HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

SKELETAL SYSTEM
 ♦ The skeletal system is a vital framework for the human body. It provides
structure, offers protection to organs, facilitates movement, produces blood
cells, and serves various other essential functions.
Functions:
Support: Provides a framework for the body and supports soft tissues.
Protection: Protects vital internal organs; for instance, the skull protects the
brain, and the rib cage protects the heart and lungs.
Movement: Muscles are attached to bones, and when they contract, bones act as
levers, facilitating movement.
Mineral Storage: Bones store minerals, especially calcium and phosphate,
which can be released into the bloodstream when needed.
Blood Cell Production: Red bone marrow produces red and white blood cells
and platelets, a process known as hematopoiesis.
Energy Storage: Yellow bone marrow stores fat, which can serve as an energy
reserve.
Components:
 Bones: The human adult skeleton is made up of 206 bones (though we're
born with around 270, many of which fuse together as we grow).
 Joints: The areas where two or more bones meet.
 Cartilage: A flexible connective tissue found in many areas of the body
including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the
bronchial tubes, and the intervertebral discs.
 Ligaments: Elastic bands of tissue that connect bone to bone.
 Tendons: Connect muscle to bone.
Classification of Bones:
Long Bones: These are longer than they are wide. Examples include the femur
and the humerus.
Short Bones: Roughly cube-shaped, found in the wrist and ankle. Examples
include the carpal and tarsal bones.
Flat Bones: Thin and broad bones. Examples include the skull, scapula, and ribs.
Irregular Bones: Bones with complex shapes. Examples include the vertebrae
and certain skull bones.
Sesamoid Bones: Small, round bones embedded in tendons. The most well-
known example is the patella (kneecap).
Major Divisions:
Axial Skeleton: Comprises the bones along the body's central axis, including the
skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. It has about 80 bones.
 ♦ The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and is fundamental to
its framework. It includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage (ribs
and sternum).
SKULL
Functions:
♦ Protection: The primary purpose of the skull is to safeguard the brain
from injury.
♦ Support: It provides structural support for the face and organs located
therein.
♦ Housing: It contains and protects sensory organs, like the eyes and ears.
♦ Speech and Food: Provides structures (jaw, palate) essential for
chewing and speaking.

The human skull consists of 22 bones, which can be classified into two groups:
♦ Cranial Bones (Cranium): These eight bones encase and protect the
brain.
Frontal Bone:
♦ Location: Forehead and upper part of the eye socket.
♦ Features & Functions:
♦ Houses the frontal sinuses.
♦ Forms the anterior cranial fossa, a depression that supports the frontal lobes
of the brain.
♦ Contributes to the roofs of the orbits (eye sockets).
♦ The supraorbital ridge (or brow ridge) is a prominent feature.

Parietal Bones (2):

♦ Location: Sides and roof of the skull.
♦ Features & Functions:
♦ Joined at the midline by the sagittal suture.
♦ Bound to the frontal bone by the coronal suture.
♦ They form the bulging sides and roof of the cranial vault.
Temporal Bones (2):
♦ Location: Lower sides of the skull, near the ears.
♦ Features & Functions:
♦ Contain the structures of the inner and middle ear.
♦ House the mastoid sinuses.
♦ The styloid process, a thin projection, is involved in muscle attachments.
♦ The zygomatic process extends forward to join the zygomatic bone, forming
part of the cheek's side arch.
♦ The mandibular fossa forms a joint with the mandible, called the
temporomandibular joint (TMJ).

