SKELETAL SYSTEM. By Mr.

Raymond Opute
THE SKELETON
The skeleton is defned as the bony framework of the body. The
skeleton of humans consist of bone and Cartilages.
CARTILAGE
It is a resilient, semi-rigid form of connective tissue that forms
part of the skeleton where more feeibility is required. E.g.
costal cartilages. It also caps the articulating surfaces of bones
in synovial joints. It provide smooth, low-friction and gliding
surfaces for free movement.
Blood vessels do not enter cartilages (avascular). It obtains
oeygen and nutrients through difusion. The proportion of bone
and cartilages varies in skeletons. It changes as the body grows.
BONE
Bone is a living highly specialized hard form of connective
tissue. It is the chief supporting tissue of the body. It consist of
i. Water (25%)
ii. Organic constituents (25/%)
iii. Inorganic constituents (mainly calcium phosphate)
50%
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETON
Bones of adult skeleton provides
i. Support for body and vital cavities
ii. Protection for vital organs
iii. It serves as the mechanical basis for movement
iv. Storage of salts.
v. Continuous supply of new blood cells.
vi. Reservoir for minerals

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Bones are classifed according to their shape as follows:
(i) Long bones - (they are tubular) e.g. humerus
(ii) short bones (they are cuboidal and found in the ankle
and wrist e.g. tarsus and carpals
 (iii) fat and sesamoid bones (they are protective) e.g.
patella and bones of the cranium
(iv) irregular bones: e.g. bone of the face

BONE MARKINGS / FORMATIONS

Most bones have rough surfaces, raised protuberances and
ridges which give attachments to muscle tendons and
ligaments. These markings appear wherever tendons,
ligaments and fascias are attached or where arteries lie
adjacent to bones. These markings include:
 Capitulum: Small round articular head (e.g. Capitulum of
humerus)
 Condyle: rounded, knuckle-like articular area, occurs in
pairs
 Crest: ridge of bone (iliac crest)
 Epicondyle: projection superior to a condyle (e.g. lateral
epicondyle of humerus)
 Facet: smooth fat area usually covered with cartilage
 Foramen: passage through bone (e.g. obturator foramen)
 Fossa: A hollow or depressed area (e.g. infraspinous
fossa)
 Groove: elongated depression or furrow (e.g. radial
groove)
 Head: Large round articular end. (e.g. head of humerous)
 Line: linear elevation (e.g. soleal line of tibia)
 Malleolus: rounded process
 Notch: indentation at edge of bone
 Protuberance: projection of bone
 Trochanter/Tuberosity, Tubercle: roughened bony
projections
 Trochlea: spool-like articular process (pulley)

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONES

Long bones have a diaphysis (shaft) and 2 epiphysis or
eetremities. The diaphysis (shaft) is composed of compact bone
with a central medullary canal. The canal contains fatty yellow
bone marrow. The epiphysis consists of an outer covering of
compact bone with cancellous bone inside. The diaphysis and
epiphysis are separated by epiphyseal cartilages which ossify
when growth is complete. Long bones are covered by a
vascular membrane called periosteum. The outer layer is
fbrous and inner layer is osteogenic (contain bone forming
cells).
Thickening of bone occurs by deposition of bone tissue under
the periosteum. Periosteum of the bone gives attachment to
muscles and tendons and protects bone from injury.
Hyaline cartilage replaces the periosteum on the articular
surface of bones forming synovial joints.

STRUCTURE OF SHORT BONES

They have a relatively thin outer layer of compact bone with
cancellous bone inside containing red bone marrow. They are
enclosed by periosteum eecept the inner layer of cranial bones
which is covered by dura mater.
The skeletal system is divided into 2 functional parts: namely
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.

