FEMUR
ORIENTED collagen of lamellar bone •PATELLA
give its ANISOTROPIC PROPERTIES. •EPIPHYSIS
ANISOTROPIC PROPERTIES •EPIPHYSEAL PLATE
-Dependent upon the directionally •DIAPHYSIS
location considered on the material or
where and how force is applied to the
material.

BONE REMODELING
- consists of removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts.

- Involved in several important functions, including bone growth, changes in bone

shape,
adjustment of the bone to stress, bone repair, and calcium ion (Ca2+) regulation in the
body.
Bone Repair adjacent to the fracture site have been
replaced by compact bone.
Have two types first primary and secondary CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
the primary is direct Calcium- Calcium is an essential element
healing with bone and secondary via that serves an important role in skeletal
intermediate stage like are hematoma mineralization.
formation, callus formation, callus - is one of the most important
ossification and bone remodeling. minerals for the human body. It
Hematoma formation is the beginning or helps form and maintain healthy
when blood vessels leak into the teeth and bones. A proper level of
surrounding tissue and may cause to blood calcium in the body over a lifetime
vessel a small amount of bleeding. can help prevent osteoporosis

Callus formation is soft bone replace the Homeostasis – it is a self-regulating

blood clot and callus holds the process by which an organism tends to
bone together but is not strong enough for maintain stability while adjusting to
the body. conditions that are best for its survival.
Callus ossification is the process of If homeostasis is successful, life continues;
conversion of cartilage to bone. The if it's unsuccessful, it results in a disaster or
cartilage replaces the spongy bone and can death of the organism.
result in stronger external callus. Calcium Homeostasis refers to the
Bone remodeling is complete when the maintenance of a constant concentration of
new bone of callus and dead bone calcium ions in the extracellular fluid.
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

VITAMIN D - is essential for bone strength

and may support the immune system and
other functions.

SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW

- The average adult has 206 bones. 2 SEGREGATIONS OF SKELETON:
However, it varies the actual number of
bones varies among people and decreases • Axial skeleton
with age as bones become fused. • Appendicular skeleton

Infant Bones 270 to 300 bones (partly made Number of bones:

up of cartilages) Long bones - 90
Adult Bones 206 to 213 bones Short bones - 28
Flat bones - 36
FUSION/FUSING Sesamoid Bones - 4
- a process by which bones join together Irregular Bones - 48

AXIAL SKELETON
- forms the central axis of the body.
- it is composed of the skull, vertebral Bones associated with the skull:
column and the thoracic cage. 6 auditory ossicles; 1 hyoid bone = 7
- its function is to support and protect the
most vital and vulnerable organs of the body • Vertebral Column:
such as the brain, spinal cord, heart and
24 Vertebrae; 1 sacrum; 1 coccyx = 26
lungs.
- it is made up of 80 bones within the central
core of the body. • Thoracic Cage:
The Skull: 8 cranial bones; 14 facial 12 pairs or 24 Ribs; Sternum = 25
bones = 22

Skull
Skull is the bony framework that gives The Eight bones of the Cranium are:
the head its characteristic shape. (1) Frontal
Function: to protect the soft and the (2) Occipital
vital tissues of the head, particularly the (3) Sphenoid
brain. (4) Ethmoid
The Skull (5) Two Parietal bones
consists of the Cranium (the bony box (6) Two Temporal bones
housing the brain) and the face. The
skull is composed of 22 bones, 8 in the
cranium and 14 in the face.

(i) FRONTAL: The frontal bone forms (ii) OCCIPITAL: The occipital bone
the forehead, the anterior (front) part of forms the posterior (back) part of the
the cranial vault and the roof of the floor and vault of the cranium. It is the
orbits (eye sockets). Inside the bone, bone which supports the head upon the
just behind the eyebrows are two air spinal column.
spaces called the frontal sinuses.
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

