Unit 3

LEARNING

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour as

a result of direct or indirect experience. Learning is thus a change in behaviour as a result of
experience.

Learning Definition
Stephen P. Robbins - Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a
result of experience.
Munn N.L. - Learning is the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less
permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes.

Meaning of Learning
There are two primary elements in meaning of learning:
Change must be relatively permanent: This means that after “learning” our behavior must be
different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this learning experience.
For example, you “learn” to drive a car or have learned how to use a computer.
This change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not
caused by biological maturation.
For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural biological phenomenon. We do not
learn to eat or drink.

Nature of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or
experience. There are several key points in this definition.
 Learning comes change
 Change in knowledge or behavior has to be relatively permanent or long-lasting
 Learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience
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Learning brings change
For example, when you learn a second language, your knowledge about how to communicate
evolves, and your behavior changes when communicating with native speakers of the language.

Change in knowledge or behavior has to be relatively permanent or long-lasting

For example, If you attempt to communicate with someone in another language by looking up
words in a dictionary that you quickly forget once the interaction is complete, learning did not
take place because there was no permanent change in your knowledge of the second language.

Learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience

For example, Learning a second language requires much practice in pronunciation, word usage,
and grammar.

Elements of Learning
Elements of learning are:
 Motivation
 Cues
 Response
 Reinforcement
Motivation
Motivation is based on need and goals. Motivation acts as a spur to learning, with needs and
goals serving as stimuli. Uncovering consumer motives is one of the prime task of marketers.
Marketers educate motivated consumer segments why their product will best fulfill their needs.
Marketers use motivation research to unearth consumer motives and use it in developing
marketing program.
Cues
Cues are the stimuli that give direction to those motives. In the market, marketing mix (place,
price, packaging, styling, advertising and displays) serve as cues to help consumers fulfill their
needs in product specific ways.

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Cues serve to direct consumer drives when they are consistent with consumer expectations.
Marketers must be careful to provide cues that do not upset those expectations.
For example, consumer expects high fashion stores to carry designer clothing at high prices thus;
a high fashion designer should distribute his or her clothing only through exclusive stores and
advertise only in quality fashion magazines..
Response
How an individual reacts to a drive or cue constitutes his or her response. Learning can occur
even if responses are not overt. The carpet manufacturer who provides consistent cues to a
consumer may not always succeed in stimulating a purchase, even if that individual is motivated
to buy.
Instead, the manufacturer may succeed only in forming a favorable image of the carpet in the
consumer’s mind i.e. evoking a tendency to respond by buying.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a specific response will occur in the future as the
result of particular cues or stimuli. Many marketers instinctively find that reinforcement serves to
teach their customers a desired behavior. For example, telephone companies that give cash
discounts to customers who pay their bill promptly are acting to ensure prompt payment in the
future.

Types of Learners
There are following types of learners:
 Visual Learners
 Auditory Learners
 Kinesthetic Learners
Visual Learners
 Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.
 They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.
Auditory Learners
 Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.
 They focus their ears and attention on your words, listening carefully to everything you
say.
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  They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve
heard.
Kinesthetic Learners
 Kinesthetic learners learn better by doing
 This group learns best when they can practice what they’re learning
 They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube because they
think in terms of physical action.
Characteristics of Learning
 Learning is Purposeful
 Learning is a Result of Experience
 Learning is Multifaceted
 Learning is an Active Process
Learning is Purposeful
Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique
individual whose past experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the
requirements involved.
Learning is a Result of Experience
Since learning is an individual process, the instructor cannot do it for the student. The student
can learn only from personal experiences; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart
from a person.
Learning is Multifaceted
Learning is multifaceted in still another way. While learning the subject at hand, students may be
learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation-good or bad-
depending on what they experience.
Learning is an Active Process
Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume
that students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or airplane
when the instructor presented the material.
Learning Process
 Stimuli

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  Attention
 Recognition
 Translation
 Reinforcement
 Behavior
 Reward
 Habits
 Motives
 Efforts
Learning Process

Stimuli
Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees get stimuli
from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice employees who pay attention to
these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to.
Attention
The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid attention to.
Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career-oriented stimuli are generally
accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence their desires to learn,
motives for need fulfilment and tension reduction.
Recognition
Attention-paid stimuli are recognised as acceptable factors of improvement and new life styles.
Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognising the stimuli for learning purposes. The
levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences, needs and desires of the
employees.
Translation
The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for implementing the stimuli in
behaviour through reinforcement. Employees behave properly through attitude changes,
objectivity, mental and physical development. It is observed in better performances.
Reinforcement