THE AXIAL SKELETON

The aeial skeleton consist of bones of the head (cranium or
skull), vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. These bones forms
the central bony core of the body (axis).
SKULL
The skull is the skeleton of the head. It is divided into 2, the
cranium and face (neurocranium and Viscerocranium)
CRANIUM: It is formed by series of fat and irregular bones
which gives protection to the brain. It has a dome-like roof
(calvaria or skull cap) and a foor or cranial base (basicranium).
The periosteum inside the skull consist of the outer layer of the
duramater. In mature skull, the joints (suture) between the
bones are immovable.
The cranium in adults is formed by about eight bones namely:
 Frontal bone - 1 Temporal bones - 2
 Parietal bones – 2 Occipital bone – 1
 Sphenoid bone – 1
 Ethmoid bone – 1
The frontal, temporal and parietal bones primarily forms the
skull cap.
FRONTAL BONE: It is the bone of the forehead that forms part
of orbit (eye sockets). It has a prominent ridge above the eye
socket known as supra-orbital margin. Just above the supra
orbital margins within the bone are 2 air flled cavities (sinuses)
which open into the nasal cavity. The coronal suture joins the
frontal bone to the parietal bones. It forms other fbrous joints
with the sphenoid, zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal and ethmoid
bones. The frontal bone originates in 2 parts and is joined by
the frontal suture.
PARIETAL BONES: They form the sides and roof of the skull.
 The articulate with each other at the sagittal suture and
with the frontal bone at the coronal suture end with the
occipital bone at the lambdoid suture and with the
temporal at the squamous suture.
 The inner surface is concave and grooved by the brain and
blood vessels.
TEMPORAL BONE
 These bones lie on each side of the head. They are joined
with the parietal, occipital, sphenoid, and zygomatic
bones.
 They have features which include:
  The squamous part which is thin and fan-shaped. Its
zygomatic process articulate with the zygomatic bone
forming zygomatic arch (cheekbone)
 The mastoid part which contains mastoid process. It
contains large number of small sinuses.
 The petrous portion which forms part of the cranial base. It
contains organs of hearing.
 The temporal bone articulate with the mandible at the
temporomandibular joint (TMJ) – The only movable joint of
the skull.
 Immediately behind this articulation is the auditory
meatus.
OCCIPITAL BONE
This bone forms back of the head and part of the cranial base.
It is joined to the parietal, temporal and sphenoid joints.
 Its inner surface is deeply concave occupied by the
occipital labe of the cerebrum and cerebellum.
 It has 2 condyles for articulation with the frst bone of the
vertebral column: Atlas
 Between the condyles is the foramen magnum through
which the spinal cord passes into the cranium.
SPHENOID BONE
 It occupies the middle portion of the cranial base
 In the middle on its superior surface is a little saddle
shaped depression called hypophyseal fossa (sella furcica)
where the pituitary gland lies.
 The body contains air sinuses
 It is shaped like a butterfy.
ETHMOID BONE
 It occupies the anterior aspect of the base of the skull.
 It helps to form the orbital cavity, nasal septum, and
lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
 It projects on each side into the nasal cavity forming upper
and middle conchae.
 It has air cavity (sinuses) which open into nasal cavity.
 The horizontal fattened part called cribriform plate of the
ethmoid forms the roof of the nasal cavity.
 It has numerous foramina through which nerve fbre of
olfactory nerve pass to the brain.
  The perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone forms the
upper part of the nasal septum.
VISCEROCRANIUM (FACE)
The skeleton of the face is formed by 14 bones including frontal
bone. They are:
 Zygomatic (cheekbone) 2
 Maeilla 2
 Nasal bones 2
 Lacrimal bones 2
 Vomer 1
 Palatine bones 2
 Inferior conchae 2
 Mandible 1

ZYGOMATIC BONES (cheek / malar bones)

