Industrial Organizational

Psychology Notes
Chapter 1: Introduction to I/O Organizational Psychology – the field of study that
Psychology investigates the behavior of employees within the
context of organization; are concerned with the issues
The Field of U/O Psychology of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation,
organizational communication, conflict management,
Industrial – Organizational Psychology – a branch of organizational change, and group processes.
psychology that applies the principles of psychology
to the workplace. Organizational Psychologists:
● Conduct surveys
Purpose: “to enhance the dignity and performance ● Acts as consultant
of human beings, ang the organizations they work ● Sends recommendations on ways problem
in, by advancing the science and knowledge of areas can be improved.
human behavior.”
Human Factors/Ergonomics – A field of study
It relies extensively on research, quantitative concentrating on the interaction between humans
methods, and testing techniques. and machines; concentrate on workplace design,
human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical
fatigue and stress.
Use: to develop training programs & incentive
plans, principles of social psychology are used to Brief History of I/O Psychology
form work groups and understand employee
conflict, and principles of motivation and emotions
are used to motivate and satisfy employees. Before the term “industrial psychology” was used
till after WWI, the common terms were “economic
psych,” “business psych,” and “employment psych.”
Industrial/Organizational psychology focuses on
the macro level. 1900s - The starting point of I/O Psychology

Major Fields of I/O Psychology 1903 – Walter Dill Scott wrote The Theory of
Advertising.

A factor that helps differentiate I/O psychology 1910 – Hugo Münsterberg wrote Psychology and
from other branches of psychology is the reliance Industrial Efficiency (was published in English in 1913)
on the scientist-practitioner model. HTat is, I/O
psychologists act as scientists when they conduct 1911 – Walter Dill Scott publishes Increasing Human
research and as practitioners when they work with Efficiency in Business
actual organizations.
1913 – Hugo Munsterberg publishes Psychology and
Industrial Efficiency (German version published in
Industrial: determines the competencies needed to 1910)
perform a job.
● Staffing the org w. Employees who have 1917 – Journal of Applied Psychology first published.
competencies
● Increasing competencies through training 1917 – WWI provide I/O psychologists with first
Organizational: creates an organizational structure opportunity for large-scale employee testing and
& culture that will motivate employees to perform selection
well
● Give necessary info to do their jobs. World War I (1914 – 1918) – I/O Psychology made a
first big impact, due to the large number of soldiers
who were assigned to various units within the armed
Personnel Psychology – the field of study that
forces through testing and then placed them in
concentrates on the selection and evaluation of
appropriate positions.
employees; it is the study and practice in such areas
as analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting Army Alpha – an intelligence test used by the army
employees, determining salary levels, training for soldiers who can read.
employees, and evaluating employee performance.
Army Beta – an intelligence test used by the army for 1990 – Americans with Disabilities Act passed; SIOP
soldiers who cannot read. membership exceeds 2,832.

1920 – Thomas A. Edison created a 163- item 1991 – Civil Rights Act of 1991 passed to overcome
knowledge test. 1989 conservative Supreme Court decisions.

Frank Gillberth and Lilian Moller Gillberth were the 1995 – SIOP members exceeds 4,500
first to improve productivity and reduce fatigue by
studying the motions used by workers. 1997 – SIOP celebrates its golden anniversary at its
annual conference in St. Louis.
1921 – First Ph.D. in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce
Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech 2000 – SIOP Membership exceeds 5,700

1932 – First I/O text written by Morris Viteles 2005 – Office of Federal Contract Compliance
Program (OFCCP) and Equal Employment opportunity
1933 Hawthorne Studies – a series of studies, Commission (EEOC) become more aggressive in
conducted at the Western Electric plant in fighting systematic discrimination; SIOP members
Hawthorne, Illinois, that have come to represent any exceeds 5,900
change in behavior when people react to a change in
the environment. 2008 – The journal Industrial and organizational
Psychology: Perspective on Science and Practice
Hawthorne Effect – When Employees change their begins publication as an official journal of SIOP.
behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving
attention or are being observed. 2009 – Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act and Americans with
Disabilities Act Amendment Act (ADAAA) passed
1937 – American Association for Applied psychology
established 2010 – SIOP Membership exceeds 8,000; members
narrowly vote to keep the name Society for industrial
1945 – Society for Industrial and Business Psychology Organizational psychology rather than change to the
established as division 14 of the APA with 130 Society for Industrial Organizational psychology.
members.
2013 – OFCCP issues new regulation affecting the
1951 – Marion Bills elected as first woman president hiring of military veterans and individuals with
of division 14. disabilities.

1960 – Division 14 renamed as Society for Industrial 2014 – SIOP members exceed 8,300.
Psychology, members exceeding 700.
In 1980’s - 1990’s, there are 4 major changes:
1963 – Equal Pay Act passed
1. More complex tools are used
2. A new interest in the application of Cognitive
1964 – Civil right act passed; First issue of the
Psychology
Industrial-Organizational Psychology (TIP) published
3. Effects of work in family life, and leisure
1970 – Division 14 membership exceeds 1,100 activities
4. Renewed interest in developing methods to
1971 – B.F.Skinner publishes Beyond Freedom and select employees
Dignity

1980 – Division 14 membership exceeds 1,800 2000’s changes:

1. Rapid advances in technology
1982 – Division 14 renamed Society for Industrial and 2. Changing demographic makeup of the
Organizational Psychology (SIOP) workforce
3. Global economy
1986 – Society for Industrial and Organizational 4. High unemployment rate
Psychology (SIOP) holds the first annual national
conference separate from APA meeting. Employment of I/O Psychologists
1989 – Supreme Court sets conservative trend and
becomes more “Employer friend”
 Dissertation – a formal research paper required of
Four settings:
most doctoral students in order to graduate.
● Colleges and Universities
● Consulting Firms
● Private Sectors Research in I/O Psychology
● Public Sectors
Why conduct Research?
Colleges and Universities – they typically teach and ● Answering Questions and Making Decisions.
conduct research, although some work as ● Research and Everyday life.
administrators. ● Common Sense is often wrong.

Consulting Firms – they help a wide variety of Considerations in conducting Research

organizations by helping them select a high quality
and diverse workforce, designing systems that will Ideas – what to research. It stems from a person
motivate employees. starting a sentence.

Private Sector – Similar duties of a consultant but Hypothesis – An educated prediction about the
works for a single company. Answer to a research question.

Public Sector – Similar duties of a consultant but Theory – A systematic set of assumptions regarding
works for a local, state, or federal government agency. the cause and nature of behavior.

