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Chapter 1> Unit 1> Flamenco, Art of Passion

Flamenco is a musical genre that developed in Andalusia, the southernmost and most populous of the seventeen
autonomous provinces of Spain. It is a highly emotional and energetic art form, composed of three parts; each distinct, yet,
inherent to the whole. The first element is the hauntingly melodic song, or cante, sung in Spanish. The second element is
baile, an impassioned and feverish form of dancing. The final part is guitarra, a vibrantly complex rendition of acoustic guitar
playing. For non-aficionados, the dance may seem to be flamenco’s main component. For purists, however, it is the song that
is the linchpin of flamenco.

Flamenco songs originated during the late 15th century out of the severity of the brutal Spanish Inquisition. With the goal
of restoring political and religious homogeneity in Spain, King Ferdinand V, a devout Catholic, issued a decree that forced
Catholicism on all citizens. For those who were not Catholic, namely the Gypsy, Muslim, and Jewish populations, the
consequences of not converting to Catholicism was punishment by expulsion or even death. As a catharsis from their
persecution and oppression, these different groups brought their own influences and creativity into the songs of flamenco.

The earliest flamenco songs mirrored the cruel realities of life in Spain and were known as cante jondo, translated as
“deep and profound song.” These songs usually involve a singer who is accompanied by a rhythmical hand clapping group
called toque de palmas. The cante jondo was usually performed for small audiences made up of friends and family. One
example of cante jondo is Petenaras, which tells the story of a beautiful young woman, who is overcome by jealousy and rage.
Tragically, she dies at the hands of her lover. Over the years, this song has been performed countless times, bringing with it a
superstition that many believe to be true. The song is believed to be a bad omen for the performers, some of whom have
even died during its performance.

Flamenco songs went through an adaptive period during the early 20th century, a period known as the Golden Age of
Flamenco. Songs were performed for larger audiences in cafés known as café cantantes. Instead of the traditional cante jondo,
new lighter and jovial songs were developed in a style known as cante chico. Lighter subjects, such as love, humor, and
happiness replaced the disquieting emotions found in cante jondo. As flamenco music became commercialized, it lacked the
feeling and emotion of early flamenco. Many purists considered this transitional stage to be an unfortunate period for
flamenco songs.

As time passed, the new styles and developments in flamenco have changed, blended with traditional music, which are
still considered to be a fundamental aspect of flamenco. Recently, flamenco songwriters have started to incorporate jazz as
well as Latin and South American rhythms. The addition of congas, drums, keyboards, bass, flutes, and other instruments
began to have a very powerful effect on the style the flamenco music was taking. As a result, these changes have brought
about enjoyment and popularity of flamenco songs and dances for different classes of people.
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Chapter 1> Unit 2> Cultural Theater of Provocativeness

Kabuki is one of the most recognized and loved forms of theater in Japan as well as throughout the world. It is a form of
traditional drama that features highly stylized singing, dancing, and miming. Popular in Japan for nearly four centuries, kabuki
also incorporates spectacular costumes and ornate stage settings to create a unique experience for audiences. Today, kabuki
continues to gain interest because it gives highly talented performers the chance to demonstrate their skills as singers and
dancers in well-known and popular roles. It also allows audience members to get involved with the performance by shouting
from their seats to the players on the stage.

Kabuki began in the 17th century as a crude public amusement that was staged on the streets. In fact, before it became
an accepted form of entertainment, kabuki was legally banned by authorities who felt it was too wild and provocative. ❶
However, by the 18th century, kabuki had gained respect much like those given to other serious art forms. And performances
expressing many genuine emotions and challenging ideas were being created. ❷ For example, the play Chushingura(1748) tells
the story of 47 ronins, or wandering samurais. The warriors avenge their master’s death by killing the man ultimately
responsible for it. ❸ Also, popular at this time were stories of ill-fated lovers who commit suicide in despair because of the
love they could not attain. ❹

The main purpose of kabuki is to feature the many talents of the performers in highly stimulating, quick-moving
performances. Also, in most kabuki performances, it is a common practice to end the story with a moral called kanzen-choaku
which rewards the virtuous and punishes the wicked. This frequently focuses on religious or ethical concerns. For example, the
futility of life and the importance of personal duty are morals commonly explored in kabuki. Often, tragedy occurs in these
plays when human passion struggles against such great immovable and elemental forces. Unlike Western theater, stories for
kabuki were written with a number of unrelated tales being featured in one play. By the end of the story-cycle, many morals
emerge rather than just one main idea.

After the Japanese Empire surrendered at the end of World War II, kabuki nearly disappeared from the public. In the
aftermath of the war which ended in Japan’s defeat, kabuki came to represent an old style of thinking that the Japanese
started rejecting. However, due to the growing interests of Tetsuji Takechi’s popular and innovative productions of the kabuki
classics, it has again become one of the most popular forms of traditional drama with Japanese theater-goers. Many kabuki
performers have also been known to use the theater to launch careers in film or television. Kabuki is also frequently
referenced in Japanese popular culture, such as in anime, a popular and well-known form of Japanese animation.