 The bones form the prominence of the cheek
 It lies on the inferior lateral sides of the orbit and rest on
the maeilla.
 The zygomatic bones articulate with the frontal, sphenoid,
temporal and maeilla.
MAXILLA (upper Jaw bones)
 It originate as 2 bones but fuse before birth at the
intermaeillary suture.
  It forms the upper jaw bone and its alveolar process
include the tooth socket.
 It surrounds most of the piriform aperture and forms the
infra-orbital margin medially.
 The maeilla together with the palatine bones form the roof
of the mouth (hard palette).
 On each side of the maeilla are large air sinuses (maeillary
sinuses)
 It articulates laterally with the zygomatic bones.
 There is an infra orbital foramen for the passage of infra
orbital nerves and vessels.
NASAL BONES
 They are 2 small fat bones forming the greater part of the
lateral and superior part of the bridge of the nose.
 It is just above the piriform aperture (anterior nasal
opening).
 It articulates superiorly with the frontal bone forming the
nasion.
LACRIMAL BONES
 They are 2 small bones posterior and lateral to the nasal
bones.
 It forms part of the medial walls of the orbital cavities.
 Each of the bone is pierced by a foramen for the passage
of the lacrimal duct (which drains tears from the eyes)
VOMER
 It is a thin fat bone that eetends from the hard palette to
form the main part of the nasal septum.
 It forms part of the nasal conchae
 It articulates superiorly with the perpendicular plate of
the ethmoid bone.
PALATINE BONES
 They are 2 small L shaped bones
 The horizontal part unite to form the posterior part of the
hard palette.
 The perpendicular part project upwards to form part of the
lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
 They form part of the orbital cavities at their upper
eetremities.
NASAL CONCHAE
 The conchae are scroll-shaped bones that forms the
lateral wall of the nasal cavity.
 It projects into the nasal cavity below the middle conchae
(the superior and middle conchae are parts of the ethmoid
bone)
MANDIBLE
 It is the only mobile bone of the skull.
 The mandible originates as 2 parts which unites at the
mid line.
 It is a U shaped bone with an alveolar process that
supports the mandibular teeth.
 It consist of a body, (horizontal part), a vertical part (the
ramus)
 The ramus divides to form the condylar process which
articulates with the temporal bone to form the TMJ and the
coronoid process which gives attachment to muscles and
ligaments.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column in adults consists of 33 vertebra (bones)
arranged in 5 regions.
24 of the 33 bones are separate and movable, the others are
fused. They are arranged as follows:
Cervical - 7
Thoracic - 12
Lumbar - 5
Sacral - 5 fused bones
Coccye - 4 fused bones
Signifcant movement occurs only between the 25 superior
vertebrae and the inferior vertebra. The 5 sacral vertebral are
fused to form the sacrum.
After about approeimately 30 years of age, the four coccygeal
vertebrae fuse to form the coccye.
The vertebrae column gradually become larger as it descends
to the sacrum and then become progressively smaller towards
the apee of the coccye.
The vertebral column is feeible because its bones are
separated by resilient intervertebral disc (IV discs).
Vertebrae normally vary in size and other characteristics from
one region to another of the vertebral column. However, their
basic structure is the same (similar).

A typical vertebra bone consist of the following:

 VERTEBRAL BODY: It is massive, roughly cylindrical
anterior part of the vertebrae. It supports the weight of
the body. The size of the vertebral bodies increases as the
column descends. This is because each bears
progressively greater body weight.
 THE VERTEBRAL ARCH (NEURAL ARCH): It is posterior
to the vertebral body and consist of 2 (left and right)
pedicles and laminae. Where the pedicles and lamina
unite is called, transverse process. The pedicles are short
cylindrical processes that project posteriorly from the
 vertebral body to meet the laminae meet in the midline to
form the spinous process. The vertebral arch and the
posterior surface of the vertebral body form the walls of
the vertebral foramen. The vertebral foramen forms the
vertebral (neural canal) that contains the spinal cord.
The vertebral arch has 4 articulating surfaces. 2 articulate
with the vertebra above and 2 with the one below.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF VERTEBRAE IN DIFFERENT

REGIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
In a cervical vertebrae:
 The transverse process have a foramen through which the
vertebral artery passes into the brain.
 The frst 2 cervical vertebral are diferent
 The Atlas which is the 1st cervical vertebrae consist of a
ring of bone with 2 short transverse processes. The
anterior part of the large vertebral foramen is occupied by
the odontoid process of the aeis. (held in position by the
transverse ligament)
 The odontoid process of the aeis forms the vertebral body
of the atlas.
  The posterior part is the true vertebral foramen where the
spinal cord passes.
 On the superior surface of the atlas are 2 articular facets
where it joins the condyles of the occipital bone.
 The Aeis which is the 2nd cervical vertebra
 The seventh cervical vertebra has the longest spinous
process. (hypereetension of the head or neck) –
Hangman’s fracture
Traumatic spondylosis of Ci
 The Ci has a long spinous (hence called vertebra
prominence). Has a small vertebra body and an upward
projecting odontoid process (dins) which articulate with
the frst cervical vertebra. It allows the side to side
movement of the head.
THORACIC VERTEBRA
The bodies and transverse process have facets for articulation
with the ribs (contal facets). Located in the upper back
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
Located in the lower back. The support increased weight of the
body. Their vertebral bodies are large.
SACRUM
 It consist of 5 rudimentary vertebrae fused to form a
roughly triangular or wedge-shaped bone.
 It has a concave anterior surface.
 The upper part or base articulate with the 5 th lumbar
vertebrae on each side, it articulates with the Illum to form
the sacroiliac joint.
 At its inferior end, it articulates with the coccye.
 The anterior edge of the base (called promontory)
protrudes into the pelvic cavity.
 Vertebral foramen are present and on each sides are
series of foramina for passage of nerves.
COCCYX
 It consists of 4 terminal vertebra that are fused to form a
small triangular bone.
 Its broad base articulates with the tip of the sacrum.
ANOMALLY OF THE VERTEBRAE
SPINA BIFIDA: It is a congenital anomaly in which the laminae (neural arch) of
L5 and Si fail to develop and fuse posterior to the vertebral canal.
Spina bifda occulta:The defect is concealed by the overlapping skin but its
location is sometimes indicated by a tuf of hair. Most people with S.B Occulta
have no back problems.
Spina bifda cystca: This is a severe type of spina bofda. In this case, one or
more vertebral arches fails to develop completely. S.B Cystica is associated
with herniation of meninges (meningocele).
When spinal cord is herniated, it is called meningomyelocele. In this case
paralysis of limbs and disturbances in bladder and bowel control.
STERNUM (BREAST BONE)
 It is a fat bone in the middle of the front of the chest, just
under the skin.
It has the following features
 Marrilbruim which is the uppermost section and articulates
with the clavicles at the sternoclavicular joints and with
the frst 2 pairs of ribs.
 The body (middle portion) where ribs attach.
 The Xiphoid process: the lower tip of the sternum. It gives
attachment to diaphragm, muscles of anterior, abdominal
wall and the linea alba.
RIBS
The 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum
form the thoracic cage.
There are 12 pairs of ribs which form the bony lateral wall of
the thoracic cage. They articulate posteriorly with the thoracic
vertebrae.
A rib consists of a head, neck and shaft. The head articulates
posteriorly with the bodies of 2 adjacent thoracic vertebra.
On the tubercle of the rib is a facet for the articulation with a
transverse process of the vertebrae.
The sternal end is attached to the sternum through a coastal
cartilage.
Ribs are classifed as
i. TRUE RIBS: Which attach anteriorly to the sternum
through thin coastal cartilage. They are the 1 st – 7th ribs.
ii. FALSE RIBS: they are attached to the 7 th coastal
cartilage. They are 8th, 9th, and 10th, ribs.
iii. FLOATING RIBS: Have no anterior attachments. They
are the 11th and 12th ribs.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton is divided into upper and lower
limbs.
The upper limb consist of the pectoral girdle (scapula and
clavicle),
Humerus 1 Carpal bones 8
Radius 1 metacarpal bones 5
Ulna 1 Phalanges 14
CLAVICLE (COLLAR BONE)
 The clavicle is a long bone and the shaft has a double
curve.
 Its sternal end is enlarged and triangular where it
articulates with the manubrium of the sternum at the
sternoclavicular joint.
 The acromial end is fat where it articulates with the
acromion of the scapular at the acromioclavicular joint.
 The clavicle provides the only link between the upper limb
and the aeial skeleton.
 The curvatures of the clavicle give it resilience.

SACPULA (SHOULDER BLADE)

 It is a fat triangular shaped bone.
 It lies on the posterior chest wall superfcial to the ribs. It
overlies the 2nd – 7th ribs.
  The convee posterior surface of the scapula is divided by a
thick projecting ridge of bone (spine of scapular) into a
small supraspinous fossa and a large infraspinous fossa.
 At the lateral angle, there is a shallow articular surface
called glenoid cavity which articulate with head of
humerus to form the shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint).
 The spine of the scapula continues laterally as fat
eepanded acromion which articulates with the clavicle.
 A projection from the upper border of the scapular called
coracoid process gives attachment to muscles that move
the shoulder joint.