Educational Requirements’ and Types of 4 Theories (or explanations to support the

programs psychologist’s hypothesis)
1. Realistic job preview theory
Graduate Record Exam (GRE)- A standardized 2. Differential recruitment source theory
admission test required by most psychology graduate 3. Personality similarity theory
schools; the graduate school version of the Scholastic 4. Socialization theory
Aptitude Test, or SAT.

Types of Graduate Programs Literature Reviews

Master’s Degree programs come in two varieties: Journals – collection of articles describing the
those that are part of a Ph.D. program and those that methods and results of new research.
terminate at the master’s degree.
Bridge Publications – It is to “bridge the gap”
Ph.D. Programs – Wanting to apply for an HR position between academia and the applied world.
in an organization.
Trade Magazines – collection of articles for those “in
Terminal Master’s Degree Program - A graduate the biz,” about related professional topics.
program that offers a master’s degree but not Ph.D.
Magazines – unscientific collection of articles about a
Master’s Program – Completion of most master’s wide range of topics.
programs requires 40 hours of graduate coursework;
15-18 hours is considered a full undergraduate Location of the Study
semester load, 9 to 12 hours is considered a full
graduate load. Most students also allow completing: 1. Laboratory Research – I/O psychology research
is conducted in a laboratory. One disadvantage
Internship – a situation in which a student works for is its: External Validity or Generalizability.
an organization, either for pay or as a volunteer, to 2. Field Research – Research conducted in a
receive practical work experience. natural setting as opposed to a laboratory. One
disadvantage is its: Internal Validity
Practicum – A paid or unpaid position with an ● Informed Consent – the formal process by
organization that gives a student practical work which subjects give permission to be
experience. included in a study.
● Institutional Review Boards – A
Doctoral Program – takes 5 years to complete. The committee designated to ensure the
students must complete a: ethical treatment of research subjects.
The Research Method to be Used The method of selecting the sample is certainly
dependent on the nature of the organization.
1. Experiments – a type of research study in which
the independent variable is manipulated by the
experimenter. It is the most powerful of all Random Sample – It is a sample in which every
research methods because it can determine member of the relevant population had an equal
Cause-and-effect Relationship (the result of a chance of being chosen to participate in the study.
well-controlled experiment about which the
researcher can confidently state that the Convenience Sample – it is a nonrandom research
independent variable causes the change in the sample that is used because it is easily available.
dependent variable). Has two characteristics:
Random assignment – The random, unbiased
● Manipulation – The alteration of a variable
assignment of subjects in a research sample to the
by an experimenter in expectation that the
various experimental and control conditions.
alteration will result in a change in the
dependent variable.
● Random Assignments of subjects – Has
Running the Study
two groups: Experimental Group (the
Debriefed – informing the subject in an experiment
group that receives training) & Control
about the purpose of the study in which he or she
Group (the group did not received any
was a participant and providing other relevant
training)
information.
2. Quasi-Experiments – Research method in which
the experimenter either does not manipulate
the independent variable or in which subjects If deception is present, debriefing is a must.
are not randomly assigned to condition; are
often used to evaluate the results of a new Statistical Analysis
program implemented by an organization.
3. Archival Research – Research that involves the
In psychology, we use the .05 level of significance
use of previous collected data.
4. Surveys – asking people their opinion on some
topic. It can be conducted in a variety of Correlation – It is a statistical procedure used to
methods such as; mail, personal interaction, measure the relationship between two variables.
phone, email, and the internet.
5. Meta-Analysis – a statistical method of reaching Intervening Variable – it is a third variable that can
conclusions based on previous research. often explain the relationship between two other
● Effect size – it is used in meta-analysis, a variables.
statistic that indicates the amount of
change caused by an experimental Correlation Coefficient – the result of correlational
manipulation. analysis.
● Mean effect size – it is a statistic that is the
average of the effect sizes for all studies ● Range: +1 to -1
included in the analysis. ● Direction: +/-
● Correlation coefficients – It is a statistic, ● Magnitude:
resulting from performing a correlation ○ Distance from 0
that indicates the magnitude and direction ○ Comparison to norms
of a relationship. ● Types of Relationship:
● Difference Score – A type of effect size ○ Linear
used on Meta-Analysis that is signified by ○ Curvilinear
the letter d that indicates how many
standard deviations separate the mean
score for the experimental group from the
Ethics in Industrial/Organizational
control group. Psychology
● Practical Significance – It is the extent to
which the results of a study have an actual Type A Dilemma – there is a high level of uncertainty
impact on human behavior. as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no
best solution, and there are both positive and
Subject Samples negative consequences.
Type B Dilemma – also called as “Rationalizing Training – Job analyses yield lists of job activities that
Dilemmas” the difference between right and wrong is can be systematically used to create training
clearer. Chooses the solution that is advantageous for programs.
themselves
Personpower Planning – involves promotion; Peter
Principle – it is the idea that organizations tend to
Great job sa pag finish sa first chap, u litol
promote good employees until they reach the level at
hoomans
which they are not competent – in other words, their
highest level of incompetence.

QUESTION TIME! Performance Appraisal – An important use of Job

1. What were the important events that analysis is the construction of a performance
shaped the field of I/O psychology? appraisal instrument to evaluate the performance of
2. What role will changes in demographics an employee in their line of work.
play in how we hire and manage
employees? Important use of job analysis: construction of a
3. If you wanted to pursue a career in I/O performance appraisal instrument.
psychology, what would you need to do
between now and graduation to make this Job Classification – it is useful in determining pay
career possible? levels, transfers, and promotion; enables a human
4. How are theories and hypotheses resources professional to classify jobs into groups
different? based on similarities in requirements and duties.
5. Is a random sample really better than a
convenience sample? Why or why not? Job Evaluation – Job analysis information can also be
6. When would you use a quasi-experiment used to determine the worth of a job.
rather than an experiment?
7. Why don’t correlations between two Job Design – Job analysis information can be used to
variables indicate that one causes the determine the optimal way in which a job should be
other? performed.