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Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli, attention,
recognition, translation and behaviour. Perception leads to learning, but perception itself is not
learning unless it is reinforced.
Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement may be positive, negative, punishment and
extinction. Learners learn as per their perception levels. Generally positive reinforcement is more
effective for making permanent changes in behaviour.
Behavior
Learning changes behaviour through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It makes permanent
changes in behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not learning. Positive behaviour gives
rewards to employees.
Reward
Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behaviour provides a reward, it is
accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into habits. Rewards
may be monetary or non-monetary.
Habits
A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps continuous improvement in
behaviour and performance. Employees develop the habit of selfappraisal and development. It
helps to instil creativity and confidence in employees who are encouraged to behave properly
again and again.
Motives
Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction through
learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is complete
only when motives are fully realised and translated into efforts.
Efforts
Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process. Efforts are the
automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning process. Self-
development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to develop themselves are self-
motivated and effort-oriented.

Principles for Learning

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Over the years, educational psychologists have identities several principles which seem generally
applicable to the learning process. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn
most effectively.
6 Most important principles for learning are:
 Readiness
 Exercise
 Effect
 Primacy
 Intensity
 Recency
Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. When students are ready to
learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, and this simplifies the instructor’s job.
Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is
the basis of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain,
evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure.
Effect
The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It states that learning is
strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is
weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. For the
instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time.
Intensity
Intensity: A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or
boring experience. A student is likely to gain greater understanding of slow flight and stalls by
performing them rather than merely reading about them.
Recency

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The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.
Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the
more difficult it is to remember.

Factors Affecting Learning

 Their resources
 Their image of learning
 The rewards associated with any learning activity
 The availability of information about learning opportunities
 The availability of appropriate learning environments, possibly virtual learning
 The climate in which learning takes place, especially that created by government and
employers.

Application of Learning
 Some of the behaviour modification techniques are given below which may be used in
the organization:
 Use of Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism
 Work pay Vs sick pay
 Training and Development
 Discipline
 Self-Management
Use of Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism
Attractive prizes can be included in a lottery that can be used gainfully to achieve a reduction in
absenteeism.
Work pay Vs sick pay
Organizations have to leave policy. Apart from other leave, there is a provision for a few days of
sick leave in a year.
Training and Development
Training and development programmes must be run systematically and in a preplanned manner.

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Discipline
Behavior modification can be achieved by laying down the minimum standard of discipline in
the organization. Defence organizations are most disciplined organizations because they do not
compromise on the standards, be it related to training, work, supervision, accounting or
disbursement of salary and wages etc.
Self-Management
Learning concepts are meant for modifying the behaviour of others. These theories are also
applicable for self-management. Individuals should lay down personal standards, objectives
relating to personal growth, identify various courses of action to adopt and modify self-attitude
and behaviour.

Theories of Learning
Theories of learning have been developed as models of learning which explain the learning
process by which employees acquire a pattern of behavior. There are four theories of
learning discussed below.
1. Classical conditioning theory
2. Operant conditioning theory
3. Cognitive learning theory
4. Social learning theory

Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning can be defined as a process in which a formerly neutral stimulus when
paired with an unconditional stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned
response. (Luthans 1995).

The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is developed through
the interactions with the environment. Also, the environment shapes the behavior and internal
mental state such as thoughts, feelings, emotions do not explain the human behavior.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist (Nobel Peace Prize) developed classical conditioning theory of
learning based on his experiments to teach a dog to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell.

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When Pavlov presented meat (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salivation
(conditioned response). But, when merely bell was rung, no salivation was noticed in the dog.

Then, when next Pavlov did was to accompany the offering of meat to the dog along with ringing up of
bell.
He did this several times. Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the meat. Now, the dog
began to salivate as soon as the bell rang.
After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no meat were presented. In
effect, the dog had learned to respond i.e. to salivate to the bell.
Pavlov concluded that the dog has become classically conditioned to salivate (response) to the sound of
the bell (stimulus). It will be seen that Classical Conditioning learning can take place amongst
animals based on stimulus-response (SR) connections.

Types of Stimuli and Responses

Each of the stimuli and responses in classical conditioning is referred to by specific terms that
can be illustrated with reference to Pavlov’s experiments.
 The presentation of food to the dog is referred to as the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) because the dog’s response to the food occurs naturally.
 The light or bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) because the dog must learn to
associate it with the desired response.
 Salivation in response to the food is called the unconditioned response (UCR) because
it’s an innate reflex.
 Salivation to the light or bell is the conditioned response (CR) because the dog learns to
associate that response with the conditioned stimulus.