Chapter 2> Unit 3> Diana Golden: Physically Disabled, Spiritually Unbreakable

Diana Golden, a severely handicapped skier, is unquestionably one of the greatest athletes to ever compete in Olympic
sports. In 2006, she was inducted into the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame. Although she passed away in 2001, her astonishing story
has not been forgotten, and she remains an inspiration to millions of people. Her life is a testimony to her unbreakable
human spirit. Diana will be remembered for raising awareness and dignity for disabled athletes.

Diana’s early life showed clear signs of the formidable spirit and tenacity within her. She was born in 1963 in Lincoln,
Massachusetts. An energetic youngster, Diana learned to ski at the age of five, taking to the sport with unbridled enthusiasm
and passion. ❶ Seven years later, she would be faced with the first of many obstacles in her life when she lost her leg to bone
cancer. ❷ With resolute and fixed determination, Diana continued skiing and kept in shape by jogging with crutches. ❸ A high
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school ski coach was so impressed with her spirit that he asked her to join the school downhill ski team. ❹ A year later, Diana
won the downhill in the world championships for athletes with disabilities.

Following her success as a disabled downhill skier, Diana struggled hard to be allowed to ski against athletes who did not
face the physical challenges she did. She persuaded companies to sponsor and promote athletes who were disabled. She also
helped to implement the “Golden Rule,” which enables disabled skiers competing in able-bodied events to race as early seeds
in all events sanctioned by the United States Ski Association. This rule allows disabled skiers to avoid ruts that form
throughout the competition. Throughout her career, Diana would race against the world’s best skiers, and although she never
won a race, she proved that she was capable of challenging the best skiers in the world. With great determination, Diana went
on to win 10 world and 19 U.S. downhill championships for athletes with disabilities and became strongly involved in
promoting disabled athletes and sports for the disabled.

After winning a gold medal in the handicapped giant slalom in the Calgary Olympics in 1988, Diana was bestowed the
downhill skier of the year award by the United States Olympic Committee. Diana also enhanced the recognition of disabled
athletes by winning an award traditionally given to able-bodied competitors. In 1991, she received the Flo Hyman Memorial
Award from the Female Sports Association, recognizing her as one of the top female athletes in the world. This put her in the
company of great female athletes, such as tennis legends, Martina Navratilova and Chris Evert, two previous honorees of the
prestigious award.

Diana firmly believed that all individuals deserve to be treated with dignity and respect. Before her death, at the age of
38, Diana established the Golden Opportunities Fund, which gives financial support to young disabled athletes who are
striving to be the best. Throughout her athletic career, Diana fought for the dignified treatment and perception of the
disabled. Her legacy is one of individuals who refused to give in to seemingly insurmountable challenges. Her life will continue
to inspire people all over the world.
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Chapter 2> Unit 4> Marvels of Acupuncture

Acupuncture is a technique used to cure disease, treat pain, and improve general well-being. It requires the use of
filiform, or thread-like needles, which are inserted in particular points around the body called acupuncture points. Acupuncture
was first practiced in China over 4,500 years ago and has since proliferated throughout the world. However, while commonly
used and widely accepted as an effective medical treatment in many Asian countries, it is still met with skepticism and
criticism in the Western world.

Acupuncture therapy predates the use of scientific methodology, and many of the practices are scientifically unexplainable
by using human anatomy. Despite its mystery, acupuncture is considered to be effective in treating a variety of health
problems.

At the root of acupuncture, there is an ancient Chinese belief regarding the nature of the universe and humanity. This
universal relationship is represented by the yin and yang which symbolizes the dualities of the universe. The half, called the
yin, represents the “female” principle and is passive, dark, and associated with the earth. The yang, opposite to the yin, is the
“male” element that is active, light, and related to the heavens. This belief expresses the idea that the ideal state of health is
accomplished by maintaining balance and achieving harmony between the opposite forces. According to this principle, an
illness rises from a manifestation of disharmony and is the result of an imbalance between the two forces in the body.
Therefore, the objective of an acupuncture treatment is to bring the principle elements back into balance and allow the “chi,”
a life-force, to flow freely and rejuvenate health.

An acupuncture treatment involves the insertion of needles into any of the hundreds of points located on the body’s
twelve basic meridians. These areas are associated with various organs and systems of the body. ❶ Typically, the acupuncturist
will insert the needle to depths ranging from 3mm to 10mm. ❷ Once the needles are placed in the appropriate acupuncture
points, the acupuncturist will frequently twist the needles or even apply a small electric charge to them. ❸ The acupuncture
needles are usually inserted at a considerable distance away from the actual areas that are manifesting signs of illness or
showing symptoms. ❹ For example, the points on the thumb are punctured with needles to treat illnesses in the stomach or
the intestines.