HUMERUS
 Humerus is the bone of the arm and also the largest bone
of the upper limb.
 It is a long bone having a shaft and 2 eetremities
 The proeimal end of the humerus has a head, surgical and
anatomical necks, and greater and lesser tubercles.
 The spherical neck of the humerus articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula at the glenohumeral joint.
 The surgical neck of the humerus is the narrow part distal
to the head and tubercles. (It is common site of fracture).
 The junction of the head and neck with the shaft of the
humerus is indicated by the greater and lesser tubercles.
 The greater and lesser tubercles provides attachment for
muscles.
 The shaft (body) of the humerus has 2 prominent features
the deltoid tuberosity and oblique radial groove.
 The inferior end of the humeral shaft widen as the sharp
medial and lateral supra epicondylar ridge and end distally
in the medial and lateral epicondyle.
 The distal end of the humerous called condyle of humerus
consist of trochlea, capitulum, olecranon process, coronoid
process and a radial fossa.
 The condyle has 2 articular surfaces: a lateral capitulum
for articulation with the head of the radius and a trochlea
for the articulation with the trochlea notch of the ulna.

ULNA
 It is the medial of the 2 bones of the forearm.
 The ulna is longer than the radius and articulates with the
humerus proeimally and the head of the radius distally.
 The ulna has 2 prominent projections: i. the olecranon
which projects proeimally from its posterior aspect and ii.
The coronoid process which projects anteriorly. They both
form the wall of the trochlea notch.
 On the lateral side of the coronoid process is the radial
notch which receives the head of the radius.
  The shaft of the ulna is thick and cylindrical proeimally but
tapers as it continues distally.
 At the narrow end is the disc-like head of the ulna with a
conical ulna styloid process.
 The ulna does not reach the wrist and so do not
participate in the wrist joint.
RADIUS
 It is the lateral of the bones of the fore arm.
 It has a short head, a neck and medially directed
tuberosity
 Proeimally the head of the radius articulates with the
capitulum of the humerus and also with the radial notch of
the ulna.
 The shaft of the radius in contrast to the ulna gradually
enlarges as it passes distally.
 Distally it forms the wrist joint with the carpal bones.

BONES OF THE HAND

Bones of the hand are carpal, metacarpals and phalanges. The
carpus forms the wrist. It is composed of 8 carpal bones arranged
in proeimal and distal rows of 4 bones.
The 4 bones in the proeimal row are:
 Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum and pisiform.
Distal row include:
 Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate.
The metacarpal bones are 5 bones forming the skeleton of the
palm of the hand between the carpus and the phalanges. Each
metacarpal consist of a base, shaft and head.
PHALANGES OR FINGER BONES
There are 14 phalanges. Each of the digits having 3 eecept the
thumb which has 2.
LOWER LIMB
The lower limb consist of the pelvic girdle, femur, tibia, fbula,
tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.
PELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle is a basin-shaped ring of bones that connect
the vertebral column to the 2 femurs.
In a mature individual, the pelvic girdle is made up of
i) The right and left hip bones
ii) The sacrum

HIP BONES (INNOMINATE BONE)

The hip bone is a large fat bone formed by the fusion of 3
bones: Ilium, Ischuim and Pubis. These 3 bones fuse after
puberty to form the hip bone.
The 2 hip bones are joined anteriorly at the pubic symphysis
and articulate posteriorly with the sacrum at the sacroiliac
joints to form the pelvic girdle.
ILIUM: It is the superior fan shaped part of the hip bone.
 The Ala or wing of the ilium represent the spread of the
fan and the body represent handle of the fan.
 The body of the ilium participate in the formation of
acetabulum
 The iliac crest has a curve that follows the contour of the
ala between the anterior and the posterior superior iliac
spines.
 Posteriorly the ilium features an auricular surface and an
iliac tuberosity for synovial end syndesmotic articulation
with the sacrum respectively.
ISCHIUM: has a body and a ramus.
 The body of the ischium helps form the acetabulum and
the ramus forms part of the obturator foramen.
 The large postero inferior protruberance of the Ischium is
the ischial tuberosity.
  The small pointed postero medial projection near the
junction of ramus and body is the ischial spine.
 The concavity between the ischial spine and ischial
tuberosity is lesser sciatic notch.
PUBIS: Is an angulated bone with a superior pubic ramus,
which helps form the acetabulum.
 Its inferior pubic ramus helps form the obturator foramen.
 A thickening on the anterior part of the body of the pubis
is the pubic crest which ends laterally as the pubic
tubercle.
 The lateral part of the superior pubic ramus has a oblique
ridge (Pecten pubis), pectineal line of pubis.
 The pubic arch is formed by the ischiopubic rami
(conjoined inferior rami of pubis and ischium) of the 2
sides.
 These rami meet at the pubic symphysis, their inferior
borders defning the subpubic angle.
 The width of the subpubic angle is determined by the
distance between the right and left ischial tuberosities.
The pelvis is divided into greater (false) pelvic and lesser (true)
pelvis, by the oblique plane of the pelvic inlet.
The pelvic inlet is formed by: (i) public arch anteriorly (ii) ischial
tuberosities laterally (iii) inferior margin of the sacrotuberous
ligament (iv) tip of the coccye posteriorly.
The greater (false) pelvic is the part of the pelvis superior to
the pelvic inlet is the part of the pelvis between the pelvic inlet
and pelvic outlet.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MALE AND FEMALE PELVIS
BONY MALE FEMALE
STRUCTURE
General structure Thick and heavy Thin and light
Greater pelvis Deep Shallow
Lesser pelvis Narrow & deep Wide and shallow
(tapering)
Pelvic inlet Heart-shaped, Oval and rounded,
narrow wide
Pelvic inlet Comparatively Comparatively
small large
Pubic arch narrow Wide
Subpubic angle Acute (<700) Obtuse (>800)
Obturator foramen Round Oval
Acetabulum large Small
Greater sciatic Narrow (inverted V) Almost 900, large
notch - 700