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Classical Conditioning Examples
This stimulus-response connection (S-R) can be applied in management to assess organizational
behavior. Historically when a CEO visits an organization, production charts are updated,
individuals put on a good dress, window panes are cleaned and floors are washed. What all one
has to do is to just say that the Top Boss is visiting.
You will find that all the above work is undertaken (response) without any instructions. Because
the people in the organization have learned the behavior (conditioned). It has caused a permanent
change in the organization (S-R connections).
Operant Conditioning

The Operant Conditioning Theory is given by B.F. Skinner, who believed that behavior is
voluntary and is determined, maintained and controlled by its consequences. According to him,
one must focus on the external or observable causes of behavior rather than the internal mental
events such as motivation, thoughts, feelings, etc. Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as
instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify
behavior. Through operant conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and
behavior that is punished will rarely occur.

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Operant Conditioning is concerned primarily with learning as a consequence of
behaviour Response-Stimulus (R-S). In Operant Conditioning particular response occurs as a
consequence of many stimulus situations.

 Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences.

 People learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something they don’t want.
 Operant behavior means voluntary or learned behavior.
 The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.
 Reinforcement therefore strengthens behaviour and increases the likelihood it will be
repeated.
B.F. Skinner performed an experiment; wherein the Rat was placed in a glass box, called as a
“skinner box.” In that box, there were two levers, one attached to the feeding tube, while the
other produced the electric shock. The rat pressed the first lever attached to the tube and got the
food to eat, but as soon as it pressed the other lever, it got the shock. A rat discovered from its
actions, the lever which is rewarding and the one which gives a shock (negative response) and
pressed only that lever which resulted in food. Thus, Skinner observed, that the rate of response,
as well as the change in the response, was seen after the behavior was performed, not before.

Often, the operant conditioning is also called as an Instrumental Conditioning, which means
learning is developed through the rewards and punishments given for a particular behavior.
There are three elements that result in the development of a new behavior; these are:
 Stimulus Situation (the event or object)
 Behavioral Response to the situation
 Consequence of a response

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Other Example: A vehicle driver applies the brakes in order to avoid the accident, thus, the
possibility of an accident without the application of the brakes is stimulus situation. The
application of brake is the behavior and escape from the accident is the consequence of behavior.
Thus, through this process, an organism learns to distinguish between the behaviors that are
rewarding and try to engage them in those behaviors
For example, working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause the person to keep
working hard in the future.
Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, several factors affect response rate, resistance to extinction and how
quickly a response is acquired.
Magnitude of reinforcement
In general, as magnitude of reinforcement increases, acquisition of a response is greater. For
example, workers would be motivated to work harder and faster, if they were paid a higher
salary.
Immediacy of reinforcement
Responses are conditioned more effectively when reinforcement is immediate. As a rule, the
longer the delay in reinforcement, the more slowly a response is acquired.

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Level of motivation of the learner
If you are highly motivated to learn to play football you will learn faster and practice more than
if you have no interest in the game.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Definition: Edward Tolman has contributed significantly to the Cognitive Learning Theory.
According to him, individuals not only responds to stimuli but also act on beliefs, thoughts,
attitudes, feelings and strive towards goals
cognitive learning theory is based on the cognitive model of human behavior, i.e. it emphasizes
on the free will and positive aspects of human behavior. Cognition refers to the individual’s
thoughts, feelings, ideas, knowledge and understanding about himself and the environment.
Thus, an organism applies this cognition in learning which results in not merely the response to a
stimulus, but the application of internal image of the external environment, so as to accomplish
the goal. The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and retain information through
experience, senses, and thought is known as cognition.

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Lets understand the theory by concept given by researcher Piaget-
Piaget saw human development as a multistage process of building knowledge. From their
first breath, infants learn basic motor functions, like learning to grasp objects.
To make a consistent psychological theory, Piaget sought to break knowledge (no matter how
simple or complex) into a single, basic unit. From there, he could develop a theory of cognitive
learning that could apply just as much to a baby’s first step to deep philosophical concepts they
might develop later in life.
Piaget called this basic unit schema.
What are schemata?
Here is how Piaget defines a schema: “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing
component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.”
Let’s break this down with a simple example: A child recognizes a cow on a farm.
The “cohesive, repeatable action” is the child’s recognition of the cow. It is repeatable in that
that the child will continue to recognize it (and animals identical to it) as a cow.
This action of recognition can be broken down into its components: The child doesn’t just see a
cow. They see a thing that is alive, has four legs, is eating grass and makes a mooing sound.
These acts of recognition, of course, can be broken down further. The child must have some
concept of what a live thing is, how to count to four and so on.
For the child, all these various components form the “core meaning” of a cow. Even when the
child leaves the farm, they will still have an understanding and concept of what a cow is and
isn’t.
How are schemata formed?
Piaget outlines a four-step process in the formation of schemata:
1. Assimilation
2. Disequilibrium
3. Accommodation
4. Equilibrium
Step 1: Assimilation
Assimilation is the cognitive process of associating new information to what is already known.
This prior knowledge can be innate, like knowing how to breathe, or something learned
previously.