The spinal cord leaves the cranium There are 14 bones in the face:
through an opening in the occipital bone 1. Mandible-----------------------------(1)
called the foramen magnum. 2. Maxillae------------------------------(2)
3. Zygomatic Bones------------------(2)
(iii) SPHENOID: The sphenoid bone is 4. Lacrimal Bones--------------------(2)
the central part of the base of the 5. Nasal Bones------------------------(2)
cranium. It forms part of the orbits, 6. Inferior conchae--------------------
transmits the optic nerve and supports (2)
the posterior part of the maxilla. The 7. Palatine Bones---------------------(2)
sphenoid air sinuses lie in this bone. 8. Vomer--------------------------------(1)
The pituitary gland lies in a bony socket
called the sella turcica, located on the (i) ZYGOMATIC: The right and left
superior aspect of the sphenoid bone. zygomatic bones form the lower
and outer edges of each orbit
Dental Tip: When a patient is seated in and that part of each zygomatic
the dental chair, the headrest should arch nearest the eye.
support the occipital bone and thereby The Zygomatic bone and Zygomatic
support the entire head. process of the temporal bone form the
(iv) ETHMOID: The Ethmoid bone lies Zygomatic arch. The anterior edge of
between the eyes and extends from the the zygomatic bone joins the maxilla.
frontal bone to the sphenoid bone. It That part of the maxilla which joins the
forms the anterior part of the skull, the zygomatic bone is called the
medial wall of each orbit, part of the zygomatic process.
nasal septum and the roof of the nose. It (ii) LACRIMAL: The paired (right and
transmits the olfactory nerve (nerve of left) Lacrimal bones form small parts of
smell). the medial walls of the orbits. The
(v) PARIETAL: The Parietal bones lacrimal bones transmit the naso-
forms a large part of the cranial vault lacrimal duct from the eye to the nose or
and extend from the frontal bone to the nasal fossa.
occipital bone. The two bones join at the (iii) NASAL: The nasal bones (right and
midline on the top of the cranium and left) are long, thin pieces of bone that
form the sagittal suture. From this form the upper part of the bridge of the
suture, these bones extend down and nose. The anterior lower part of the
out to about the level of the top of the nasal septum is composed of cartilage
external ear where they meet the (iv) INFERIOR CONCHAE: The inferior
temporal bones. nasal conchae (right and left) are scroll
like bones lying horizontally along the
(vi) TEMPORAL: Temporal bones lateral walls of the nasal cavity. The
complete the sides and part of the base bony elements of the middle and
of the cranium. These bones contain superior conchae are extensions of the
organs of hearing and equilibrium. The lateral parts of the ethmoid bones.
external acoustic meatus in the side of (v) PALATINE: The palatine bones
each bone forms a passage from the (right and left) join in the midline to form
external ear to the middle ear which lies the posterior part of the hard palate.
within each bone. Palatine bones also form part of the
FACE
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

floor and lateral walls of the nasal cavity  Sella Turcica - saddle shaped
and part of the floor of the orbits. dent/depression, composed of
(vi) VOMER: The vomer forms the three parts:
inferior part of the nasal septum, the
vertical partition separating the right and  Tuberculum Sellae (anterior wall
left nasal cavities. of the sella turcica, posterior
(vii) MAXILLA: The right and left aspect of chiasmatic groove)
maxillary bones forms the upper jaw and
palate of the mouth. The two halves are  Hypophysial Fossa (deepest
fused at the intermaxillary suture to form part of sella turcica, where the
the upper jaw. pituitary gland is located)
(viii) MANDIBLE: The horseshoe-
shaped bone forming the lower jaw,  Dorsum Sellae (forms the
articulating with the skull at the posterior wall of the sella turcica)
temporomandibular joint. Mandible is  Chiasmatic Groove - sulcus
the largest, strongest and lowest bone in formed by the optic chiasm
the face. (where the optic nerves cross)
Mediastinum and Occipital Bone Ethmoid Bone
Mediastinum The ethmoid bone is a small, unpaired bone
It is the space in the chest between the located in the skull between the eyes. It is a
pleural sacs of the lungs that contains lightweight, spongy bone that contributes to
all the tissues and organs of the chest the formation of the:
except the lungs and pleura. It is the
● Orbit (the eye socket)
middle section of the thoracic cavity
● Nasal cavity
between the left and right pleural ● Nasal septum (the partition that divides
cavities. (Which hold the lungs) the nasal cavity into two halves)
Occipital bone ● Anterior cranial fossa (the front part of the
Occipital bone makes up the majority of skull that houses the brain)
the skull’s posterior wall and base. Its
most prominent feature is the foramen The ethmoid bone has a complex structure
magnum (large hole), the opening and consists of three parts:
where the brainstem connects to the
spinal cord. ● Cribriform plate: This is a thin,
perforated plate of bone that forms the roof
of the
nasal cavity and the floor of the anterior
Sphenoid Bone cranial fossa. The olfactory nerve fibers,
-butterfly shaped, protects the brain, which transmit the sense of smell to the
consists of body, paired greater and brain, pass through the holes in the
lesser wings, and two pterygoid cribriform plate.
processes, contains sphenoidal sinuses
(air cavity in the body of the sphenoid ● Ethmoid labyrinths: These are two
bone) paired structures located on either side of
Sphenoidal Sinuses: hollow, separated the
by a septum. perpendicular plate. The ethmoid labyrinths
Bony Landmarks: are made up of thin, bony plates that
form the lateral walls of the nasal cavity and
the medial walls of the orbit. They also
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