FEMUR
 It is the longest, strongest and heaviest bone in the body.
 It is a long bone having a shaft and 2 eetremities.
 The almost spherical head fts into the acetabulum of the
hip bone.
 The proeimal end of the femur consists of the head, neck
and the greater and lesser trochanter.
 The neck of the femur is narrow and its broader base is
continuous with the shaft.
 Where the neck joins the shaft are 2 large blunt
elevations, called trochanters.
 The conical and rounded lesser trochanter eetends
medially from the posteromedial junction of the neck and
shaft to give attachment to the primary feeor of the thigh.
 The greater is large and laterally placed and projects
superiorly where the neck joins the shaft.
 The site where the neck and shaft join is indicated by the
intertrochanteric line (a roughened ridge) for attachment
of the iliofemoral ligament.
 The shaft of the femur is slightly bowed anteriorly.
 Most of the shaft of the femur is smoothly rounded eecept
posteriorly where a broad line (linea aspera) provide
aponeurotic attachment for abductors of the thigh.
 The linea aspera divides into medial and lateral supra
condylar lines which leads to the curved medial and lateral
condyle.
 The distal end of the femur consist of the femoral condyles
(medial and lateral) which articulate with the menisci and
tibial condyles to form the knee joint.
TIBIA (SHIN BONE)
 The tibia is the medial of the 2 bones of the lower leg.
 The proeimal end is broad and fat and presents 2
condyles for articulation with femur at knee joint.
 The head of the fbula articulates with the inferior aspect
of the lateral condyle forming proeimal tibiofbular joint.
 The shaft is roughly triangular having 3 surfaces: medial,
lateral and posterior surfaces.
 At the superior end of the anterior border, a broad,
oblong tuberosity provide attachment for the patellar
ligament.
 The distal end of tibia is smaller than the proeimal end.
 The medial eepansion eetends inferior to the rest of the
shaft as the medial malleolus.
  The inferior surface of the shaft and lateral surface of the
medial malleolus articulate with the talus forming the
ankle joint.
FIBULA
 The fbula is the long slender lateral bone of the lower leg
 The head articulate with the lateral condyle of the tibia
forming the proeimal tibiofbular joint.
 The lower end articulate with the tibia the projects beyond
to form the lateral malleolus.
PATELLA OR KNEE CAP
It is a roughly triangular shaped sesamoid bone found on the
knee joint. Its posterior surface articulates with the patella
surface of the femur.

TARSAL OR ANKLE BONES

There are 7 tarsal bones which form the posterior and proeimal
part of the foot. They are: taches 1, calcaneus 1, navicular 1,
cuneiform 3, cuboid 1.
The tarsal articulate with tibia and fbula at the ankle joint. The
calcaneus forms the heel of the foot. The other bones articulate
with each other and with the metatarsal bones.
METATARSAL BONES
The metatarsus (anterior foot) consist of 5 metatarsals that are
numbered from medial side of the foot. They articulate with the
tarsal bones at their proeimal end and the phalanges at their
distal end.
PHALANGES
There are 14 phalanges. They are arranged similar to those in
the fngers.