Occipital Bone:
♦ Location: Back and base of the skull.
♦ Features & Functions:
♦ Contains the foramen magnum, a large hole for the spinal cord's exit.
♦ Lateral to the foramen magnum are the occipital condyles, which articulate
with the first cervical vertebra, allowing nodding movements of the head.
♦ Forms the posterior cranial fossa, which supports the cerebellum of the
brain.
Sphenoid Bone:
♦ Location: Central base of the skull.
♦ Features & Functions:
♦ Resembles a bat or butterfly in shape.
♦ Contains the sella turcica, a saddle-shaped depression that houses the
pituitary gland.
♦ Contributes to the floor and sides of the skull, as well as the rear walls of the
orbits.
♦ Houses the sphenoidal sinuses.
♦ Articulates with all other cranial bones, making it a cornerstone of the skull.

Ethmoid Bone:
♦ Location: Between the eyes, at the roof of the nasal cavity.
♦ Features & Functions:
♦ Contributes to the medial walls of the orbits, the roof of the nasal cavity, and
the nasal septum.
♦ Contains the cribriform plate, which allows olfactory nerve fibers to pass
from the nasal cavity to the brain.
♦ Houses the ethmoidal sinuses.
♦ Contains the superior and middle nasal conchae, which increase the nasal
cavity's surface area and help warm and moisten inhaled air.

♦ Frontal Bone: Forms the forehead and the roofs of the orbits (eye
sockets).
♦ Parietal Bones (2): These form the top and sides of the cranial vault.
♦ Temporal Bones (2): These are situated on the sides of the skull, near
the ears. They contain structures that are vital for hearing and balance.
♦ Occipital Bone: Forms the rear of the skull and surrounds the foramen
magnum, the hole through which the spinal cord connects to the brain.
♦ Sphenoid Bone: This butterfly-shaped bone forms part of the floor of the
cranial cavity and contains the sella turcica, a depression where the pituitary
gland resides.
♦ Ethmoid Bone: Located between the eyes, this bone contributes to the
medial walls of the orbits, the nasal cavity's roof, and the nasal septum.
♦ Facial Bones: 14 bones that structure the face.
♦ Maxillae (2): The upper jawbones. They also form the floor of the orbits.
♦ Palatine Bones (2): These contribute to the hard palate and the floor of
the orbits.
♦ Zygomatic Bones (2): The cheekbones. They also form part of the
lateral walls of the orbits.
♦ Lacrimal Bones (2): These small bones form part of the medial walls of
the orbits.
♦ Nasal Bones (2): These form the bridge of the nose.
 ♦ Vomer: This bone forms the posterior and inferior part of the nasal septum.
♦ Inferior Nasal Conchae (2): These bones form part of the nasal
cavity's lateral walls.
♦ Mandible: The lower jawbone and the only movable bone of the skull.

Associated Structures:
♦ Sutures: Immovable joints that connect the skull bones. Notable sutures
include the coronal, sagittal, lambdoid, and squamous sutures.

♦ Fontanelles: Soft spots on a baby's head which, during birth, enable the
flexible skull plates to adjust as they pass through the birth canal. They later
fuse to form the sutures.
 ♦ Orbits: Eye sockets that house the eyeballs and associated structures.
♦ Nasal Cavity: Defined by the nasal, maxilla, palatine, lacrimal, sphenoid,
and ethmoid bones.
♦ Paranasal Sinuses: Air-filled spaces within the frontal, ethmoid,
sphenoid, and maxillary bones. They help to reduce the weight of the skull
and produce mucus that moisturizes the inside of the nose.
♦ Auditory Ossicles: The smallest bones in the body, located in the
middle ear. They include the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes
(stirrup) and play a crucial role in hearing.

♦ The skull, with its intricate construction and design, is a testament to nature's
engineering, balancing the need for robust protection with functionality and
aesthetic appeal.

Appendicular Skeleton: Comprises the bones of the appendages (arms and

legs) and the girdles that connect them to the axial skeleton. It consists of around
126 bones.
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle:
The pectoral girdle connects the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and provides
attachment points for numerous muscles.
♦ Clavicle (Collarbone):
♦ Slender, S-shaped bones that connect the sternum (breastbone) to the scapula
(shoulder blade).
♦ Acts as a brace for the scapula and arms.
♦ Scapula (Shoulder Blade):
♦ Large, flat, triangular bones situated on the posterior side of the rib cage.
♦ Contains the glenoid cavity, which articulates with the head of the humerus
to form the shoulder joint.
Upper Limbs:
The arms and hands contain 30 bones each.
♦ Humerus:
♦ Long bone of the upper arm.
♦ Its head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.