----------------------------------END-------------------------------- Compliance with Legal Guidelines – uses the Labor

code of the Philippines.
Chapter 2: Job Analysis And Evaluation
Organizational Analysis – During the course of their
Job Analysis – gathering and analyzing information work, job analysts often become aware of certain
about the work an employee performs, the condition problems within an organization.
under which the work is performed, and the worker
Job analysis Interview – Obtaining information about
characteristics needed to perform the work under the
a job by talking to a person performing it.
identified conditions.
Writing a Good Job Description
Importance of Job Analysis
Job Title – an accurate title describes the nature of
Writing Job Description – a brief two to five page the job, its power and status level, and the
summary of the tasks and job requirements found in competencies needed to perform the job. It provides
the job analysis. workers with some sort of identity, status and worth
of a job.
Job analysis is the process of determining the work
activities and requirements and a job description is Brief Summary – The summary need be only a
the written result of the job analysis. paragraph length but should briefly describe the
nature and purpose of the job.
Employee Selection – selecting employees that
Work Activities – it lists the tasks and activities in
reached the requirements through selecting tests or
which the worker is involved.
developing interview questions that will determine
whether a particular applicant possesses the Tools and Equipment Used – it is a section that lists
necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to carry the all the tools and equipment used to perform the work
requirements of the job.
activities in the previous section; used primarily for ● Participants should be selected in as random
employee selection and training. way as practical yet still be representative. The
reason for this is because of: Job competencies,
Job Context – Describes the environment in which the Race, Gender, Educational Level, Personality, &
employee works and mentions stress level, work Viewpoint.
schedule, physical demands, level of responsibility,
temperature, number of coworkers, degree of danger, What Types of Information should be obtained?
and other relevant information.
● Level of specificity (breakdown of a job into
Work Performance – It contains a relatively brief every minute, specific behaviors, should the job
description of how an employee’s performance is be analyzed at a more general level)
evaluated and what work standards are expected of ● For some jobs that involve intricate work,
the employee. extensive and expensive efforts have been
undertaken to identify the optimal way in which
Compensation Information – It contains information tasks should be performed.
on the salary grade (A cluster of jobs of similar worth), ● Formal versus informal requirements.
whether the position is exempt, and the other
compensable factors used to determine salary. Conducting a Job Analysis
Job Competencies – this section contains what are Step 1: Identifying Tasks Performed
commonly called as job specification (a relatively
dated term that refers to knowledge, skills and
abilities needed to successfully perform a job) or The first step in conducting a job analysis is to
Competencies (the KSAOs needed to perform a job.) identify the major job dimensions and the tasks
performed for each dimension, the tools and
equipment used to perform the tasks, and the
Preparing for a Job Analysis
conditions under which the tasks are performed.
Who will conduct the Analysis?
Gathering Existing Information – prior to interviewing
● Trained Individual in the Human Resources incumbents, it is always a good idea to gather
Department information that has already been obtained like
● Job Incumbent or Supervisors existing job descriptions, task inventories, and training
● Consultants manuals.
● Graduate students from I/O Psychology
programs Interviewing Subject-Matter Experts – Most common
is to interview Subject-matter Experts (Sources such
How Often Should a Job Description Be as supervisors and incumbents who are
Updated? knowledgeable about a job).

● It should be updated if a job changes Job analysis interviews come in two main forms:
significantly. individual (job analyst) and group SME conference).
● An interesting reason that job description
changes overtime is because of; Job Crafting ● Job Analyst – The person conducts the job
(a process in which employees unofficially analysis.
change their job duties to better fit their ● SME Conference – it is a group of job analysis
interest and skills) interview consisting of Subject-matter Experts.
(SMEs)

There are certain guidelines should be followed that

Which employees should participate? will make the interview run smoothly:

● For organizations with relatively few people, it is ● Prepare: announcing the job analysis to the
advised that all employees should participate in employees
the Job analysis. ● Open: establishing rapport, puting the worker at
● In an organization with many employees who ease, and explaining the purpose of the
perform the same jobs, every person does not interview
need to participate. ● Conduct: asking open-ended questions, using
easy-to-understand vocabulary, and allowing
 sufficient time for the employee to talk and Ability – The basic capacity for performing a wide
answer the questions. range of tasks, acquiring knowledge, or developing a
skill.
Ammerman Technique – it is a job analysis method
developed by Ammerman in 1965, in which a group of Other Characteristics – Factors that are not
job experts identifies the objectives and standards to knowledge, skills, or abilities such as personality,
be met by the ideal worker; it is also an excellent job willingness, interest, and degrees. It includes such
analysis interview. personal factors as personality, willingness, and
motivation and tangible factors as licenses, degrees,
Observing Incumbents and years of experience.

Observations – It is a job analysis method in which

When competencies are tied to an organization’s
the job analyst watches the job incumbent perform
strategic initiatives and plans rather than to specific
their jobs.
tasks, the process is called competency modeling.

Its advantage is that it lets the job analyst actually

Step 5: Selecting test to tap KSAOs
see the worker do her job.
The disadvantage is that it is very obtrusive.
● It is used in selecting new employees and
includes such methods as interviews, work
Job Participation – A job analysis method in which the samples, ability test, personality test, reference
job analyst actually performs the job being analyzed. checks, integrity test, biodata and assessment
centers.
Step 2: Write Task Statements
Using Other Job Analysis Methods
Task Inventory – it is a questionnaire that consists of
lists of tasks each of which the job incumbents’ rates Methods Providing General Information About
on a series of scales such as importance and time Worker Activities
spent.
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) – A structured
Characteristics of well-written task statements: job analysis method developed by McCormick (1972).
It contains 194 items.
● One action should be done to one object.
● It should be written at a level that can be read
and understood. The PAQ offers many advantages. It is inexpensive
● It should be written in the same tense. and takes relatively little time to use. Research has
● It should include the tools and equipment used found that PAQ questions and directions are written
to complete the task. at the college graduate level; thus many workers
● It should not be a competency. may not be able to understand PAQ.
● It should not be a policy.
● It should make sense by itself Job Structure Profile (JSP) – A revised version of PAQ
● The level of authority should be indicated. designed to be used more by the job analyst than by
the job incumbent. It was developed by Patrick and
Step 3: Rate Task Statements Moore (1985).

Task Analysis – The process of identifying the tasks for Job Elements Inventory (JEI) – A structured job
which employees need to be trained; using a group of analysis technique developed by Cornelius and Hakel
SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency (1978) that is similar to PAQ but easier to read. It
and the importance or criticality of the task being contains 153-items.
performed.
Functional Job Analysis (FJA) – Developed by Sydney
Step 4: Determining Essential KSAOs Fine (1955) that rates the extent to which a job
incumbent is involved with functions in the categories
Knowledge – a body of information needed to of data, people, and things.
perform a task.

Skills – The proficiency to perform a learned task. What makes FJA unique, is that once the SMEs have
identified these functions and tasks, they assign a
 percentage of time the incumbent spend on three The CIT is used to discover actual incidents of job
function: behavior that make the difference between a job’s
● Data (information and ideas) successful or unsuccessful performance.
● People (clients, customers, and coworkers)
● Things (machines, tools, equipment) Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) – It is a 33-item
questionnaire developed by Lopez that identifies
Methods Providing Information About Tools and traits (physical, mental, learned, motivational, and
Equipment social) necessary to successfully perform a job. This
method is available only by hiring a particular
Job Components Inventory – a structured job analysis consulting firm.
technique that concentrates on worker requirements
for performing a job rather than on specific tasks. Has The TTA’s greatest advantages are that it is short
400 questions. and reliable and can correctly identify important
traits.
The JCI consists of more than 400 questions The TTA’s greatest disadvantage is that it is not
covering five major categories: available commercially.
● Tools and equipment
● Perceptual and physical requirements Fleishman Job Analysis-Survey (F-JAS) – is a job
● Mathematical requirements analysis method in which jobs are rated on the basis
● Communication requirements of the abilities needed to perform them. It is based on
● Decision making and responsibility 30 years of Research.