How acupuncture works is still a mystery to Western scientists and doctors. Many scientists theorize that acupuncture
works by relieving pain. They believe when the needles are inserted at certain points, it causes the body to release natural
painkilling chemicals like endorphins or enkephalins. Others theorize that acupuncture works through a “placebo effect,” or the
power of belief. However, for much of the world, the simple knowledge that acupuncture works for them is proof enough of
the effectiveness of this mysterious practice.
Chapter 3> Unit 5> The Mysterious Venus Flytrap

The Venus Flytrap, the world’s most commonly recognized carnivorous plant, is native to North and South Carolina in
southeastern United States. The Venus Flytrap’s ideal home is found in bogs and swampy wetlands. Since it lacks the ability to
produce its own essential nutrients, it requires nourishment from elsewhere. As a result, the Venus Flytrap has evolved jaw-like
leaves to imprison hapless insects from which it gets its additional source of energy. This mysterious phenomenon makes it
one of the least understood plants in the world. To imagine what the trap is like, place your hands together with your palms
facing up. When you snap your hands together, you imitate a Venus Flytrap’s leaf, which uses built-up mechanical tension in
its leaves to snap shut in one-tenth of a second.
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Since it does not move, the Venus Flytrap must somehow lure its prey, such as flies, caterpillars, spiders, and crickets, to
come close enough so that they can be ensnared. To entice its prey, the plant secretes sweet-smelling nectar on its leaves.
When an unsuspecting prey lands on the leaf expecting a tasty treat, its movement triggers sensitive hairs that cause the leaf
to snap shut. Since the time of renowned biologist Charles Darwin, scientists and laypeople have endeavored to understand
how this plant manages to attract, kill, digest, and absorb its prey.

Once the plant has captured its prey, it has to determine whether the prey is edible or not. If the hairs on the Flytrap are
triggered by the prey’s movement after the leaf has closed, the plant knows that the unfortunate victim is indeed edible.
However, inanimate objects, such as leaves and twigs, can also be caught in the trap. But because these objects are
motionless, the trap will reopen and release the indigestible catch. This process can take up to 12 hours.

If the plant has determined its prey is consumable, it begins the digestive process by metamorphosing and releasing
digestive juices from glands located within the leaves. The digestion can last for a period of five to ten days during which the
victims’ nutrients are extracted. Once the plant has ingested all the nutrients, it reabsorbs its digestive fluid. This signals the
plant to open its leaves once again. The plant, however, does not ingest the insect’s outer covering, and the waste is
discarded from the leaf when it opens.

What is most surprising about how the Venus Flytrap catches its prey is that it does this without any nerves or muscles.
This phenomenon has intrigued scientists for years as they try to determine exactly how the plant is able to close its trap with
such blinding dexterity. This remains one of the great mysteries of the plant kingdom and adds to the allure of this entrancing
plant.
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Chapter 3> Unit 6> Discover Your Second Brain

A noticeable feature of the human brain is that it is divided into two distinct hemispheres, or halves that look nearly
identical to one another. A small area of space separates most of the two hemispheres, which are connected by a bridge. The
two halves, though similar in looks, function in significantly different ways. There are noticeable differences in the way each
half of the brain handles information and organizes the process of cognition, particularly in the part of the brain responsible
for managing higher functions, such as language, reasoning, and creativity.

Consider, for example, the fact that people are either right or left handed, or that they favor one hand over the other in
performing tasks, such as writing, using eating utensils, or playing a musical instrument. The cause for this preference is in the
way the two halves of the brain handle information to control the body. The brain handles input from the body and exercises
control over it laterally. This means that the left side of the brain is responsible for controlling the actions of the right side of
the body and vice versa. Researchers believe that people are either right or left handed based on which brain hemisphere is
dominant, or favored over the other. The importance of such left-right favoritism in the brain is not fully understood.

Scientists have been able to learn much about the divided brain by studying patients suffering from brain injuries or
defects. A famous case from 1862 involved a man suffering from a brain disfunction called aphasia that left him unable to find
words to use to communicate his thoughts. From this case, Dr. Paul Broca discovered that the left frontal lobe of the brain,
later named “Broca’s area,” controls the ability to use language. He determined this when he discovered that the brain of the
patient was scarred in that area from a childhood accident.

There is a common belief by the general public that the distinction between the left brain and right brain influences
personality or ability. ❶ For example, people who are right-brained are commonly described as being creative in casual
conversation, whereas, people who are left-brained are generally described as being logical and methodical. ❷ However, the
functions of the brain and its connections to the cerebral divisions have not been scientifically proven by neurologists. ❸ In
fact, because the brain is so complex, statements regarding discoveries about it are often very general, exaggerated, and not
true of all people. ❹ Therefore, simply because a personality is either creative or methodical does not mean that they are
necessarily right or left brained.