contain the ethmoid sinuses, which are air- The hyoid bone, present at the front of
filled spaces that help to warm and the neck, has a body and two sets of
humidify the air we breathe. horns.
Vertebral Column
● Perpendicular plate: This is a thin, The 5 functions of vertebral column are:
vertical plate of bone that forms the superior
two-thirds of the nasal septum. The ethmoid - It supports the weight of the head
bone articulates with 13 other bones in and trunk.
the skull, including the frontal bone, - It protects the spinal cord.
sphenoid bone, nasals, maxillae, lacrimals, - It allows spinal nerves to exit the
palatines, inferior nasal conchae, and spinal cord.
vomer. - It provides a site for muscle
Functions of the ethmoid bone: attachment.
The ethmoid bone plays a number of - It permits movement of the head and
important roles, including: trunk.
Supporting the orbit and nasal cavity:
The ethmoid bone provides structural The Vertebral column usually consists of 26
support for the orbit and nasal cavity. bones called vertebrae which can be
divided into 5 regions called
Facilitating respiration: The ethmoid bone
helps to warm and humidify the air we 7 Cervical Vertebrae
breathe by containing the ethmoid sinuses. 12 Thoracic vertebrae
5 Lumbar vertebrae
Protecting the brain: The cribriform plate 1 Sacral bone
of the ethmoid bone helps to protect the 1 coccygeal bone
brain from injury. We can identify it by letter within each
region called:
Transmitting the sense of smell: The C1-C7
olfactory nerve fibers pass through the T1-T12
holes in the cribriform plate to transmit the L1-L5
sense of smell to the brain. S
Hyoid bone Co
The hyoid bone (hyoid) is a small U- Thoracic Cage
shaped (horseshoe-shaped) solitary The thoracic cage, commonly called the rib
bone, situated in the midline of the neck cage, protects the heart and lungs within the
anteriorly at the base of the mandible thorax. It forms a semirigid chamber, which
and posteriorly at the fourth cervical can increase and decrease in volume during
vertebra. respiration.

It consists of (1) the thoracic vertebrae, (2)

Function:
the ribs with their associated costal (rib)
The hyoid serves as an cartilages, and (3) the sternum.
attachment structure for the tongue and Ribs and Costal Cartilages
muscles in the floor of the oral cavity There are 12 pairs of ribs
above, the larynx below, and the
epiglottis and pharynx behind. It is + Ribs are classified as either true ribs
suspended from the styloid processes of or false ribs.
the temporal bones by the stylohyoid + Ribs 1–7 are called true ribs
ligaments. + True ribs attach directly through costal
cartilage to the sternum.
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

+ Ribs 8–12 are called false ribs - Consists of the bones of the arm,
because they do not attach directly to forearm, wrist and hand.
the sternum. The false ribs consist of Arm
two groups. Ribs 8–10 are joined by a - Region between the shoulder and the
common cartilage to the costal cartilage elbow.
of rib 7, which in turn is attached to the - Contains the humerus.
sternum. Two of the false ribs, ribs 11 Humerus
and 12, are also called floating ribs - Longest, largest bone of the upper
because they do not attach to the limb.
sternum. The costal cartilages are Greater tubercle & Lesser tubercle
flexible and permit the thoracic cage to - Where muscles originating on the
expand during respiration. scapula attach.
Deltoid tuberosity
Sternum - Deltoid muscle attaches.
sternum, or breastbone Epicondyles
+ has been described as sword-shaped - Attachment sites for forearm muscles.
and has three parts. FOREARM
APPENDICULAR SKELETON - Has two bones
- Consists of the bones of the upper and 1. Ulna - medial (little finger)
lower limbs, as well as the girdles, which 2. Radius - lateral (thumb)
attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. Trochlear Notch
Pectoral Girdle (shoulder girdle) - Forms most of the elbow joint.
- Consists of four bones, two scapulae Olecranon Process
and two clavicles, which attach the - Extension of the ulna.
upper limb to the body. - Proximal to the trochlear notch.
Scapula (shoulder blade) Coronoid Process
- Flat, triangular shaped bone with three - Helps complete the “grip” of the ulna.
large fossae. Styloid Process
Glenoid Cavity - Articulates with the bones of the wrist.
- Fourth fossa, where the head of the - Located on the medial side.
humerus connects to the scapula. Radial Tuberosity
Spine - Where one of the arm muscles, the
- ridges, runs across the posterior bicep brachii attaches.
surface of the scapula. WRIST
Acromion Process - A relatively short region between the
- Projection, extends from the scapular forearm and the hand. - composed of 8
spine to form the point of the shoulder. carpal bones.
Clavicle (collarbone) SLTPHCTT (SO LONG TOP PART,
- Articulates with the scapula at the HERE COMES THE THUMB)
acromion process. 1. Scaphoid
Coracoid Process 2. Lunate
- Curves below the clavicle & provides 3. Triquetrum
for the attachment of arm & chest 4. Pisiform
muscles. 5. Hamate
UPPER LIMBS 6. Capitate
7. Trapezoid
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