AET “Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren The F-JAS is easy to use by incumbents or trained in

Tätigkeitsanalyse” – “Ergonomic job analysis method” analysis, demonstrates acceptable levels of
developed in German. It is a 216-item questionnaire. reliability, and is supported by years of research. Its
advantages over TTA are that it is more detailed, is
Methods Providing Information about commercially available, is available in several
Competencies languages, and can be completed online.

Occupational Information Network (O*NET) – The

Job Analysis system used by the federal government Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) – A 132-item
that has replaced the Dictionary of Occupational inventory that taps the extent to which a job involves
Titles (DOT). eight dimensions of ability.

1. Handling emergencies and crisis situations

O*NET is a major advancement in understanding 2. Handling work stress
the nature of work, in large part because its 3. Solving problems creatively
developers understood that jobs can be viewed at 4. Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work
four levels: situation
● Economic 5. Learning work tasks, technologies, and
● Organizational procedures
● Occupational 6. Demonstrating interpersonal Adaptability
● Individual 7. Demonstrating cultural adaptability
8. Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability

O*NET includes information about the occupation Personality- Related Position Requirements Form
(generalized work activities, work content, (PPRF) – it is an instrument that helps determine the
organizational context) and the worker personality requirements for a job; 107 items tapping
characteristics (ability, work style, occupational 12 personality dimensions that fall under the “Big 5”
values and interest, knowledge, skills, education). personality dimensions.

Critical Incident Technique (CIT) – Developed by John Performance Improvements Characteristics (PIC) – it
Flanagan that uses written reports of good and bad is similar to PPRF, a 48 question that helps determine
employees behavior. which of the seven main personality traits needed to
perform a job.
 Job Evaluation External equity – it is the worth of a job that is
determined by comparing the job to the external
The Process of determining the monetary worth of a market.
job.
Salary Survey – a questionnaire sent to the
Has 2 stages: organizations to see how much they are paying their
employees in positions similar to those in the
1. Determining Internal Pay Equity organization sending the survey.

Internal pay equity - involves comparing jobs within Market Position - an organization might choose to
an organization to ensure that the people in jobs offer compensation at higher levels to attract the best
worth the most money are paid accordingly. applicants as well as keep current employees from
going to other organizations.
Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors
Direct Compensation – The amount of money paid to
Compensable Job Factors – Factors, such as an employee such as pay for time not worked,
responsibility and education requirements, that deferred income, health protection such as medical
differentiate the relative worth of jobs. and dental insurance, and prerequisites (company
car).
Possible Compensable Job Factors includes the ff.:
Determining Sex and Race Equity
● Level of responsibility
● Physical Demands Compensable Worth – The idea that jobs requiring
● Mental Demands the same level of skill and responsibility should be
● Educational Requirements paid the same regardless of supply and demand.
● Training and work experience requirements
● Working conditions. Questions for review!
1. Why is job analysis so important?
Step 2: Determining the Levels of Each 2. What are the main sections of a job
Compensable Factor description?
3. Would a job analyst expect to find gender
Factors such as education, the levels are easy to
and race differences in the way employees
determine. For factors such as responsibility, a
perform the duties of their jobs? Why or why
considerable amount of time and discussion may be
not?
required to determine the level.
4. How should a task statement be written?
5. Why are there so many job analysis methods?
Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights
6. Research indicates that the average salary for
women in the US is about 80% of the average
● Some factors are more important than others’;
salary for men. Why is this?
weights must be assigned to each factor and to
7. Is external pay equity more important than
each level within a factor. Here is the process
internal pay equity? Why or why not?
for doing this:
● A Job Evaluation committee determines the
total number of points that will be distributed ----------------------------------END--------------------------------
among the factors.
● Each factor is weighted by assigning a number Chapter 3: Legal Issues In Employee
of points. Selection
● The number of points assigned to a factor is
then divided into each of the levels. Equal Employment Occupational Commission (EEOC)
● Wage Trend Line – a line that represents the – A Branch of the Department of labor charged with
ideal relationship between the number of investigating and prosecuting complaints of
points that a job has been assigned and the employment Discriminations. In the Philippines it is
salary range for that job. called National Labor Related Commission (NLRC)

Determining External Pay Equity The Legal Process

Resolving the Complaint Internally

Grievance System – a process in which an employee ● Military Veteran Status
files a complaint with the organization and a person
or committee within the organization makes a Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) – it is a
decision regarding the complaint. selection requirement that is necessary for the
performance of job-related duties and for which there
Mediation – A method of resolving conflict in which a is no substitute.
neutral third party is asked to help the two parties
reach an agreement. Adverse Impact – An employment practice that
results in members of a protected class being
Arbitration – a method of resolving conflicts in which negatively affected at a higher rate than members of
a neutral third party is asked to choose which side is the majority class. It is usually determined by the
correct. four-fifths rule.

Binding Arbitration – A method in resolving conflicts Four-fifths Rule – When the selection ratio for one
in which a neutral third party is asked to choose which group is less than 80% of the selection ratio for
side is correct and in which neither party is allowed to another group, adverse impact is said to exist.
appeal the decision.
The Court uses 2 standards to determine
Nonbinding Arbitration - A method in resolving Adverse Impact:
conflicts in which a neutral third party is asked to
choose which side is correct but in which either party ● Statistical Significance
may appeal. ● Practical Significance

Outcomes of an EEOC Investigation Can the Employer Prove that the Requirement is
Job Related?
Charge does not have merit – The person filing the
complaint accepts the decision in which the process Job Related – The Extent to which a test or measure
ends. But if the complainant does not accept the taps a KSAOs needed to successfully performs a job.
decision, he is issued the “right to sue” letter entitles
him to hire a private attorney and file the case Exceptions
himself.
● Bona Fide Seniority System
Charge has merit – If it is believe that the charge has ● National Security
merit, it will try to work out a settlement between the ● Veteran’s Preference Rights
compliant and employer without taking the case to
court. Harassment
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Types of Harassment