Chapter 4> Unit 7> The Artificially Intelligent Pet

Can machines really think? Well, that was the hope of professor John McCarthy when he coined the phrase “Artificial
Intelligence(AI)” back in 1956. At a Dartmouth College conference, McCarthy defined AI as “the science and engineering of
making intelligent machines.” With this statement, the field of AI was born. However, other related questions should be asked;
“Is AI really a good thing?” “How can machines that perform human tasks benefit us?”

Today, robots are widely used in automobile manufacturing to execute simple repetitive tasks and jobs that may be
hazardous to humans. Many robots involve the use of other AI parts that have senses similar to humans, such as vision, touch,
and the ability to sense temperature. Some are even able to make simple decisions. AI technology along with computer
processing power has developed quickly. Some of the typical products include games and robotics.
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The 1990s brought the first attempts to produce AI technology for education and leisure. This technology prospered
along with the Digital Revolution and helped introduce people, especially children, to various types of AI. One of the most
famous toys developed using AI technology is a robotic dog named AIBO. AIBO, introduced by Sony in 1999, is able to walk,
see its environment via camera, obey spoken commands, sing, dance, and play music. AIBOs are considered to be
autonomous robots since they are able to mature by learning from their owners, environment, and even other AIBOs.

AIBO’s Smarts come from a memory stick, which contains programs of all his possible behaviors. Before he can function,
however, he has to be trained. For example, when you take him out of the box for the first time, he is unable to walk. You
have to pick him up, let him fall down, and teach him to walk. If you praise him by saying, “Good boy,” he will repeat the
praised behavior. If you slap him on the head and say, “Bad,” he will stop. Working with AIBO may be fun, but it also involves
a little work as well.

In some ways, AIBO was created to teach us how to engage with machines so that we can feel an emotional attachment
to them. And each AIBO has the ability to develop its own personality which can be seen once you learn its unique body
language. ❶ When it is happy, its eyes light up green and its tail changes color quickly. ❷ When it is bored, its tail flashes
slowly and eyes become downcast red. ❸ But, even though it can be fun and cute, AIBO still has its shortcomings and could
never replace a real dog. ❹ Having AIBO on your lap just does not feel the same as a warm, living, breathing animal.

Some people do not believe that robots are good for children. They think that if parents substitute robots for the real
thing, kids may never learn how to care for a pet or animal that needs to be fed to stay alive. On the other hand, there might
be real benefits for the elderly, who are no longer able to take care of real animals. Researchers have found that nursing
home residents can lower their blood pressure and gain a sense of companionship by playing with AIBO.
Chapter 4> Unit 8> Can the Milky Way Grow?

If you live in a place that has a very dark night sky, you might be able to see parts of the galaxy we live in called the
Milky Way. This galaxy resembles a thick band of stars and dust. Although we can sometimes see parts of it, astronomers
have yet to make a definitive visual representation of what the whole galaxy looks like. This is mainly because our solar system
is so deeply embedded in the home galaxy that they cannot see it entirely from this limited perspective. When researchers
look at other galaxies, they can make out the general images but not all the details. On the contrary, when scientists study the
Milky Way, they can easily glimpse the details, but they cannot fully perceive the overall structure.

Consequently, astronomers have been slow to grasp the big picture of the structure and the history of the Milky Way.
They were not even sure that the galaxy was a distinct formation until the 1920s. By the mid-1950s, they had painstakingly
assembled the picture that most people now have of the Milky Way; a spiral-shaped galaxy made of gas and about 200 billion
stars that include the sun.

In the 1960s, scientists thought that our galaxy formed early in cosmic history about 13 billion years ago and that it has
not significantly changed since then. Eventually, they realized that the Milky Way is not in its completed form but rather is
continually forming. Like most theories, this one has relied heavily on observations of other galaxies and bringing the
information back home. Most galaxies are now thought to materialize from the merging of smaller galaxies. In the case of the
Milky Way, we can examine the final stages of this process as our galaxy tears apart smaller galaxies and takes away their
stars. Meanwhile, gas clouds are continually arriving from outer space.

It is known that gas continues to accrete, or build up, in the Milky Way because of high velocity clouds (HVCs) that are up
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to 10 million times larger than the Sun. These clouds originated 41 billion years ago and are moving rapidly through the outer
perimeters of the galaxy. They show that the galaxy is ebbing back and forth by pushing out gas and then pulling it back in.
In addition, there is a giant circle of hot plasma surrounding the galaxy. In the past, astronomers suspected the existence of
such a sphere, but few thought it would be so large.