♦ Radius and Ulna:

♦ Forearm bones.
♦ The ulna is medial and slightly larger. Its prominent olecranon process forms
the elbow's tip.
♦ The radius is lateral and responsible for the arm's rotation.
 ♦ Carpals (Wrist Bones):
♦ 8 small bones arranged in two rows.
♦ Allow for a wide range of wrist movement.
♦ Metacarpals:
♦ Form the palm of the hand.
♦ 5 bones, numbered I to V from the thumb (pollex) side.
♦ Phalanges (Fingers):
♦ Each finger has three phalanges: proximal, middle, and distal, except for the
thumb, which lacks a middle phalanx.

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle:

The pelvic girdle connects the lower limbs to the axial skeleton, supports the
abdominal organs, and attaches various muscles.
♦ Os Coxae (Hip Bones):
♦ Formed by the fusion of three bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis.
♦ The two hip bones articulate with the sacrum posteriorly and with each other
anteriorly at the pubic symphysis.
♦ Acetabulum:
♦ A deep socket where the three bones of the os coxae fuse.
♦ Articulates with the head of the femur to form the hip joint.
Lower Limbs:
The legs and feet contain 30 bones each.
♦ Femur (Thigh Bone):
♦ The longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body.
♦ Its head articulates with the acetabulum of the os coxae.

♦ Patella (Kneecap):
♦ A triangular bone that protects the knee joint.
♦ Tibia and Fibula:
♦ Bones of the lower leg.
♦ The tibia (shinbone) is larger and medial, bearing most of the body's weight.
♦ The fibula is slender and lateral.
 ♦ Tarsals (Ankle Bones):
♦ Seven bones, with the largest being the calcaneus (heel bone).
♦ Metatarsals:
♦ Form the foot's arch.
♦ Five bones, numbered I to V from the medial (big toe) side.
♦ Phalanges (Toes):
♦ Similar to the fingers, but the big toe has only two phalanges (proximal and
distal), while the other toes have three.

Conditions and Disorders:

♦ Fractures: Broken bones are common in the appendicular skeleton due to
falls, accidents, or overuse.
♦ Dislocations: This occurs when bones in a joint become misaligned.
♦ Osteoarthritis: A degenerative joint disease where cartilage wears down
over time.
♦ Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Compression of the median nerve in the wrist,
often due to repetitive movements.
♦ Hip Dysplasia: A malformation of the hip socket that can lead to arthritis.
The appendicular skeleton, with its 126 bones, is designed for movement,
providing a foundation for locomotion, manipulation, and interaction with the
environment. Proper care, such as regular exercise, a balanced diet, and safety
precautions, can ensure its health and functionality throughout life.