Determining Whether an Employment Quid pro quo – a type of sexual harassment in which
Decision is Legal the granting of sexual favors is tied to an employment
decision.
Protected Class – Any group of people for whom
protective legislation has been passed. Hostile Environment – a type of harassment
characterized by a pattern of unwanted conduct
Lists of Protected Class related to gender that interferes with an individual’s
work performance
● Race
● Sex Types of Harassing Behaviors:
● National Origin
● Religion ● Comments
○ Days of Worship ● Jokes
○ Worship Practices ● Posters
○ Religious Attire ● Cartoons
● Age ● E-mails
● Disability ● Drawings
● Pregnancy
○ Pregnancy Discrimination Act Why is Harassment a problem?
 ● Hurts workplace relationship Media Advertisements
● Causes emotional distress
● Causes physical distress Newspaper ads – running ads in periodicals such as
● Decreases productivity local newspapers or professional journals are a
● Increase turnover and absenteeism declining method of recruiting employees.
● Increase legal liability
Job advertisements typically ask the applicant to
Affirmative Action Plans respond in one of four ways:

Reasons for Affirmative Action Plans 1. Respond by calling – Recruitment ads in which
applicants are instructed to call rather than to
● Involuntary: Government Regulation & Court apply in person or send resumes.
order 2. Apply-in-person ad – recruitment ads that
● Voluntary: Consent Decree & Desire to be a instruct applicants to apply in person.
Good Citizen 3. Send-resume ad – Recruitment ads in which
applicants are instructed to send their resumes
Affirmative Action Strategies to the company.
4. Blind Box – recruitment ads that instruct
● Monitoring Hiring and Promotion Statistics applicants to send their resume to a box at the
● Intentional Recruitment of Minority Applicants newspaper; neither the name nor the address
● Identification and Removal of Employment of the company is provided.
Practices Working Against Minority Applicants
and Employees Writing Recruitment Ads – there is plenty of expert
● Preferential Hiring and Promotion of Minorities advice on the best way for an employer to write
recruitment advertisements. Research on
Privacy Issues recruitments ads indicates the following:

● Drug Testing ● Ads Containing realistic information about the

● Office and Lockers searches job, rather than information that is “too good to
● Psychological Tests be true,” increases the applicant's attraction to
● Electronic Surveillance an organization.
● Ads containing detailed descriptions of the job
----------------------------------END-------------------------------- and organization provide the applicants with an
idea how they would fit into an organization
Chapter 4: Employee Selection: Recruiting and result in positive thoughts about it.
And Interview ● Ads containing the selection process affect the
probability that applicants will apply for a job.
Employee Recruitment
Electronic Media- the use of television recruitment
Recruitment – The process of attracting employees to through commercials.
an organization.
Point-of-purchase Methods – is based on the
2 Types of Recruitments “point-of-purchase” advertising principles used to
market products to consumers.
External Recruitment – Recruiting employees from
outside the organization. Recruiters

Internal Recruitment – Recruiting employees already Campus Recruiters – Many organizations send
by the organization. (Internal promotion) recruiters to college campuses to answer questions
about themselves and interview students for available
Noncompetitive promotion – involves “career positions. A disadvantage to that is that it is costly.
progression” positions in which employees move from
a position. Virtual Job Fair – A job fair help on campus in which
students can “tour” a company online, ask questions
Competitive Promotion – several internal applicants of recruiters, and electrically send resumes.
compete with one another for a limited number of
higher positions. Outside Recruiters – organizations use outside
recruiting sources such as Private Employment
Agencies, private Employment agencies, and Considering the number of potential recruitment
Executive Search Firms. sources, it is important to determine which source is
the best to use. It is conducted in several methods:
Employment Agency – it is an organization that
specializes in finding jobs for applicants and finding ● Number of Applicants
applicants for organizations looking for employees. ● Cost per Applicant (the amount of money spent
on a recruitment campaign divided by the
Executive Search Firms – “Head Hunters” that number of people that subsequently apply for
specialize in placing applicants in high-paying jobs. jobs as a result of the recruitment campaign.)
● Cost per qualified Applicant (the amount of
Public Employment Agencies – an employment money spent on a recruitment campaign
service operated by a state or local government, divided by the number of people that
designed to match applicants with job openings. subsequently apply for jobs as a result of the
recruitment campaign.)
Employee Referrals - a method of recruitment in ● Evaluating recruitment source effectiveness
which a current employee refers a friend or family
member for a job. Realistic Job Previews
Direct Mail - aMethod of Recruitment in which an Realistic Job Preview (RJP) – a method of recruitment
organization sends out mass mailings of information in which job applicants are told both the positive and
about job openings to potential applicants. negative aspects of a job.
Internet – continues to be a fast-growing recruitment. Expectation-lowering Procedure (ELP) – a Form of
It takes on one of three forms: RJP that lowers an applicant’s expectations about the
various aspects of the job.
1. Employer-Based Websites – An organization
lists available job openings and provides
information about itself and the minimum
Employment Interviews
requirements needed to apply to a particular
A method of selecting employees in which an
jobs.
interviewer asks questions of an applicant and then
2. Job Boards – it is a private company whose
makes an employment decision based on the answers
website lists job opening for hundreds or
to the questions as well as the way in which the
thousands of organization and resumes for
questions were answered.
millions of applicants.
3. Social Media – The greatest change in
Types of Interviews
employee recruitment has been increased by
social media outlets. It is a traditional employee Structure – interviews in which questions are based
referral program and networking steroids. on a job analysis, every applicant is asked the same
questions, and there is a standardized scoring system
Job Fairs - a recruitment method in which several
so the identical answers are given identical scores.
employees are available at one location so that many
applicants can obtain information at one time. Unstructured - an interview in which applicants are
not asked the same questions and in which there is no
It is typically conducted in one of three ways:
standard scoring system to score applicant answers.
● Many types of organization have booths at the
Style – it is determined by the number of
same location
interviewees and number of interviews.
● Many Organizations in the same field in one
location. ● One-on-one interview
● For an organization to hold its own. ● Serial interview
● Return interview
Special Recruit Populations ● Panel interview
● Group interview
● Increasing Applicant Diversity
● Series-panel-group interview
● Nontraditional Population
Medium – it differs in the extent to which they are
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Recruitment done in person.
Strategies
 ● Face-to-face interview Skill-level determiner – a type of structured interview
● Telephone interview question designed to tap an applicant’s knowledge or
● Video Conference interview skills if
● Written interviews
Future – focused question – a type of structured
Problems with unstructured Interviews interview question in which applicants are given a
situation and asked how they would handle it.
Poor intuitive Ability – Interviews often base their
hiring decisions on “gut decisions”, or intuition. Situational question – A structured –interview
However, people are not good at using intuition to technique in which applicants are presented with a
predict behavior. series of situations and asked how they would handle
each one.
Lack of Job Relatedness – information that is used to
select employees must be job related if it is to have Past-focused question – A type of structured
any chance of predicting future employee –interview question that taps an applicant’s
performance. experience.