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To return to our earlier example, let’s say the child has only seen a cow in picture books. Seeing
a cow in person gives them an additional sense of what a cow looks like and how it behaves.
This will be “assimilated” into the schema that is the child’s recognition of the cow.
Step 2: Disequilibrium
Let’s say the child goes to the farm and recognizes a cow. They point out that it has four legs,
eats grass and lives on a farm, all characteristics that this cow shares with the cow in the picture
book.
Unexpectedly, however, instead of making the mooing sound that the child associates with a
cow, the animal makes a “baa” sound. Upon further inspection, this cow has a big puffy white
coat of fleece, very much unlike the cow in the picture book. The child’s cow-recognition
schema did not include this sound or this coat, causing a disruption or “disequilibrium.”
Of course, we know that the “cow” is a sheep. How will the child come to this conclusion,
however, and form their own sheep recognition schema?
Step 3: Accommodation
The child will attempt to resolve this disequilibrium through a process called “accommodation.”
They will compare and contrast their concept of a cow with the mystery animal currently in front
of them.
They will notice that though both a cow and this animal share many aspects (four legs, eating
grass) they contrast in notable ways (different sounds, different coats.) Though they may not
have a name for it, they will conclude that, despite some similarities, this animal is not a cow.
This might prompt the child to turn to a parent or caregiver, who will tell them that it’s a sheep.
Subconsciously, the child will do two things at this point, both of which are components of
accommodation. First, they will adjust their existing cow-recognizing schema to be able to
recognize cows as not sheep. Then they will produce a new schema to recognize sheep by their
specific attributes, and not by the attributes of a cow.
Step 4: Equilibrium
By the end of this accommodation process, the child is equipped with a stable understanding of
what a cow is and is not, as well as what a sheep is and is not. Upon seeing either of these
animals, they will not need to readjust their schema.
That is, unless they encounter new information that causes disequilibrium and the whole process
to begin again. In this way, schema-building is a constant, cyclical and lifelong process. This

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same process will allow the child to build and categorize their schemata to include more-
complex concepts, such as how a farm works or the ethics of eating meat, which will (in part)
rely upon the recognition schema they developed when they were young.

Social Leraning Theory

The Social Learning Theory is given by Albert Bandura, who believed that individual learns
behavior by observing the others. Simply, by observing the other person’s behavior, attitude, and
the outcome of that behavior, an individual learns how to behave in a given situation, depending
on the consequences observed.
The social learning theory acts a bridge between the behavioral and cognitive theory, as it
emphasizes the integrative nature of cognitive, behavioral and environmental determinants. This
means social learning theory agrees with some part of behavioral and some part of cognitive
theories. But however, Badura felt that these theories are not sufficient in explaining the
elements therein fully and therefore, believed that learning can also take place via vicarious or
modeling.
What is Vicarious or Modelling? The Vicarious or modeling is a process that essentially
involves the observational learning. It is based on the assumption, that discrete stimulus-response
consequences connections do not result in learning, but instead learning can take place through
imitating the behaviors of others
Bandura believed, that most of the behavior displayed by the individual are learned either
deliberately or inadvertently through the influence of the model, a person who is being observed.

Thus, a social learning theory asserts that learning takes place in two steps:
 The person observes how others behave and then forms a mental picture in his mind,
along with the consequences of that behavior.
 The person behaves, what he has learned and see the consequences of it, if it is positive
he will repeat the behavior or will not do it again, in case the consequence is negative.

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Attention: In order for a behavior to be observed and subsequently imitated, the observer must
first notice the behavior and focus their attention on it.
If the behavior does not hold the interest of the observer or they become distracted, it is unlikely
that the behavior will be retained reproduced at a later stage.

Retention: The observer must be able to remember the behavior they have observed and store it
in their memory to be accessed at a later stage.
Even if the behavior is imitated shortly after it is observed, this still requires significant memory
skills. A student’s ability to retain can be impacted by a number of factors.

Reproduction: This involves replicating the behavior that was observed. The ability of the
observer to reproduce the behavior will depend on whether or not they retained the behavior
following observation.
Of course, retention is not the only factor here. A person’s physical capability may also limit
their ability to reproduce the behavior.

Motivation: In order for a behavior to be replicated, the observer must be motivated to

reproduce it.

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This motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Reinforcement and punishment are key factors in
motivation, with learners more likely to imitate an observed behavior if it results in a positive
outcome.
Motivation can also arise from observing others being rewarded for the same behavior.

Example
Attention: A lesson must engage a student sufficiently to hold their attention.
Retention: Students must be able to remember what they have seen or heard.
Reproduction: Students should be given time to practice the observed behavior.
Motivation: A student must be able to see the benefit of a new behavior for long term
assimilation.

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