Bone Composition:
Compact (Cortical) Bone: The dense, hard outer layer of bone.
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone: Located inside bones, looks like a sponge with
lots of small spaces. These spaces are often filled with red bone marrow.
Bone Development and Growth:
 Ossification: The process of bone formation.
 Endochondral Ossification: Most bones form from cartilage in this
way, where the cartilage is gradually replaced by bone tissue.
 Intramembranous Ossification: Some bones, like certain skull bones,
form directly from layers of connective tissue.
Bone Repair:
1. When a bone breaks, it undergoes a repair process:
2. Hematoma (blood clot) forms.
3. A fibrocartilaginous callus forms and is replaced by a bony callus.
4. The bony callus is remodeled over time, restoring the bone's original shape.
Conditions & Diseases:
Osteoporosis: Decreased bone density, making bones fragile.
Osteoarthritis: Degeneration of joint cartilage and the underlying bone.
Rheumatoid Arthritis: A chronic inflammatory disorder affecting the small
joints in hands and feet.
Rickets: Softening and weakening of bones in children, typically due to
prolonged vitamin D deficiency.
Osteomalacia: Softening of bones in adults due to vitamin D deficiency.
Bone Fractures: Breaks or cracks in bones.
♦ The skeletal system, being fundamental to our body's function and form,
interacts with all other body systems, playing a particularly significant role
in movement, protection, and homeostasis. Proper nutrition, exercise, and
care are essential for maintaining its health and function throughout life.
VERTEBRAL COLUMNS
♦ The vertebral column, commonly referred to as the spine or backbone, is a
vital part of the axial skeleton. It forms the central support structure for the
trunk, protects the spinal cord, and serves as an attachment point for many
muscles and ligaments.
Basic Structure:
The vertebral column is composed of 33 individual vertebrae, though this number
can vary slightly among individuals. Some of these vertebrae are fused in
adulthood. The column is segmented into distinct regions:
♦ Cervical (Neck) Region:
♦ Contains 7 vertebrae (C1 to C7).
♦ The first cervical vertebra, called the atlas, supports the skull and permits
the "nodding" movement of the head.
 ♦ The second cervical vertebra, known as the axis, has a peg-like projection
called the odontoid process (or dens) which the atlas pivots around, allowing
the rotation of the head.

♦ Thoracic (Upper Back) Region:

♦ Contains 12 vertebrae (T1 to T12).
♦ Each thoracic vertebra articulates with a pair of ribs.
Thoracic Cage
♦ The thoracic cage, often referred to as the rib cage, is a bony framework
located in the chest's thoracic region. Its primary function is to protect vital
organs like the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels, while also playing a
crucial role in the breathing process.

Components of the Thoracic Cage:

♦ Sternum:
♦ This is the flat bone located in the center of the chest, often referred to as the
breastbone.
♦ Parts:
♦ Manubrium: The uppermost part which articulates with the clavicles
(collarbones) and the first pair of ribs.
♦ Body (or Gladiolus): The longest central portion where most ribs attach
directly or indirectly.
♦ Xiphoid Process: A small, cartilaginous structure at the sternum's lower tip
that ossifies (turns into bone) with age.
♦ Ribs:
♦ Humans typically have 12 pairs of ribs, each connected to a thoracic vertebra
at the back.
♦ Types:
♦ True Ribs (1-7): These are directly attached to the sternum via individual
strips of costal cartilage.
♦ False Ribs (8-10): These don't attach directly to the sternum. Instead, their
costal cartilage connects to the cartilage of the rib above.
♦ Floating Ribs (11-12): These have no anterior attachment to the sternum or
other rib cartilage. They're attached only to the vertebral column.

♦ Costal Cartilages:
 ♦ These are bands of hyaline cartilage that connect the ribs to the sternum,
providing some flexibility to the thoracic cage.
♦ Thoracic Vertebrae:
♦ There are 12 thoracic vertebrae, each corresponding to a pair of ribs. The
ribs articulate with these vertebrae at the back of the thoracic cage.

Functions of the Thoracic Cage:

♦ Protection: Safeguards vital organs within the thorax, including the heart,
lungs, and major blood vessels.
♦ Respiratory Assistance: Acts as a rigid support against which the
diaphragm can contract, facilitating breathing. The flexibility of the ribs and
costal cartilages also allows the ribcage to expand and contract during
respiration.
♦ Structural Support: Provides an anchor and attachment for many muscles,
including those of the neck, thorax, upper abdomen, and back.
♦ Hematopoiesis: The marrow within the bones of the thoracic cage, like
other bones, can produce blood cells.
Conditions and Disorders Related to the Thoracic Cage:
♦ Costochondritis: Inflammation of the costal cartilage, causing chest pain.
♦ Pectus Excavatum: A congenital condition where the sternum is sunken in,
giving the chest a caved-in appearance.
♦ Pectus Carinatum: Also known as pigeon chest, it's a condition where the
chest protrudes outward.
♦ Rib Fractures: Ribs are commonly fractured due to trauma, but conditions
like osteoporosis can make them more susceptible to breaks even with
minimal force.
♦ Flail Chest: This occurs when a segment of the rib cage breaks and becomes
detached from the rest of the chest wall. It's usually due to severe trauma and
affects breathing.
♦ Sternal Fractures: Often caused by direct trauma, these are less common
but can be associated with underlying injuries to the heart and lungs.
The thoracic cage's design balances the need for robust protection with flexibility,
ensuring essential functions like respiration can occur without impediment. Proper
care and protection against injuries can ensure the thoracic cage continues to serve
its vital functions effectively throughout life.

♦ Lumbar (Lower Back) Region:

♦ Contains 5 vertebrae (L1 to L5).
♦ These are the largest and bear the body's weight.

♦ Sacral Region:
♦ Initially 5 separate vertebrae that, during adolescence and early adulthood,
fuse to form a single triangular-shaped bone called the sacrum. It fits
between the two hip bones.
 ♦ Coccygeal Region:
♦ Comprises 3 to 5 (typically 4) tiny, irregularly shaped vertebrae that fuse in
adulthood to form the coccyx, commonly known as the tailbone.

Intervertebral Discs:
Between adjacent vertebrae are intervertebral discs. These are fibrocartilaginous
cushions serving as the spine's shock absorbers. Each disc consists of:
♦ Annulus Fibrosus: The tough outer layer.
♦ Nucleus Pulposus: A softer, gel-like center.
Other Structural Features:
♦ Spinous Process: The bony projection off the posterior of each vertebra,
which you can feel when you touch your back.
♦ Transverse Processes: Two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.
♦ Vertebral Foramen: The central opening formed by the vertebral body and
the vertebral arch, through which the spinal cord passes.
♦ Facet Joints: Articulating surfaces where adjacent vertebrae connect.

Functions:
♦ Protect the Spinal Cord: The vertebral column encloses and protects the
spinal cord, a crucial part of the central nervous system.
♦ Support: It bears the weight of the head, neck, and upper body and transfers
these loads to the lower body.
♦ Movement: Provides flexibility, allowing for a wide range of movements
including flexion, extension, lateral bending, and rotation.
♦ Posture: Aids in maintaining an upright posture.
♦ Hematopoiesis: The vertebral bodies, like other bones, have red marrow
that produces blood cells.
Conditions and Disorders:
♦ Herniated Disc: A condition where the nucleus pulposus protrudes through
the annulus fibrosus, potentially pressing on nerves.
♦ Scoliosis: A lateral (sideways) curvature of the spine.
♦ Kyphosis: An exaggerated forward rounding of the back, often associated
with osteoporosis or developmental issues.
♦ Lordosis: Excessive inward curvature of the lumbar or cervical region.
♦ Osteoporosis: A condition leading to brittle bones, increasing the risk of
vertebral fractures.
♦ Spinal Stenosis: Narrowing of the spinal canal which can compress the
spinal cord and nerves.

♦ The vertebral column's health and alignment are paramount for overall well-
being and functionality, emphasizing the importance of maintaining good
posture and taking preventive measures against spinal injuries.
JOINTS
♦ Function (mobility)
5. Synarthroses (immovable)
6. Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)
7. Diarthroses (freely movable)
♦ Structure
8. Fibrous joints (immovable)
♦ Dense fibrous connective tissue

♦ No joint cavity
Connecting bones that don’t require lots of movement
♦
9. Synovial joints (freely movable)
♦ Contains cavity
♦ Allows mobility
10.Cartilaginous joints (exhibit a range of mobilities)
♦ Lack joints cavity
♦ Not particularly movable