Primacy Effects – “first impressions.” The fact that Patterned-Behavior description interview (PBDI)- a
information presented early in an interview carries structured-interview question that taps how well an
more weight than information presented later. applicant’s personality and values will fit with the
organizational culture.
Contrast Effects – When the performance of one
applicant affects the perception of the performance 1. Creating a Scoring key for Interview Answers
of the next applicant. ● Right/Wrong approach
● Typical – Answer Approach
Negative-Information Bias – it is the fact that ● Benchmark Answers
negative information receives more weight in an ● Key-issues approach
employment decision than does positive information. 2. Conducting the Structured Interview
● In conducting the interview is to build
Interviewer-Interviewee Similarity – Research rapport
suggests that an interviewee will receive a higher ● Do not begin asking questions until
score if he or she is similar to the interviewer in terms applicants have had time to “settle their
of personality, attitude, gender, or race. nerves.”
● Set the agenda for the interview by
Interview Appearance – Physical attractive applicants explaining the process
have an advantage in interviews over less attractive ● After the agenda has been established, ask
applicants, and applicants who dress professionally the interview questions.
receive higher scores than do more poorly dressed ● It is important to score each answer after it
applicants. was given.
● When the questions has been asked,
Nonverbal Cues (Communication) – Factors such as provide information about the job and the
eye contact and posture that are not associated with organization.
actual words spoken. ● Answer any question the applicant might
have.
Creating a Structured Interview ● End the interview on a pleasant note by
complimenting the interviewee and letting
1. Determining the KSAOs to Tap in the Interview her know when you will be contacting the
2. Creating Interview Questions applicant about the job offers.
Clarifier – a type of structured interview question that
Job Search Skills
clarifies information on the resume or application.

Disqualifier – a type of structured interview question Successfully Surviving the Interview Process
in which a wrong answer will disqualify the applicant
● Scheduling the Interview
from further consideration.
● Before the Interview
● During the Interview
● After the Interview
Writing Cover Letters Letter of Recommendation – a letter expressing an
opinion regarding an applicant’s ability, previous
Cover Letters – A letter that accompanies a resume or performance, work habits, character, or potential for
job application. It contains: success.

● Salutation Reasons for using references and

● Paragraphs recommendations
● Signature
● Confirming Details on a Resume
Writing a Resume ○ Resume Fraud – the intentional placement
of untrue information on a resume.
Resume – A formal summary of an applicant’s ● Checking for Discipline Problems
professional and educational background. ○ Negligent Hiring – it is a situation in which
an employee with a previous criminal
Characteristics of Effective Resumes record commits a crime as part of his/her
employment.
● The resume must be attractive and easy to read
● The resume cannot contain typing, spelling,
grammatical, or factual mistakes. A second reason to check references or obtain
● The Resume should make the applicant look as letters of recommendation is to determine whether
qualified as possible without lying. the applicant has a history of such discipline
problem as poor attendance, sexual harassment,
Types of Resume and violence

Chronological Resume – a resume in which jobs are ● Discovering New Information About the
listed in order from most to least. Applicant
○ Employers use a variety of methods to
Functional Resume – A resume format in which jobs understand the personality and skills of job
are grouped by function rather than listed in order by applicants: References and Letters of
date. Recommendation.

Psychological Resume – A resume style that takes

advantage of psychological principles pertaining to The organization may be found liable for negligent
memory organization and impression formation. hiring if the employee has a criminal background
that would have been detected had a background
● Averaging versus adding model – a model check been conducted.
proposed by Anderson that postulates that our
impressions are based more on the average ● Predicting Future Performance
value of each impression than on the sum of ○ In psychology, a common belief is that the
the values for each impression best predictor of future performance is
past performance.
----------------------------------END-------------------------------- ○ Validity Coefficient – the correlation
between scores on a selection method.
Chapter 5: Employee Selection: Reference The average score is .18
And Testing ○ Corrected Validity – sometimes called
“true validity” a term usually found with
Predicting Performance using References and meta-analysis, referring to a correlation
Letters of Recommendation coefficient that has been corrected for
predictor and criterion reliability, and for
Reference Check – The Process of confirming the range restriction. It has an average of .29
accuracy of resumes and job application information.
Four Main problems with References and letters
Reference – The Expression of an opinion, either of recommendations:
orally or through a written checklist, regarding an
applicant’s ability, previous performance, work habits, ● Leniency – “applicants choose their own
character, or potential for future success. references”
○ Negligent References – an organization’s
failure to meet its legal duty to supply
 relevant information to a prospective
● By processing information resulting in
employer about a former employee’s
better decision making.
potential for legal trouble.
○ Fear of legal ramifications. A person
providing references can be charged with Wonderlic Personnel Test – The cognitive ability test
defamation of character (slander if the that is most commonly used in industry.
references is oral, libel if written).
○ However, people from companies who Perceptual Ability – Measure of facility with such
provide references are granted what is processes as spatial relations and form perception.
called a conditional privilege, which
Psychomotor Ability – Measure of facility with such
means that they have the right to express
processes as finger dexterity and motor condition. It
their opinion provided they believe what
includes manual dexterity, control precision,
they say is true and have reasonable
multilimb coordination response control, reaction
grounds for this belief.
time, arm-hand steadiness, wrist-finger speed, and
● Knowledge of the Applicant – the person
speed-of-limb movement.
writing the letter often does not know the
applicant well, has not observed all aspects of
Physical Ability Test – tests that measure an
an applicant’s behavior, or both.
applicant’s level of physical ability required for a job.
● Reliability – the extent to which a score from a
Physical ability is measured in one of two ways: job
test or form an evaluation is consistent and free
simulations and physical agility tests.
from error. It’s average score is .22
● Extraneous Factors – it affects the writing and There are nine physical abilities:
evaluation. The method used by the letter
writer is often more important than the actual ● Dynamic Strength
content. ● Trunk Strength
● Explosive Strength
Ethical Issues ● Static Strength
● Dynamic Flexibility
● Explicitly state your relationship ● Extent Flexibility
● Be honest ● Gross Body Equilibrium
● Let the applicant see your references ● Gross Body coordination
● Stamina
Predicting Performance using Applicant
Knowledge Physical ability test has three major criticisms:

Job knowledge Test – a test that measures the ● Job Relatedness

amount of job-related knowledge an applicant ● Passing Scores
possesses. ○ Relative standards (based on protected
classes were made illegal by the 1991 Civil
Predicting performance Using Applicant Rights Acts)
Ability ○ Absolute passing (scores are set at the
minimum level needed to perform a job)
Ability Test – tap the extent to which an applicant can ● When the Ability Must be Present
learn or perform a job-related skill.
Predicting Performance Using Applicant Skill
Cognitive Ability – Abilities involving the knowledge
and use of information such as math and grammar. Work Sample – The applicant performs actual
job-related tasks. A disadvantage in using it is that it
Cognitive Ability Test – tests designed to measure the can be expensive to both construct and administer.
level of intelligence or the amount of knowledge
possessed by an applicant. Assessment Centers – it is a method in selecting
employees in which applicants participate in several
Cognitive ability is thought to predict work job-related activities, at least one of which must be a
performance in two ways: simulation, and are rated by several trained
● By allowing employees to quickly learn evaluators.
job-related knowledge
 Predicting Performance Using Prior Experience
Its major advantages are that assessment methods
are all job-related and multiple trained assessors
Experience Ratings – The idea that past experience
help to guard against many (but not all) types of
will predict future experience. A Meta-Analysis by
selection bias.
Quiños, Ford, and Teachout (1995) found a significant
relationship between experience and future job
It should follow the following requirements: performance. (r = .27)

● The assessment center activities must be based Biodata – A method of selection involving application
on the results of a thorough job analysis. blanks that contains questions that research has
● Behaviors displayed by participants must be shown will predict job performance. It has several
classified into meaningful and relevant advantages:
categories such as behavioral dimensions,
attributes, characteristics, aptitudes, qualities, ● It can predict work behavior in many jobs.
skills, abilities, competencies or knowledge. ● They have been able to predict criteria as
● Multiple assessment techniques must be used varied.
and the assessment must provide information ● Biodata instruments result in higher
about the applicant that was determined as organizational profit and growth.
being important in the job analysis. ● It is easy to use, quickly administered,
● At least one of the assessment techniques must inexpensive and not as subject to individual
be a job simulation bias.
● Multiple trained assessors must be used.
● Behavioral observations must be documented Development of a Biodata Instrument
at the time the applicant behavior is observed.
● Assessors must prepare a report of their File Approach – The gathering of biodata from
observations. employee files rather than by questionnaire.
● The overall judgment of an applicant must be
based on a combination of information from Questionnaire Approach – The method of obtaining
the multiple assessors and multiple techniques. biodata from questionnaire rather than from
employees files.
Development and Components
Criterion Group – Division of employees into groups
Different types of Techniques: based on high and low scores on a particular session.

In-basket Technique – an assessment exercise Vertical Percentage Method – For scoring biodata in
designed to simulate the types of information that which the percentage of unsuccessful employees
daily come across a manager’s or employee’s desk in responding in a particular way is subtracted from the
order to observe the applicant’s responses to such percentage of successful employees responding in the
information. same way.

Simulation – An exercise designed to place an When Biodata is created it is divided into two
applicant in a solution that is similar to the one that samples:
will be encountered on the job. A good example of a
simulation is role-playing. ● Derivation Sample – A group of employees who
were used in creating the initial weights for a
Work Sample – A method on selecting employees in biodata instrument.
which an applicant is asked to perform samples of ● Hold-out Sample - A group of employees who
actual job-related tasks. were not used in creating the initial weights for
a biodata instrument but instead are used to
Leaderless Group Discussion – In this exercise, double-check the accuracy of the initial weights.
applicants meet in small groups and are given a
job-related problem to solve or discuss. Criticism of Biodata

Business Group – An exercise, usually found in ● The validity of biodata may not be stable – that
assessment centers, that is designed to simulate the is, its ability to predict employee behavior
business and marketing activities that take place in an decreases with time.
organization. (Creating proposals) ● Some biodata items may not meet legal
requirements .
 Predicting Performance Using Personality, Interest, b. Integrity Test - also called an “Honest
and Character Test”; a psychological test designed to
predict an applicant’s tendency to steal.
Personality-Inventory – a Psychological assessment i. Polygraph – An electronic test
designed to measure various aspects of an applicant’s intended to determine honesty by
personality. measuring an individual’s
physiological changes after being
Test of Normal Personality asked questions.
ii. Voice Stress Analyzers – an
It measures the traits exhibited by normal individuals electronic test to determine
in everyday life. Determination of the number and honesty by measuring an
type of personality dimensions measured by an individual’s voice changes after
inventory can be: being asked questions.
iii. Over integrity Test – Type of
1. Theory – Based Test
honesty test that asks questions
2. Statistically based test
about applicants’ attitudes towards
3. Empirically based test
theft and their previous history.
iv. Personality-based integrity test –
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – 2
Type of honesty test that measures
(MMPI-2) – the most widely used objective test of
personality traits thought to be
psychopathology.
related to antisocial behavior.
Test of Psychopathology
Shrinkage – The amount of goods lost by an
It determines whether individuals have serious organization as a result of theft, breakage, or other
psychological problems. It is seldom used by I/O loss.
Psychologists except in the selection of law
3. Conditional Reasoning Tests - tests designed to
enforcement officers. It is scored in two ways.
reduce faking by asking test-takers to select the
1. Projective Tests – a subjective test in which a reason that best explains the statement.
subject is asked to perform relatively a. Credit History - Employers believe that
unstructured tasks, such as drawing pictures, people who owe money might be more
and in which a psychologist analyzes his/her likely to steal or accept bribes; employees
response. with good credit are more responsible and
a. Rorschach Inkblot Tests - A projective conscientious and thus will be better
personality test. employees.
b. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – a b. Graphology – Also called “handwriting
projective personality test in which analysis”, a method in measuring
test-takers are shown pictures and asked personality by looking at the way in which
to tell stories. It is designed to measure a person writes.
various need levels.
Predicting performance limitations due to
2. Objective Tests – a type of personality test that Medical and Psychological Problems
is structured to limit the respondent to a few
answers that will be scored by standardized Drug Testing – Tests that indicate whether an
keys. applicant has recently used a drug.
a. Interest inventories - psychological tests
designed to identify vocational areas in Psychological Exam – an interview by a clinical
which an individual might be interested. psychologist, an examination of the applicant’s life
i. Strong Interest Inventory – a history, and the administration of one or more of the
popular interest inventory used to psychological test.
help people choose careers.
ii. Vocational Counseling – the Medical Exams – in the exam, the physician is given a
process of helping an individual copy of the job description and asked to determine if
choose and prepare for the most there are any medical conditions that will keep the
suitable career. employee from safely performing the job.

Rejecting Applicants
A letter forms an organization to an applicant by Test B, and giving the other half of the Sample Test
informing the applicant that he or she will not receive B first, followed by Test A.
a job offer.
Form stability – The extent to which the scores on two
Guideline in writing a good Rejection Letter forms of a test are similar.