These HVCs, surrounding the Milky Way, show how the growth of our Galaxy is linked with the development of other
galaxies. They also remind people that we are living in a galaxy that is still forming and evolving. ❶ Within the next billion
years, it will continue to absorb gas, stars, and even whole galaxies. ❷ Moreover, the Milky Way is on a collision course with
another big spiral galaxy, the Andromeda galaxy. ❸ We do not know how the Milky Way will look in the distant future, but we
do know that the formation of it has not come to an end. ❹
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Chapter 5> Unit 9> Identity Theft

Every six seconds in the United States, someone’s identity is stolen. In 2006 alone, more than 8 million American residents
were the victims of identity theft, resulting in a combined loss of over 56 billion dollars. This form of theft is a crime involving
the illegal use of someone else’s identity. It has been increasing since the introduction of the Internet in the 1990s. The most
common form of identity theft is credit card fraud. This is usually accomplished by computer hacking, voice phishing, or
stealing personal information by pretending to be a trusted company. Identity theft has become a serious crime not only in
terms of financial consequences but also in terms of emotional and psychological costs as well.

Michelle Brown, a victim of identity theft, knows all too well about this crime. In a widely publicized case, she testified
before the U.S. senate committee hearing on identity theft, stating, “From January 1998 through July 1999, one individual stole
my apartment rental application and impersonated me to get over 50,000 dollars in goods and services. Not only did she
damage my credit, but her crimes grew to a level that I never truly expected. She engaged in drug trafficking, or selling drugs.
The crime resulted in my false arrest record, a warrant for my arrest, and eventually, a prison record when she was jailed
under my name in Chicago Federal Prison.”

It can take years to clear up the problems associated with identity theft. Ms. Brown spent many days and nights making
phone calls and writing letters trying to resolve these issues. She estimates that the time lost toward clearing her credit and
attempting to clear her criminal record amounted to more than 500 hours. But at the time, she felt like the burden cost her a
lifetime. She said, “I spent countless sleepless nights and seemingly endless days dedicating my time, energy, and peace of
mind trying to restore my credit and my life.”

In addition to direct damages, identity theft can also traumatize its victims like other physical crimes. For some people the
trauma can lead to permanent emotional distress. ❶ Ms. Brown said that it was like one of those unbelievable Hollywood
stories;“Someone becomes you, erases your life, and through his or her destructive behaviors, complicates your existence... so
you no longer know how to live day after day.” ❷ She concluded that she did not think she would ever be able to completely
get over what happened. ❸ Even after clearing everything up, the emotional pain from identity theft can last for many years.
❹

In her testimony, Ms. Brown urged the U.S. government to enforce stricter laws against identity theft. She also gave many
suggestions on how businesses and banks should deal with this kind of crime. As a result of Ms. Brown’s hard work, there
have been efforts made to strengthen the laws and punishments for these crimes. Currently, the punishment for identity theft
under federal law includes a maximum of 20 years of jail time and up to 10,000 dollars in fines.
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Chapter 5> Unit 10> The Shackles of Indian Social Caste System

Many countries have a system of social hierarchy that classifies people into different social classes, but few are as formal
and visible as the social hierarchy in India. The caste system in India is similar to class structures in other countries and has
been strongly practiced for the last two thousand years. Although the Indian government outlawed the caste system in 1949,
it still remains deeply rooted in the social structure of India.

In the past, there were four main castes into which everyone was categorized. At the top were the Brahmins: the priests,
scholars, and philosophers. The second highest caste was the Kshatriyas. These were the warriors and rulers. Third came the
Vaishyas, who were traders, merchants, and agricultural workers. Lastly, the lowest caste was the Shudras, the laborers and
servants for the other castes. Below the Shudras were the Untouchables who were not even considered worthy enough to be
in caste. They performed menial jobs, such as the handling of dead bodies and cleaning toilets. Those belonging to a higher
caste believed that if they touched one of the Untouchables, they would be contaminated and would need to perform a
cleansing ritual.

In India, a person’s caste was predetermined before his birth since it was passed down from his parents. Not only was it
nearly impossible to change his caste, the caste system also limited his choice of occupation, spouse, place to live, and many
other decisions of life. Also, if one did something wrong, that person could be thrown out from his current caste and denied
certain jobs.

Many believe the caste system was started by the Aryans, invaders of India, who used it as a form of discrimination or
intolerance against the local people. The Aryans were in the higher castes, and they put the native people of India into the
lower castes. This discrimination can be seen in the traditional colors associated with each caste: White-Brahmin, Red-
Kshatriya, Brown-Vaishya, and Black-Shudra. These colors reflect skin tone, and indeed higher caste people have lighter skin.
While the Aryans were light-skinned, the people already in India were quite dark. Because the Untouchables are not in a caste,
they do not have a traditional color.

While the caste system is not thought to be religious, the Hindu religion plays a large part in it. One of the beliefs in
Hinduism is reincarnation, a belief in which a soul is reborn into a new life. It is believed that actions in one’s current life
determine his fate when he is reincarnated. If an individual is faithful in his current life, he is rewarded in his next life with a
better one. For this reason, people of the lower caste believe that if they are good, they will be reborn into a higher caste.

