Michael-G.

-Aamodt-Industrial-
Organizational-Psychology-6th
Field of I/O Psychology
Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology applies psychology principles to the workplace.
Techniques developed by I/O psychologists aim for a happy and productive workforce.
I/O psychology differs from business programs in its focus on human behavior in organizations.
Principles of learning, social psychology, motivation, and emotion are applied.
Techniques like psychological tests, behavioral interviews, and assessment centers are
preferred over unstructured interviews.
I/O psychology focuses on factors affecting individuals in organizations rather than broader
organizational aspects like marketing or accounting.

Introduction to I/O Psychology

I/O psychologists rely on research, quantitative methods, and testing techniques.
They use empirical data and statistics for decision-making, not clinical judgment.
I/O psychologists follow the scientist-practitioner model, acting as scientists in research and
practitioners in working with organizations.
The field of I/O psychology can have a positive impact on people's lives by enhancing
employee effectiveness and organizational efficiency.

Major Fields of I/O Psychology

Two approaches in I/O psychology: industrial approach (competencies, staffing, training) and
organizational approach (motivation, information, working conditions).
Personnel Psychology:
Analyzing jobs, recruiting, selecting, determining salaries, training, and evaluating
performance.
Organizational Psychology:
Focuses on leadership, job satisfaction, motivation, communication, conflict
management, and organizational change.
Conducts surveys on employee attitudes and makes recommendations for improvement
based on findings.

Introduction to I/O Psychology

Organization development professionals implement programs for improving employee
performance.
Programs may include team building, restructuring, and employee empowerment.
Human Factors/Ergonomics Psychologists
Focus on workplace design, human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue.
Work with engineers to enhance workplace safety and efficiency.
Activities include designing maps, chairs, and work schedules.

Brief History of I/O Psychology

I/O psychology emerged in the early 1900s.
Pioneers in the field include Walter Dill Scott, Hugo Munsterburg, James Cattell, and others.
Term "industrial psychology" was rarely used before World War I.
I/O psychology had a significant impact during World War I.
Used tests like Army Alpha and Army Beta for recruit placement.
Henry Gantt improved efficiency in shipbuilding.
Thomas Edison implemented a rigorous knowledge test for job applicants.
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth pioneered productivity and fatigue reduction studies.
Early I/O psychology thrived globally with notable psychologists in various countries.

Early Years of I/O Psychology

I/O psychology pioneers include Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.
Studied motions to enhance productivity and reduce fatigue.
Frank made significant improvements in bricklaying efficiency.
Lillian was a Ph.D. holder and a professor at Purdue University.
I/O psychology had notable figures outside the United States.
Psychologists in Switzerland, Australia, Germany, France, Canada, and Great Britain
applied psychology to industry problems.

Expansion of I/O Psychology in the 1930s

Previously focused on personnel issues like employee selection and placement.
Hawthorne studies in the 1930s led to a shift towards the work environment and
employee attitudes.
Hawthorne studies at Western Electric Company showed the impact of interpersonal
interactions on employee behavior.
Employees' behavior changed due to being studied, known as the Hawthorne effect.
Inspired psychologists to focus more on human relations and employee attitudes.

Developments in I/O Psychology in the 1960s and 1970s

Civil rights legislation in the 1960s emphasized fair selection techniques.
Use of sensitivity training and T-groups for managers.
Understanding of organizational psychology issues like employee satisfaction and
motivation improved.
Introduction of behavior-modification techniques by B. F. Skinner.
Changes in the 1980s and 1990s
Increased use of sophisticated statistical techniques in research.
Application of cognitive psychology to industry for performance appraisal.
Focus on the effects of work on family life and leisure activities.
 Renewed interest in developing employee selection methods.
Wider variety of selection instruments used, including cognitive ability tests and
structured interviews.
Other significant changes included downsizing, diversity, stress, and organizational
development interventions.
Influence of Technology in the 2000s
Rapid advances in technology greatly influenced I/O psychology.
Tests, surveys, recruitment, training, and meetings are now conducted online.

Pioneers in I/O Psychology

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were pioneers in the field.
Significance of Hawthorne Studies
Demonstrated the importance of human relations and employee attitudes in the
workplace.
Impact of Civil Rights Legislation
Emphasized fair selection techniques and increased the need for I/O psychologists.
Focus Areas in Different Decades
Each decade brought new focuses and developments in I/O psychology.
Evolution of Research Methods
From simpler statistical techniques to more complex methods over the years.