8. Trapezium Adipocytes (fat cells)

HAND Mesenchymal stem cells -(MSCs) are
- Five metacarpal bones are attached to multipotent stem cells found in bone
the carpal bones. - Forms the bony marrow that are important for making
framework of the hand. and repairing skeletal tissues, such as
Metacarpal Bones cartilage, bone and the fat found in bone
- Numbered 1 to 5 from thumb to the marrow.
little finger. Location of the bone marrow:
Phalanges Ribs
- Small bones in the fingers. Vertebrae
- Each finger consists of three Sternum
phalanges except the thumb. - Thumb bones of the pelvis
only consists of proximal and distal. TENDONS
1. Proximal Tendons - A tendon is a fibrous
2. Middle connective tissue that attaches muscle
3. Distal to bone. Tendons may also attach
muscles to structures such as the
RED & YELLOW BONE MARROW eyeball. A tendon serves to move the
What is bone marrow? bone or structure.
- a thick, spongy kind of jelly inside your Cartilage - Cartilage is a strong, flexible
bones. Bone marrow makes all kinds of connective tissue that protects your
blood cells: red blood cells that carry joints and bones. It acts as a shock
oxygen, white blood cells that fight absorber throughout your body.
infections, and platelets that help blood Cartilage at the end of your bones
clot. reduces friction and prevents them from
Types of Bone marrow rubbing together when you use your
joints.
Red bone marrow is where stem cells Ligament - a short band of tough,
develop into Red blood cells carrying flexible fibrous connective tissue which
oxygen to tissues in the body. connects two bones or cartilages or
Platelets stop bleeding by helping blood holds together a joint.
clot. FOUR MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF
White Blood Cells BONES BASED ON THE SHAPE OF THE
Three very important types of white BONE
blood cells are essential to the proper 4 major classifications of bones based
functioning of the body's immune on the shape of the bone.
system, which fights infection: 1. Long Bones
Neutrophils and Macrophages — These 2. Short Bones
white blood cells fight bacterial and 3. Flat Bones
fungal infections by "eating" germs 4. Irregular Bones
Lymphocytes — These white blood cells Note: Not every bone on the body fits
fight bacterial, viral and fungal perfectly into one of these classification
infections. as some may have characteristics of 2
or more of the classifications.
Yellow bone marrow stores fatty tissue. Long Bones
There are two types of stem cells in Are longer than they are wide.
yellow bone marrow
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

Mainly located in the appendicular -composed primarily of compact bone

skeleton or in the arms or legs tissue surrounding a hollow center
Important in the movement and they called medullary cavity;
support the weight of the body. -medullary cavity contains bone marrow,
Example of this are the femur or thigh specifically yellow bone marrow.
bone, the humerus or arm bone or the Epiphysis
phalanges, or the bones of the fingers. - ends of the long bone
-mostly spongy bone with an outer layer
Short Bone of compact bone.
Usually long as they are wide. Articular Cartilage
Often described as being “Cubed” -the hyaline cartilage covering the joints
shaped. or end of long bone.
Example are carpals at the wrist and -principal function: provide a smooth
tarsal bones located at ankle region. lubricated surface for joints to lessen
Have little to no movement and they friction during movement.
provide support and stability. Epiphyseal plate/growth plate
Flat Bones -located between the epiphysis and
Usually thin and sometimes have a diaphysis
curve shape to them. -where growth of bone length occurs
Protect internal organs such as the brain -when bone stops growing in length, the
and heart, and many of the have broad epiphyseal plate becomes ossified and
surfaces for the attachment of muscle. is called epiphyseal line.
Some examples of short bones are the -in short: the epiphyseal plate can be
cranial bones in the skull, the sternum found in children/juvenile's long bone,
and the ribs. while the epiphyseal line would be found
Irregular Bones in an adult`s long bone.
Irregular Bones vary in shape so they do Periosteum
not fit into one of the 3 previous -a connective tissue membrane covering
categories, thus getting the name the outer surface of a bone.
“Irregular”. -outer layer contains blood vessels and
Example of this is the vertebrae and nerves.
pelvis -inner layer is a single layer of bone
Some irregular bones protect organs cells including osteoblasts and
and some, such as the patella or knee osteoclasts.
cap attach to the tendons. -this is also where tendons and
The Patella is also classified as ligaments attach to the bone.
sesamoid bone, or round bone. Some Endosteum
sources list sesamoid bones as an -is a single layer of connective tissue
irregular bone, and some sources list that lines the internal surfaces of all
sesamoid bone as a fifth classification, cavities in the bones, such as the
by itself. medullary cavity of the diaphysis and
STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE smaller cavities in spongy and compact
A long bone has two (2) main parts: bone.
Diaphysis and Epiphysis. -also includes osteoblasts and
Diaphysis osteoclasts
-center part of the bone
PERIOSTEUM AND ENDOSTEUM
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