Today, parts of the caste system still remain throughout Indian society. One aspect of life affected the most by the caste
system is marriage. ❶ Laws no longer allow discrimination based on caste and the government runs special programs to help
people of lower castes. ❷ However, some of the leaders in the Indian society still support the caste system. ❸ Nonetheless,
progress is happening and the system will continue to change further in this new millennium. ❹
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Chapter 6> Unit 11> The Power of Framing

“Don’t think of an elephant!” Professor George Lakoff tells his students in his Cognitive Science 101 course at the
University of California, Berkeley. What Professor Lakoff means is that when people hear the word “elephant,” it evokes an
image of an elephant in their minds. So, in order to purposefully not think of an elephant, one has to think of an elephant.
Lakoff uses this example when he teaches the concept of framing, or the way in which people define or construct ideas and
opinions. He explains that every word evokes a frame. According to Professor Lakoff, frames can be exploited deliberately by
articulating persuasive words that can manipulate people to think the way we want.

A great way to understand how framing works is to look at how it is used in politics. For example, on the day that
conservative Republican, George W. Bush, became the U.S. President in 2000, the phrase “tax relief” started appearing in White
House communications to the press. Conservatives also started using these words in official speeches and reports.

Let’s examine the details of the framing evoked by the president’s use of the terms. The word “relief” conjures up a frame,
or situation, in which we think of a good, blameless person who needs relief or help. This person may have a problem, such as
some pain or harm that is caused by somebody or something, and relief can take away the pain or harm. The “relief frame”
can be easily described as a “rescue situation” complete with all the characters: a Hero (who relieves the pain), a Victim(the
one in pain), a Crime(the problem), a Villain(the cause of the problem), and a Rescue (the pain relief). The Hero is inherently
good, the Villain is evil, and the Victim owes gratitude to the Hero after the Rescue.

Taxes, in this case, are the Crime, supporters of taxes (pro-tax people) are the Villains, the taxpayer is the Victim, and the
supporters of “tax relief” (anti-tax people) are the Heroes who deserve the taxpayers’ gratitude. Every time the millions of
people in the U.S. hear or read the phrase “tax relief,” the more they will think of taxation as a problem and Conservatives as
heroes. The term “tax relief” suggests all of these characters and more.

❶ Because framing has the power to subconsciously alter the way people think, many politicians use it to influence voters.
❷ Once these frames have entered into the consciousness of a population, they cannot be changed right away. Modifying
them takes a great deal of time and energy. ❸ The more we understand framing and how it is used, the better informed we
will be to make our own decisions based on our own ideas and opinions. ❹
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Chapter 6> Unit 12> Ecoypsychology

Can living in the city drive you crazy? Can a walk in the woods make you feel better? Ecopsychology is a new branch of
psychology which connects psychology and the ecology of the natural environment. Ecopsychology developed in the United
States to examine the negative effects of environmental disasters, such as the Chernobyl nuclear accident on the human
psyche. However, since then, psychological studies have measured the beneficial effects of natural settings including looking
at pictures of landscapes. This research supports the ecopsychological claim that humans are dependent on nature for their
mental health.

Ecopsychology explores how to bond and connect with nature. Mental health cannot be determined simply in terms of
social relations. One also has to include the relationship of humans to other species and ecosystems. ❶ When we explore and
view nature without judgment, we feel a sense of harmony, balance, and stability. ❷ If we take the time to accept and notice
nature, our senses become sharper and we can learn new skills. ❸ An example of this is sailors who appreciate the sea and
gain a keen sense for wind directions that allows them to travel faster. ❹

The practice of bonding with nature through exploration is a concept that ecopsychology has borrowed from the
philosophies of many ancient and modern cultures that embrace nature. For example, the following principle of
ecopsychology is very similar to the traditional values of aboriginal or indigenous people; the earth is a living system; human
beings are fundamentally interconnected with the earth and with all life; neither the earth’ s problems nor humanity’s
problems can be resolved without taking full account of this interconnectedness.

Interconnectedness is a key element of aboriginal traditional culture. The Sacred Tree is a collection of aboriginal
teachings about how everything in our natural environment is interconnected. In this book, the author writes;

“The ancient ones taught us that the life of the Tree is the life of the people. If the people wander far away from the
protective shadow of the Tree, if they forget to seek the nourishment of its fruit, or if they should turn against the
Tree and attempt to destroy it, great sorrow will fall upon the people. Many will become sick at heart. The people
will lose their power.... They will become unable to tell the truth and to deal with each other honestly. They will
forget how to survive in their own land....”

From the above, we can see how deeply linked the aboriginal people are with nature. And also, we can see the aboriginal
people’s perception of the damage, which can be caused by the destruction of their land or natural environment. As a result,
we can conclude that the destruction of aboriginal land could be far more damaging for aboriginal people than others.
According to their teaching in The Sacred Tree, it can be perceived that if ecosystems are destroyed, then something in all of
us will die as well.
Chapter 7> Unit 13> The History of Money: From Barter to Bitcoin

What is the importance of money? A famous saying states that money is not everything. An equally well-known maxim
asserts that money makes the world go round. What is this seemingly negligible object that, nevertheless, animates the entire
world so much? Where did it come from and where is it leading us? To find out, let’s trace the history of money from its
modest origins to its latest form on technology’s cutting edge.