Impact of Changing Workforce Demographics on I/O Psychology

Women entering the workforce and managerial roles
Hispanics and Latinos as the largest minority group
Asian Americans as the fastest-growing segment
Increasing number of workers with English as a second language
Diversity issues will remain crucial in the workplace
Global Economy's Influence on I/O Psychology
Shift of manufacturing jobs to countries with lower wages
Emphasis on service jobs requiring human relations skills
Need for understanding various cultures due to international workforce
Other Factors Affecting I/O Psychology
Flexible work schedules and family-friendly policies
Accommodation for employees with child-care and elder-care responsibilities
Flatter organizational structures and population shifts
Increasing costs of health-care benefits and potential changes in retirement age
Employment of I/O Psychologists
Work settings: colleges/universities, consulting firms, private sector, public sector
Roles: teaching, research, administration, workforce selection, training, legal compliance
Distribution based on degree: Ph.D. more in academia, master's in various roles

Roles of I/O Psychologists in Different Sectors

Consulting firms: help organizations with productivity, workforce selection, motivation
Private sector: work for single companies like IBM, Microsoft
Public sector: work for government entities, offering job stability
 Career Opportunities in I/O Psychology
Diverse job titles from entry-level to CEOs
Varied roles in public and private sectors, data analysis, HR, training, etc.
Median salaries in 2006: $72,000 for master's, $98,500 for doctoral positions
Job Titles in I/O Psychology
Range from Chairman and CEO to Trainer and HR Specialist
Various roles in leadership, research, training, and organizational development
Salary Information
Median salaries in 2006: $72,000 for master's, $98,500 for doctoral positions
Top 10% of I/O psychologists with doctoral degrees earned over $200,000
Current salary information available on the SIOP website at www.siop.org

Educational Requirements and Types of

Programs
Master's or doctoral degree increases employment opportunities in I/O psychology.
Master's in I/O psychology takes 1-2 years after a bachelor's degree.
Admission requirements include a GPA of at least 3.0 and a GRE score of 1000.
Types of Graduate Programs:
Master's programs can be terminal or part of a Ph.D. program.
Terminal programs are suited for applied HR positions.
Doctoral programs are for those interested in teaching, research, or consulting.
Master's Programs:
Require about 40 hours of graduate coursework.
Include a thesis, internship, and comprehensive exams.
Doctoral Programs:
Typically take five years to complete.
Involve coursework in the first two years and dissertation completion.

Research in I/O Psychology

Importance of research in I/O psychology for understanding upcoming chapters.
Entrance requirements for graduate programs emphasize GRE scores, GPA, and experience.
Tips for increasing chances of selection in a graduate program:
Take extra math and English courses for GRE preparation.
Study and get a good night's sleep before the test.
Take psychology courses in various areas covered in the GRE.
Obtain positive letters of recommendation from professors.
Get involved in research projects, clubs, internships to demonstrate professionalism.

Importance of Research in I/O Psychology

Research and statistics are crucial in I/O psychology for making informed decisions.
Research ultimately saves organizations money through factors like increased
productivity and employee satisfaction.
 Example of how research can save money: employment interviews not always the best
predictor of future job behavior.
Research in Everyday Life
Research is encountered daily, in academic studies, professional settings, and even in
advertisements.
Understanding research helps in critically analyzing information for making intelligent
decisions.
Example of challenging flawed research to hold a dance event at a university.

Challenging Common Sense with Research

Common sense can be wrong, and research is essential to challenge misconceptions.
Example of changing answers in multiple-choice tests contrary to common advice.
Considerations in Conducting Research
Research ideas often stem from questions like "I wonder..." in various contexts.
Forming hypotheses based on theories or logic is crucial in research.
Importance of testing theories to understand the underlying reasons for hypotheses.

Importance of Testing Theories in Research

Testing theories is essential to understand why hypotheses hold true.
Example of different theories explaining why employee referrals may lead to longer
employee tenure.
Hypothesis Examples
Example 1: High noise levels increase errors in assembling electronic components.
Example 2: Employee referrals lead to longer employee tenure due to various theories
like realistic job preview, differential recruitment-source, personality similarity, and
socialization.

Forming Hypotheses
Sometimes difficult due to lack of previous research or clear theory.
Example of a student studying handwriting neatness and personality.
Difficulty can also arise when predictions could go either way.
Example of a student studying the influence of recommendation letters.
Hypotheses may not always be supported due to poor research design or topic
complexity.
Example of studying aggression and violence with multiple theories.
Complexity of Research
Multiple theories may explain a behavior.
Behavior can be predicted without knowing the reason.
Research can be unpredictable but fun due to life's complexity.
Literature Reviews
Importance of searching literature before conducting a new study.
Ways to conduct literature reviews: using subject indexes, browsing journals, etc.
Types of periodicals encountered: journals, bridge publications, trade magazines, and
magazines.