Periosteum – A dense fibro cellular Compact Bone - Composed of osteons

membrane covering the exterior bone and forms the external layer of the bone.
surface. Osteons - Cylindrical vascular tunnels
It covers the outer surface of bone. formed by an osteoclast-rich tissue.
Some cells of it are osteoblasts, so that
our bone can heal after some fractures. They contain pluripotential precursor
It helps nourish our bones. cells and endosteum known as the
cutting cone.
Spongy Bone - Composed of
Functions: trabeculae and forms all the inner parts
Protection: Protective cover of the bone.
Nutrition: Nutrients to bone Trabeculae -Thin columns and plates of
Regeneration: Healing of bone after bone that create a spongy structure in a
fractures cancellous bone.

FOUR TYPES OF CELLS THAT

2 layers: COMPOSE BONE TISSUE
Outer fibrous layer: a dense fibrous
tissue. Osteoblast - Create
Inner cellular layer: also known as inner Osteocytes - Maintain
cambion layer or osteogenic layer; The Osteoclast - Break
Inner layer contains osteoblasts in Osteoprogenitor - Growth
young developing bones.
FACTORS AFFECT BONE GROWTH
Endosteum – A membrane that lines
the center of your bones that contain Size and shape of a bone is determined
bone marrow. genetically (your height for example) but
It covers the inside of the bone can be modified and influenced by
It causes the bone to grow, repair and heredity, nutrition, and hormones.
remodel.
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE AND LINE 1. Heredity —each person has a
genetic potential for height, that is, a
Epiphyseal plate – Also known as the maximum height, with genes inherited
growth plate, it is a thin layer of cartilage from both parents. Many genes are
that lies between the epiphyses and involved, and their interactions are not
metaphysis, and is where the growth of well under-stood. Some of these genes
long bones takes place. are probably those for the enzymes
Epiphyseal line – Is an epiphyseal plate involved in cartilage and bone
that has become ossified. production, for this is how bones grow.
2. Nutrition —nutrients are the raw
HISTOLOGY OF COMPACT AND materials of which bones are made.
SPONGY BONE Calcium, phosphorus, and protein
become part of the bone matrix itself.
The Skeletal System: The Histology of Vitamin D is needed for the efficient
Compact and Spongy Bone (Osteons absorption of calcium and phosphorus
and Trabeculae) by the small intestine. Vitamins A and C
do not become part of bone but are
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