Since the inception of humanity, people have been trading with one another to get the goods they need and want.
Staring around 9000 BC, trade was accomplished by exchanging goods and services directly, otherwise known as bartering.
For example, livestock and agricultural products were swapped in open markets; their worth being determined by their
demand or need. Eventually, to simplify this process, people began using shells to trade instead of bartering. The shells were
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deemed valuable not due to their intrinsic worth, but to the value people agreed they represented.

Around 1000 BC, people in China started crafting metallic replicas of shell-money. This early type of coin was followed by
“knife” and “spade” money. These are metal currencies taking the shape of knives and shovels. Some 500 years later, in what
today is Turkey, metal money first took the form of silver lumps. Later, these lumps were flattened, rounded, and stamped with
images. This process gave birth to the art of coin-making. This art then traversed the West on the backs of the Greek and
Roman Empires.

Paper money, again originating in China, first came into use in the 7th century AD. This currency, in the form of privately
issued bills, was intended to do away with the need of transporting large amounts of cumbersome coins. In Europe, the use of
paper money began in the 17th century, with bills being backed by the “gold standard.”

Today, due to the growing ubiquity of technology, the latest frontier in money is cryptocurrency, of which Bitcoin is the
best known example. Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin exist digitally and are not physical. Their value comes from computers
performing complex mathematical calculations in a process called “mining,” which means keeping track of Bitcoin transactions
across many different computers. According to advocates, Bitcoin offers numerous advantages over national currencies. Most
importantly is the fact that it is very difficult to counterfeit and that it is not dependent upon central banks. Another very
important benefit of Bitcoin is that, since it is completely electronic, transactions occur instantaneously and without regard to
national borders.

To conclude, when it comes to money, it seems the more things change, the more they remain the same. As they did long
ago, people still trade goods and services using symbols that represent value. So, whether they are shells or Bitcoins, money
usage depends on the trust we have in each other. And whatever form it takes, it is still money that allows all societies to
function.
Chapter 7> Unit 14> Is This Land Yours or Mine?

Have you ever wondered if all citizens of a country actually want to be a part of that country? Well, many countries all
over the world, including the United States and Canada, have territories that are in dispute by citizens from distinct
backgrounds. A territorial dispute is a disagreement over the possession of land between two or more states or groups of
people. Although the disagreement can be driven by culture, religion, and ethnic nationalism, it is often related to the control
of natural resources, such as rivers, farms, or land rich in minerals or oil. In many cases, territorial conflicts result from unclear
language in a treaty that had set up the original boundaries.

In one instance, Native Hawaiians have been fighting for sovereignty, or independence from the U.S., ever since the
overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. These Hawaiians see the American presence on the island as a prolonged military
occupation that started with the 1898 annexation of the Republic of Hawaii. They contend that the overthrow and annexation
were illegal. Therefore, some people like Senator Daniel Akaka have proposed a bill to establish a “Nation within a Nation”
government, which recognizes Native Hawaiians as a First Nation, similar to that of other Native American tribes. However,
other groups like the Nation of Hawaii oppose the “Akaka Bill” as a poor compromise and, instead, seek complete
independence from the U.S.

One of the organizations leading the Hawaiian Sovereignty Movement is ALOHA(Aboriginal Lands of Hawaiian Ancestry).
This organization specifically demanded the return of Kaho’olawe, the smallest island of Hawaii. In 1973, the president of
ALOHA announced to the Maui County Council that ALOHA’s primary objective was to seek land or financial compensation
from the U.S. Ka Pakaukau, another Native Hawaiian activist group, has strongly advocated the total independence of Hawaii.
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They claimed that Hawaii does not need to secede from the U.S. because the U.S. has the moral obligation to return what it
has “stolen” and to remove its occupying forces from the Hawaiian Islands. The leader of this organization has visited the
United Nations in Geneva numerous times to promote international recognition of Hawaii and to lobby for international
assistance with the process of decolonization.

Due to efforts by the various Native-Hawaiian activist groups, the U.S. government and the state of Hawaii have issued
official apologies in recent years. ❶ On November 15th, 1993, President Bill Clinton signed an “Apology Resolution” admitting
that the U.S. was at fault in supplying military assistance to the conspirators who overthrew the government of Queen
Liliuokalani. ❷ Even so, the activist Hawaiian groups have not given up. ❸ In early 2008, they were able to advance a bill in the
legislature, which would approve a multimillion-dollar settlement between the state and Native Hawaiians over the use of
ceded lands. ❹ This settlement would resolve claims to the former Hawaiian monarchy for lands used by the state.