Types of Periodicals
 Journals: best source of unbiased and accurate information.
Bridge publications: bridge academia and the applied world.
Trade magazines: present research in an easy-to-understand format.
Magazines: good sources of ideas but not for scientific hypotheses.

Internet as a Source
Internet contains a wealth of information but lacks review for accuracy.
Caution needed when using the Internet for research.
Problem with relying on secondary sources like the Internet.
Examples of inaccuracies in psychology from secondary sources.
"Little Albert" story and Kitty Genovese story inaccuracies.

Location of the Study

Laboratory Research
About 32% of I/O psychology research is conducted in a laboratory setting.
Control over variables but lacks external validity.
Example: Employee selection methods research may lack generalizability.
Field Research
Conducted outside the laboratory in real-world settings.
Higher external validity but lower control over extraneous variables.
Example: Leadership training more effective in laboratory studies.
Ethical dilemma with informed consent in field studies.
Informed Consent
Laboratory Studies
Subjects sign informed consent forms voluntarily.
Field Studies
Obtaining informed consent can be challenging and may alter behavior.
Informed consent can be waived in minimal risk situations.
Confidentiality
Institutional review boards ensure ethical treatment and confidentiality.
Researchers use subject ID numbers for confidentiality.

Research Method to Be Used

Experiments
Most powerful for determining cause-and-effect relationships.
Requires manipulation of independent variables and random assignment.
Example: Customer service training as an independent variable.
Other Research Methods
Quasi-experiments, archival research, observations, surveys, and meta-analyses
are alternative methods.
Ethical Considerations
Informed Consent
Waived only in minimal risk situations.
Can be waived if study importance outweighs negative consequences.
Confidentiality
 Institutional review boards monitor research for ethical treatment.
Data confidentiality ensured through subject ID numbers.
Lack of submission to review boards in organizational studies.

Overall, the location of a study (laboratory vs. field) impacts factors like external validity and control
over variables. Informed consent is crucial, especially in field studies, and confidentiality is maintained
through ethical guidelines and institutional review boards. Experiments are highlighted as the most
effective method for determining cause-and-effect relationships, with other research methods also
available for different study designs.

Experimental Group vs. Control Group

Experimental group receives training, control group does not.
Need to manipulate variables to determine causation.
Example of Experimental Design
Study on the effect of dress style on interview scores.
Randomly assign 100 people to wear suits or sport coats.
Independent variable: type of dress; Dependent variable: interview score.
Challenges in Experimental Designs
Ethical and practical considerations may limit experimental designs.
Example: studying the effect of loud noise on worker performance.
Quasi-Experiments
Used when true experiments are not feasible.
Example: comparing productivity in manufacturing plants with different noise levels.

Quasi-Experiments in Program Evaluation

Used to evaluate the impact of new programs.
Example: evaluating the effect of a child-care center on absenteeism.
Challenges in Interpreting Nonexperimental Studies
Multiple variables can influence outcomes.
Example: evaluating the impact of the child-care center on absenteeism levels.
Example of Nonexperimental Study
Absenteeism rates before and after the introduction of a child-care center.
Various external and internal factors influencing absenteeism rates.

Quasi-Experiments
Workers' behavior changes due to fear of job loss and improved weather conditions.
Importance of multiple researchers finding similar results for confidence in conclusions.
Archival Research
Uses previously collected data to answer research questions.
Challenges include inaccuracies in records and missing data.
Example of difficulties faced in an archival study due to scattered and incomplete records.
Surveys
Method of asking people's opinions on various topics.
Different survey methods like mail, personal interviews, email, and internet.
Factors influencing the choice of survey method.
Comparison of response rates and accuracy between different survey methods.
Survey Samples
Examples of differences in survey results based on the method used.
Survey on top motion pictures and Nykesha Sales' basketball incident.
Multinational study showing preferences for survey methods in different countries.
Survey Response Rates
Importance of high response rates for survey reliability.
Ways to increase response rates like incentives and multiple contacts.
Survey Design
Characteristics of well-designed survey questions.
Impact of wording on survey results, illustrated with examples.
Accuracy of Survey Responses
Importance of accuracy in responses, especially for sensitive or controversial issues.