necessary for the process of bone storage site for calcium in the body,
matrix forma-tion (ossification). Without bone remodeling is important to
these and other nutri-ents, bones cannot maintain blood calcium levels within
grow properly. Children who are normal limits. Calcium is removed from
malnourished grow very slowly and may bones when blood calcium levels
not reach their genetic potential for decrease, and it is deposited when
height. dietary calcium is adequate. This
removal and deposition are under
3. Hormones —endocrine glands hormonal control. If too much bone is
produce hormones that stimulate deposited, the bones become thick or
specific effects in certain cells. develop abnormal spurs, or projections,
BONE REMODELING that can interfere with normal function.
is a lifelong process where mature bone Too little bone formation or too much
tissue is removed from the skeleton and bone removal, as occurs in
new bone tissue is formed. osteoporosis, weakens the bones and
makes them susceptible to fracture.
Bones are dynamic structures. The
shape and composition of bones are Multinucleated cells are eukaryotic
constantly changing through bone cells that have more than one nucleus
remodeling. Bone remodeling is the per cell.
removal of existing bone by osteoclasts Phagocytized process by which a cell
and the deposition of new bone by engulfs particles such as bacteria, and
osteoblasts and occurs in all bone. other microorganisms.
Remodeling is responsible for changes Resorption during which osteoclasts
in bone shape, the adjustment of bone digest old bone.
to Reversal when mononuclear cells
stress, bone repair, and calcium ion appear on the bone surface.
regulation in the body fluids. Mononuclear all blood cells that has
single nucleus such as mature cells like
Remodeling is also involved in bone lymphocytes. monocytes and stem cells.
growth when newly formed spongy bone Formation phase – happens when
in the epiphyseal plate forms compact osteoblast lays down new bone until the
bone. A long bone increases in length new bone is completely replaced. It is
and diameter as new bone is deposited being replaced when calcium and
on the outer surface and growth occurs phosphorus crystallize and transform
at the epiphyseal plate. At the same into sturdy hydroxyapatite crystals.
time, bone is removed from the inner, Resting phase- the osteocytes undergo
medullary surface of the bone. As the apoptosis. Bone lining cells detach from
bone diameter increases, the thickness bone surface, and the resorption phase
of the compact bone relative to the begins.
medullary cavity tends to remain fairly Apoptosis- process of death cells,
constant. If the size of the medullary where in the dead cells shrinks
cavity did not also increase as bone size
increased, the compact bone of the
diaphysis would become thick and very Fracture
heavy, because bone is the major
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

Complete or partial break in the bone twisted forcefully. This type of fracture
Types: gets its name from the spiral-shaped
1. Traumatic Fractures - caused by fracture line that wraps around the bone.
accidents, fall or other types of force. Spiral fractures are typically seen in long
2. Pathologic Fractures - caused by bones, such as the tibia (shinbone) or
diseases. femur (thighbone). This type of fracture
Soft tissue damage (Fracture) (closed often results from a combination of
and open) rotational and bending forces applied to
An open fracture (formerly called a the bone, commonly seen in sports
compound fracture) occurs when an injuries, falls, or accidents.
open wound extends to the site of the
fracture or when a fragment of bone
protrudes through the skin. Avulsion Fracture
If the skin is not perforated, the fracture - An avulsion fracture happens when the
is called a closed fracture (formerly forceful pull of a tendon or ligament on a
called a simple fracture). bone causes a piece of the bone to
DISPLACED AND NON-DISPLACED break off. This occurs when tendon or
FRACTURE: ligament that is attached to a bone pulls
Displaced - a displaced fracture means away forcefully, detaching a piece of
the pieces of your bone moved so much bone along with it. Avulsion fractures
that a gap formed around the fracture commonly occur in areas where tendons
when your bone broke. Displaced or ligaments attach to bones, such as
fractures are much more likely to require the ankle, knee, hip, or elbow.
surgery to repair. STRESS AND COMPRESSION
FRACTURE
Non-displaced - non-displaced
fractures are still broken bones, but the Stress Fracture
pieces weren’t moved far enough during tiny cracks found in the bone usually in
the break to be out of alignment. Usually weight bearing areas such as foot,
treated with a splint, brace, or cast. ankle, and lower leg.
usually caused by repetitive and intense
BONE FRACTURE: LINEAR, SPIRAL, activities such as repetitive jumping or
AND AVULSION running in loops.
Linear Fracture Mostly of stress fracture will heal on its
- A linear fracture is one of the most own with decreased level of activity and
common types of fractures seen in rest
bones. It occurs when the bone cracks
in a straight line, resembling a clean Compression Fracture
break. This type of fracture often occurs Fracture of the spine that usually occurs
due to direct blow or impact to the bone. when the vertebrae is subjected to too
Linear fractures are commonly observed much pressure or compression making
in the long bones, such as the arms and it bend resulting to decrease in height.
legs Other common cause of compression
Spiral Fracture fractures is; osteoporosis and injuries to
- A spiral fracture, also known as a the spine such as vehicular accidents
torsion fracture, occurs when a bone is and/or sport injuries
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

Compression fractures can heal through • It supports parts of your body that
rest, medication, use of brace, and even need to bend and move to function.
surgeries. Location: Ear (pinna)

BONE FRACTURE: INCOMPLETE, 2. Hyaline Cartilage

COMPLETE, AND COMMINUTED • 2nd most flexible
• Is the glass-like and translucent
Incomplete Fracture cartilage found on many joint surfaces.
An incomplete, or greenstick, Location: Synovial Joints or Joints of the
fracture occurs when the bone cracks limbs (shoulder, elbow, and knee)
and bends but does not completely
break. 3. Fibrocartilage
Complete Fracture • Least flexible
This is a fracture in which the bone is • Is a type of connective tissue that
completely broken into separate pieces. provides structural support for the
musculoskeletal system.
Comminuted Fracture Location: Meniscus or menisci of the
The bone is broken into more than two knee, and Intervertebral discs.
pieces.