Chapter 8> Unit 15> Plato: Then and Now

All philosophy is influenced, in one way or another, by the ancient Greek writer and thinker, Plato. Together with his
teacher, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped build the philosophical foundations of the Western culture. His
eternal questions, such as “What is truth?” “What is justice?” and “What kind of society should we build?” remain as real for us
today as they were 2,500 years ago.

Plato was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. As a young man, Plato met Socrates, whose life and death greatly
influenced him. The sacrifice of Socrates led Plato to formulate a new system of knowledge based on reason. He went on to
establish an academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. At the academy, he taught
philosophy and wrote his famous dialogues. These accomplishments led Plato to be recognized today as one of the greatest
philosophers of all time.

To understand Plato’s worldview, it is important to grasp the distinction he makes between sensible “Things” and “Forms.”
Things, such as a flower, a chair, and a beautiful person, are the parts of reality which we perceive through our senses.
Everything that we experience in the world of sensation is always changing and not perfect; the chair will get worn down; the
beautiful person will get older. This is the realm of appearances and we all know that appearances can be deceptive. These
things change and ultimately fade away. Forms, on the other hand, are eternal and unchanging. Forms exist in the realm of
perfect concepts. They are grasped not by the senses but by reason.

In Plato’s well-known story, Allegory of the Cave, from his famous dialogue, The Republic, Plato describes a cave with
people who are chained to the floor and facing a blank wall. They have no knowledge of anything except the shadows they
see on the wall. But one individual finally escapes from his chains and climbs out of the cave. At first, he is overwhelmed by
the sun and trees, but eventually he wanders around in wonder and delight. He realizes that the shadows, or Things, were a
poor representation of reality. He feels he should return to the cave and alert the others to escape the world of shadows. But
when he climbs back down into the darkness, his efforts to communicate are useless because the people in the cave believe
their world to be real. They feel his revelation threatens their reality, so they sentence him to death.

This tale carries the same meaning today that Plato intended back when he wrote it; philosophers with new ideas will be
rejected by mainstream society. For example, Michel Foucault feared the government’s implicit power over the lives of
individuals. There were many people who respected Foucault’s opinion of the government, but still society-at-large ignored
him. Plato would say this happens because most people mistake Things (or shadows) as being reality. They cannot understand
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the complex concepts or Forms (Foucault’s ideas) that might help improve society. This is a good reason why we still need to
pay attention to Plato’s philosophy.
Chapter 8> Unit 16> Martin Luther and the Reformation

On October 31st, 1517, Martin Luther nailed the 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church in Saxony. The 95
Theses were points that criticized the Catholic Church and the Pope. The most controversial points centered on the practice of
selling indulgences for sins committed and the policy of the Church on purgatory. They also criticized the practice of excessive
devotion to the Virgin Mary and the authority of the Pope. This call for change was the beginning of the Reformation started
by Martin Luther. What kind of person was Marin Luther to start such a rebellious break-up of the Catholic Church?

Martin Luther stands out in history as one of those unique individuals who fundamentally changed the world with their
ideas. Luther initially saw himself as a reformer of the Catholic Church and as a simple monk, who thought his ideas would fix
the problems of the church. But instead of reforming the Catholic Church, those good intentions divided Christianity into
Catholicism and Protestantism. Protestantism would further divide over the next four centuries into thousands of separate
denominations. Additionally, Luther viewed his reforms as a way to return Christianity to its earlier roots, but, in reality, his
ideas changed the world of religion and divided the Christian religion.

Luther was not the type of person you would want to have lunch with as he was ill-tempered, self-centered, and polemic.
But his self-confidence, focus, and strong belief in the power of his ideas allowed him to stand against all opposition. When
Luther became a monk in 1505, it was a disappointment to his father who wanted him to become a lawyer. He earned a
doctorate in theology, but instead of settling down to a peaceful life as a monk or professor, he began to develop his own
personal theology. His thinking turned into a complete rebellion when he protested the use of indulgences in the 95 Theses.

Indulgences, which were granted and endorsed by the Pope did not forgive individual sinners for their sins but, instead,
relieved them from the punishments for those sins. According to Catholic belief, a sinner could earn an indulgence by caring
for the sick or feeding the poor. The 95 Theses of Luther argued against the use of indulgences, based on the idea that
Christianity was about the inner world of human beings and had little to do with the outer world, such as punishments. The
Catholic Church disapproved of this argument and forced Luther to appear in court in 1518 to defend his ideas. The result of
the trial was the break-up from the church of many of Luther’s followers.

❶ Reformation eventually proliferated to other European countries and soon dominated Northern Europe. But Spain and
Italy remained resistant to Protestantism and became centers of the Counter-Reformation. ❷ In England, Reformation was
motivated more by political reasons, provoked by the Pope’s refusal to grant Henry VIII a divorce, rather than religious ones.
❸ Martin Luther could have never predicted how the actions on October 31st, 1517 would transform the world forever. ❹
Today, many different branches of Protestantism exist in almost every country.