JOINTS
A joint is a union or junction between 2 or more bones. Joints
eehibit a variety of forms and functions. Some joints have no
movement (fbrous), others allow only slight movements
(cartilaginous) and some are freely movable (synovial joints).
TYPES OF JOINTS
Joints are classifed based on the manner and type of materials
by which the articulating bones are united. They are:
i. FIBROUS JOINTS: The articulating bones of fbrous
joints are united by fbrous tissues. Fibrous joints are
mostly feed. Eeamples include the sutures of the
cranium and the joint between the teeth and maeilla or
mandibles.

ii. CARTILAGINOUS JOINT: In cartilaginous joints, there is

a pad of hyaline cartilage and fbro-cartilage.
Cartilaginous joints allow very slight movement.
Eeamples include the joints between the vertebra
bodies and the pubic symphysis.

iii. SYNOVIAL JOINTS: They have a characteristic feature

that allows a free range of movements. Some of these
movement are in respect to the shape of articulating
parts of the bones involved.
CHARACTERISTIC OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT
 The surfaces of the bones in contact are covered with
hyaline cartilage. The cartilage provide smooth surface for
articulation and absorb compression forces.
 A synovial membrane composed of epithelial cells lines
the capsule
 Synovial fuid: a thick sticky fuid secreted by the synovial
membrane into the synovial cavity. It nourishes the
structures of the joint, act as lubricant, maintains joint
stability, and contains phagocytes that removes microbes
and debris.
 Little sac of synovial fuid (bursae) which prevent friction
between bones and tendons or ligaments or skin. (It is
present only in some joints)
 Other intra capsular structures like fat pads and menisci
which assist in maintaining stability.
 Eetracapsular structures like ligaments, muscles or
tendons which also provide stability and cause movement
of the joint, or bones.
 Nerve and blood vessels: Joints are supplied by nerves and
blood vessels crossing them.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Synovial joints are classifed according to their range of
movement or the shape of articulating parts of the bones
involved, the types include:
Hinge joint, ball and socket joint, gliding joints, pivot joint,
condyloid/saddle joints.
HINGE JOINT: It allows movement that occurs only in one
plane around a single aeis that runs transversely. Movements
that occur are feeion and eetension. Eeamples of hinge joint
are knee joint, elbow joint, ankle joint, joint between atlas and
occipital bone, interphalangeal joints of the fngers.
BALL AND SOCKET JOINT: In this joint, the spheroidal surface
(head) of one bone moves into the socket of another. It allows
movement in multiple aeis and planes.
Movements include, feeion, eetension, abduction and
adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, and circumduction.
Eeamples are glenohumeral joint, hip joint.
PIVOT JOINT: In this type of joint, a rounded process of bone
rotates within the sleeve of ring of another bone. It permits
rotation around a central aeis. Eeamples are atlantoaeial joint
(between Ci and odontoid process of C2), distal radio ulna joint.
GLIDING JOINT: The articulating surfaces glide over each
other. E.g. sternoclavicular joint, acromioclavicular joint, joint
between carpal and tarsal bones. Surfaces of bone are fat.
CONDYLOID/SADDLE JOINT: It is found in regions where 2
bone movements occur around 2 aeis at right angle to each
other. Movements allowed are abduction, adduction, feeion
and eetension.
e.g. carpometacarpal joints, and metacarpophalangeal joints,
temporomandibular joints.

MAJOR SYNOVIAL JOINTS

SHOULDER JOINT
 The shoulder joint also known as glenohumeral joint is
formed by the head of the humerus and glenoid cavity of
the scapula.
  The glenoid cavity is deepened by a rim of fbrocartilage
(glenoid labrum) which provide stability without limiting
movement.
 The capsular ligament is loose inferiorly to allow for free
movement.
 The tendon of the long head of bicept lying in the bicipital
grove of humerus eetends through the joint cavity and
attaches to the upper rim of glenoid cavity.
 Synovial membrane forms a sleeve round the tendon of
bycept muscle within the capsular ligament.
 There are eetracapsular structures like;
i. Coracoid humeral ligament
ii. Glenohumeral ligaments
iii. Transverse humeral ligaments
 Blood supply is from anterior and posterior circumfee
humeral arteries and branches of the suprascapular
artery.
Venous drainage is into cephalic vein.
Nerves supply is by the subscapular, aueiliary and lateral
pectoral nerves.
Movements include feeion, eetension, abduction, adduction,
rotation and circumduction.