CALCIUM-HOMEOSTASIS FOUR CARTILAGES

Calcium Homeostasis – is a complex
process that regulates calcium flow from ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
the bones including those important for Articular cartilage is the smooth, white
neural signaling, it needs to be tissue that covers the ends of
maintained for the body function. bones where they come together to form
Bone – major site for calcium. joints. Healthy cartilage in our joints
Parathyroid hormone- secreted by makes it easier to move. It allows the
cells in the parathyroid gland and is bones to glide over each other with very
essential for the maintenance of blood little friction. Articular cartilage can be
Ca2+ levels within homeostasis limits. damaged by injury or normal wear and
Calcitriol - increases blood Ca2+ levels. tear.
A steroid hormone derived from vitamin FUNCTION:
D The major functions of articular cartilage
Calcitonin – secreted from C cells in the are to transfer forces between
thyroid gland when blood Ca2+ levels articulating bones, to distribute forces in
are too high. It inhibits osteoclasts joints, and to provide a nearly
slowing bone reabsorption. frictionless surface for joint movement.
3 TYPES OF CARTILAGE WHERE TO FIND:
Cartilage – Is a non-vascular type of Articular cartilage found in (knee, ankle,
supporting connective tissue that is hip, shoulder, elbow, wrist, and finger)
found throughout the body. In such mature articular cartilage, the
surface zone consists of elongated
1. Elastic Cartilage small cells within a dense extracellular
• Is the most flexible cartilage. matrix that are oriented along the main
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

axis of motion, produce lubricants, and MAJOR ALAR CARTILAGE or (greater

provide the tissue with the important alar cartilage) (lower lateral cartilage) is
ability to resist shear stress. a thin, flexible plate, situated
COSTAL CARTILAGE immediately below the lateral nasal
The costal cartilage consists of bars of cartilage, and bent upon itself in such a
hyaline cartilage that serve to prolong manner as to form the medial wall and
the ribs forward and contribute to the lateral wall of the nostril of its own side.
elasticity of the walls of the thorax. Cartilages of the nose.
Costal cartilage is only found at the MINOR ALAR CARTILAGE The minor
anterior ends of the ribs, providing alar cartilages are 3 to 4 small hyaline
medial extension. cartilage pieces on both sides of the
FUNCTION: nose that sit between the lateral nasal
In terms of function, costal cartilage cartilage and the major alar cartilage.
provides structural strength and VOMERONASAL CARTILAGE (or
flexibility to the ribcage and protects the Jacobson's cartilage) is a narrow strip of
internal organs. cartilage, low on the medial wall of the
WHERE TO FIND: nasal cavity. It lies between the septal
Costal cartilage, present in sternal, nasal cartilage and the vomer. The
asternal, and floating ribs of the thoracic cartilage lies below, but is not connected
cage, is a valuable source of graft tissue to, the rudimentary vomeronasal organ.
in numerous autologous therapies.
NASAL CARTILAGE FUNCTION:
The nasal cartilages are structures The nasal cartilage is a structure that
within the nose that provide form and aids the body in respiratory functions to
support to the nasal cavity. The nasal intake oxygen or expire carbon dioxide.
cartilage is made up of a flexible Abnormalities or defects in the nasal
material called hyaline cartilage (packed cartilage affect airflow through the nasal
collagen) in the distal portion of the cavity, resulting in respiratory issues.
nose.
The nasal cartilages are the septal, WHERE TO FIND:
lateral, major alar, and minor alar The lateral nasal cartilage lies inferiorly
cartilages. There is a narrow strip of to the nasal bones.
cartilage called the vomeronasal
cartilage that lies between the vomer INTERVERTEBRAL DISC
and the septal cartilage. An intervertebral disc (or intervertebral
SEPTAL CARTILAGE is a hyaline fibrocartilage) lies between adjacent
cartilage that provides structural support vertebrae in the vertebral column. Each
to the nasal cavity and midface. disc forms a fibrocartilaginous joint (a
LATERAL CARTILAGE is a wing-like symphysis), to allow slight movement of
expansion extending out from the septal the vertebrae, to act as a ligament to
nasal cartilage. The lateral nasal hold the vertebrae together, and to
cartilage lies inferiorly to the nasal function as a shock absorber for the
bones while sitting superiorly to the spine.
major alar cartilage, separated by a FUNCTION:
narrow fissure. They provide separation and
connectivity between vertebrae and
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