People may not always be truthful in surveys due to various reasons

Example: In a study, only 94% claimed to wash hands after using a public restroom, but
observations showed less than 70% actually did.
Meta-analysis is a statistical method to analyze research findings
It involves determining effect sizes from various studies and calculating a mean effect size
Effect sizes can be correlation coefficients (r) or difference scores (d)
Interpretation of effect sizes: small (<0.40), moderate (0.40-0.80), large (>0.80)
Practical application of effect sizes involves multiplying the standard deviation of a variable by
the effect size
Example: John Deere using an incentive system with an effect size of 0.32 to reduce
absenteeism

Meta-analysis is essential for interpreting research outcomes

It summarizes all available studies on a topic, providing more weight than individual
studies
Understanding meta-analysis outcomes is crucial for this text
References to meta-analyses should be given more importance than single studies
Symbols used in meta-analysis: r (correlation) and p (corrected correlation)
p (rho) is the correlation adjusted for artifacts that can affect the correlation size
Exercise 1.1 in the workbook helps in understanding research designs
Subject samples in studies require decisions on size, composition, and selection method
Large sample size is not always necessary if extraneous variables can be controlled
Properly conducted surveys may need only around 1,000 participants for generalization
Selection of sample depends on the organization's nature
Small organizations may use all employees, ensuring high representativeness
Large organizations may select specific employees for studies based on practicality and
economy
Balancing practicality and experimental rigor is crucial in selecting samples for studies

Use of students in research studies

Many studies at universities use students as subjects to increase experimental rigor and
decrease costs.
 Debate on generalizability of university research compared to real-world behavior.
Differences between college students and employees: age, education, egocentricity,
need for peer approval.
Research findings show that college-student samples behave differently than real-world
samples.
Recruitment of subjects
Importance of using a random sample for research accuracy.
Dilemma between voluntary participation (APA ethics) and compulsory participation for
accurate research.
Methods like requiring employees to agree to participate in organizational research
studies.

Running the Study

Instructions to subjects should be standardized and understandable.
Debriefing subjects after participation is essential.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis determines the confidence level in research results.
Significance levels indicate the probability of data resulting from chance.
Interpretation of significance levels and effect sizes for practical significance.
Correlation
Correlation is widely used in I/O psychology to determine relationships between
variables.

Correlational Analysis
Correlation coefficient does not indicate causality.
Third variable often explains the relationship between two variables.
Examples of correlations: ice cream sales and infant deaths, cows per square mile and
crime rate.
Caution needed in interpreting relationships between variables.
Correlation Coefficient
Ranges from -1 to +1.
Further from zero indicates a stronger relationship.
Positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other also increases.
Negative correlation: as one variable increases, the other decreases.
Examples of Correlations in I/O Psychology
Job satisfaction and absenteeism.
Age and reaction time.
Nervousness and interview success.

Ethical Dilemmas
Ambiguous situations requiring personal judgment.
Reliance on morals and personal values.
Different decisions by different individuals due to varied backgrounds.
Types of Ethical Dilemmas
Type A: High uncertainty, no best solution, positive and negative consequences.
 Type B: Clear difference between right and wrong, rationalizing behavior.
Examples of Type B Dilemmas
Rationalizing unethical behavior due to personal advantage.
Survey statistics on unethical acts in the workplace.
Ethics in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Ethical dilemmas faced by organizations and employees daily.
Reliance on personal values in decision-making.
Different backgrounds influencing ethical decisions.

Conducting Research at the Vancouver

International Airport Authority, Canada
Introduction to I/O Psychology
Ethical dilemmas vs. decisions guided by law or policy
Vancouver International Airport's wellness program for employees
Named top airport in North America for customer satisfaction
Wellness program called Fitness and Balance
Components: seminars, health-related newsletters, outdoor activities, fitness
facility discounts
Effectiveness: Absenteeism dropped from 4.07% to 2.55%, annual injuries
dropped from 22 to 6
Designing the Study
How would you design the study to determine the effectiveness of the wellness program?
Outcome measures other than absenteeism and injuries
Ethical and practical considerations in data collection and reporting

Chapter Summary: On the Job Applied Case

Study
Key Learnings
I/O psychology subfields: personnel psychology, organizational psychology, human
factors
Industrial psychologists work in various settings
Growth of I/O psychology since the early 1900s
Influences on I/O psychology: World Wars, Hawthorne studies, civil rights legislation,
technology, demographics
Education and salaries in the field: Master's degree required, median salaries around
$72,000 at the master's level and $98