counteract forces that act to lengthen or • Tuberosity: A rounded projection,

compress the spine or affect it in a smaller than a Trochanter.
torsional or shear manner. They also
sufficiently separate the vertebrae to • Tubercle: A small, rounded projection.
allow spinal nerves to exit the
intervertebral foramina. • Crest: A narrow, raised ridge.
WHERE TO FIND:
An intervertebral disc (or intervertebral • Spine: A sharp, slender projection.
fibrocartilage) lies between adjacent
vertebrae in the vertebral column. Each Projections can be found on all bones
disc forms a fibrocartilaginous joint (a in the body, but they are most prominent
symphysis), to allow slight movement of on long bones, such as
the vertebrae, to act as a ligament to the femur, humerus (upper arm bone),
hold the vertebrae together, and to and tibia (shin bone)
function as a shock absorber for the Here are some examples of projections
spine. under bone markings:

BONE MARKINGS • Greater trochanter of the femur: A

A projection under bone markings is a large, blunt projection on the lateral
raised area on the surface of a bone. (side) of the femur. It is the attachment
Projections are attachment point for the gluteus medius and gluteus
points for tendons and ligaments, which minimus muscles, which help to rotate
connect muscles and bones to each the thigh outward.
other. They also help to
stabilize joints and provide leverage for • Trochlea of the humerus: A smooth,
muscle movement. rounded projection on the distal (lower)
There are many different types of end of the
projections, each with its own unique humerus. It articulates with the trochlear
name and shape. Some of the notch of the ulna (forearm bone) to form
most common projections include: the elbow joint.

• Head: A rounded projection at the end • Medial epicondyle of the humerus: A

of a bone, such as the head of the femur small, rounded projection on the medial
(thigh (inner) side of the distal humerus. It is
bone). the attachment point for several flexor
muscles of the forearm and wrist.
• Condyle: A smooth, rounded
projection, often found at the ends of • Tibial tuberosity: A large, rough
bones that form joints. projection on the anterior (front) surface
of the tibia. It is the attachment point for
• Trochanter: A large, blunt projection, the patellar ligament, which connects
often found on long bones, such as the the patella (kneecap) to the tibia.
greater
trochanter of the femur. Without the projection under the bone
markings what will happen on our
bones?
Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

Projections are important for the proper Synarthrosis - immobile or nearly

functioning of the musculoskeletal immobile joint Amphiarthrosis - has a
system. They provide attachment points limited mobility.
for muscles and ligaments, which allow
us to move our bodies and maintain our Diarthrosis - freely movable joints.
posture. Without these projections, our
bones would be weaker and less stable, 1. Pivot joint - helps with rotating head
and we would be more Ex. Between C1 & C2 vertebrae found
likely to experience injuries. in neck

Here are some specific examples of 2. Ball and socket joint - allow
what would happen to our bones without backward, forward, sideways and rotate
projections: Ex. Hips and shoulders.

• Without the greater trochanter of the

femur, we would not be able to rotate 3. Hinge joint - like a folded book.
our thighs outward. This would make it Ex. elbow and knee
difficult to walk, run,
and climb stairs. 4. Condyloid joint - flexion, extension,
abduction & adduction movement.
• Without the trochlea of the humerus, Ex. Wrist, carpal bones
we would not be able to bend our
elbows. This would make it difficult to 5. Saddle joint - same as condyloid but
perform many everyday activities, such more limited.
as eating, dressing, and bathing. Ex. Trapezium carpal bone / thumb

• Without the medial epicondyle of the 6. Plane joint - for gliding movement.
humerus, we would not be able to flex Ex. Between tarsal bone / feet
our forearms and wrists. This would FUNCTIONS OF JOINTS
make it difficult to hold and manipulate
objects. Joints are classified structurally as
fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial,
• Without the tibial tuberosity, the according to the major connective tissue
patellar ligament would not be able to type that binds the bones together and
attach to the tibia. This would make the whether a fluid-filled joint capsule is
knee joint unstable and more likely to be present.
injured.
Joints can also be classified in
In general, without projections, our functional categories according to their
bones would be more susceptible to degree of motion as synarthroses (non-
fractures and dislocations. We movable joints), amphiarthrosis (slightly
would also have less range of motion movable joints), or diarthroses (freely
and muscle strength. movable joints).

3 TYPES OF JOINTS 1. Connects the bones together.

Chapter 6 - Skeletal System

2. Determines the range of each bone

depending on which part.