● Send rejection letters or emails to applicants. Internal Reliability – it is a third way to determine the
● Don’t send the rejection letter immediately reliability of a test or inventory through looking at the
● Be as personable and as specific as possible in consistency with which an applicant responds to
the letter. items measuring a similar dimension or construct.
● Including a statement about the Individual who
received the job can increase applicant Item stability – The extent to which responses to the
satisfaction with both the selection process and same test items.
the organization.
● Do not include the name of the contact person. Item Homogeneity – The extent to which test items
measure the same construct.
Peggans (1988) contain the following types of
Response: 3 methods used to determine internal
consistency
● A personally addressed and signed letter
● The company’s appreciation to the applicant for 1. Kuder-Richardson formula 20 (K-R 20) – A
applying for a position with the company statistic used to determine internal reliability of
● A compliment about the applicant’s tests that use items with dichotomous answers.
qualification 2. Split-half Method – A form of internal reliability
● A comment about the high qualifications in which the consistency of item responses is
possessed by the other applicants. determined by comparing scores on half of the
● Information about the individual who was items with scores on the other half of the items.
actually hired. a. Spearman Brown Prophecy formula –
● A wish of good luck in future endeavors. used to correct reliability coefficients
● A promise to keep the applicant’s resume on resulting from the split-half method.
file. 3. Coefficient Alpha - A statistic used to determine
internal reliability of tests that use interval or
----------------------------------END-------------------------------- ratio scales.

Chapter 6: Evaluating Selection Techniques Scorer Reliability – the extent to which two people
scoring a test agree on test score, or the extent to
And Decisions which a test is scored correctly.
Characteristics of Effective Selection Techniques Evaluating the Reliability of a Test
(5)
● The magnitude of the reliability coefficient.
Reliability – The extent to which a score from a test or ● The people who will be taking the test.
from an evaluation is consistent and free from error.
Validity – The degree to which inferences from test
Test-retest Reliability – the extent to which repeated scores are justified by the evidence.
administration of the same test will achieve similar
results. The downside to it is that it can be expensive Content Validity – The extent to which tests or test
and it takes time. items sample the content that they are supposed to
measure.
Temporal Stability – the consistency of test scores
across time Criterion Validity – the extent to which a test score is
related to some measure of job performance.
Alternate-forms Reliability – The extent to which two
forms of the same test are similar. Criterion – A measure of job performance, such as
attendance, productivity, or a supervisor rating.
Counterbalancing - A method of controlling for order
effects by giving half of a sample Test A first, followed Criterion Validity is established in using one of
two research design:
 1. Concurrent Validity – A form of criterion validity Taylor-Russel Tables – a series of tables based on the
that correlates test scores with measures of job selection ratio, base rate, and test validity that yield
performance for employees currently working information about the percentage of future
for an organization. employees who will be successful if a particular test is
2. Predictive Validity – a form of criterion validity used.
in which test scores of applicants are compared
at a later date with a measure of job Three Components
performance.
1. Criterion Validity Coefficient
Restricted Range – A narrow range of performance 2. Base Rate – Percentage of current employees
scores that makes it difficult to obtain a significant who are considered successful. Formula:
validity coefficient.
Successful Employees = Total Employees
A major issue concerning the criterion validity
3. Selection Ratio – The percentage of applicants
● Validity Generalization (VG) – the extent to an organization hires. Formula:
which inferences from test scores from one
organization can be applied to another Selection Ratio = number hired ÷ number of applicants
organization
● Synthetic Validity – a form of VG in which Proportion of Correct Decisions - a utility method
validity is inferred on the basis of a match that compares the percentage of times a selection
between job components and test previously decision was accurate with the percentage of
found valid for these job components. successful employees

2 Building blocks for VG Two Components

● Meta-analysis ● Test scores

● Job Analysis ● Criterion score

Construct Validity – The extent to which a test Lawshe Tables – Tables that use the base rate, test
actually measures the construct that it purports to validity, and applicant percentile on a test to
measure. determine the probability of future success for that
applicant.
Known-group Validity – another method of
measuring construct validity in which test scores from Three Components
two contrasting groups “known” to differ on a
construct are compared. ● Validity
● Base Rate (.50)
Face Validity – The extent to which a test appears to ● Applicants test score
be valid.
Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula – another
Barnum Statements – Statements, such as those used way to determine the value of a test in a given
in astrological forecasts. That is so general that they situation is by computing the amount of money an
can be true of almost anyone. organization would save if it used the test to select
employees.
Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) – it is a book
containing information about the reliability and Utility Formula – Method of ascertaining the extent
validity of various psychological tests. to which an organization will benefit from the use of a
particular selection system.
Cost-Efficiency
Five Components
Computer-adaptive Testing (CAT) – a type of test
taken on a computer in which the computer adapts ● Number of employees hired per year (n)
the difficulty level of questions asked to the test ● Average Tenure (t) – the length of time an
taker’s success in answering previous questions. employee has been with an organization.
● Test Validity
Establishing the Usefulness of a Selection Device ● Standard Deviation of performance in dollars
(SDy)
 ● Mean standardized predictor score of selected Multiple-hurdle approach – it is a Selection practice
applicants (m). of administering one test at a time so that applicants
must pass that test before being allowed to take the
Determining the Fairness of a Test next test.

Measurement Bias – Group difference in test scores Banding – A statistical technique based on the
that are unrelated to the construct being measured standard error of measurement that allows similar
test scores to be grouped.
Adverse impact – An Employment practice that
results in members of a protected class being Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) – the number
negatively affected at a higher rate than members of of points that a test score could be off due to test
the majority class. Adverse impact is usually unreliability. Formula:
determined by the four-fifth rule.
SEM=SD√1- Reliability
Predictive Bias – it is a situation in which the
predicted level of job success falsely favors one group ----------------------------------END--------------------------------
over another.
Chapter 7: Evaluating Employee
Two forms of predictive bias Performance
1. Single-group validity – The Characteristics of a The Performance Appraisal Process
test that significantly predicts a criterion for one
class of people but not for another. 1. Determine purpose of appraisal
2. Differential Validity – The characteristic of a 2. Identify environmental and cultural limitations
test that significantly predicts a criterion for two 3. Determine who will evaluate performance
groups, such as both minorities and 4. Select the best appraisal methods to accomplish
nonminorities but predicts significantly better goals
for one of the two groups. 5. Train raters
6. Observe and document performance
Making the Hiring Decision 7. Evaluate performance
8. Communicate appraisal results to employees
Multiple Regression – a statistical procedure in which 9. Make personnel decisions
the scores from more one criterion-valid test are 10. Monitor the legality and fairness of the
weighted according to how well each test score appraisal process.
predicts the criterion.
Step 1: Determine the Reason for Evaluating
Unjusted Top-Down Selection Employee Performance
Top-down Selection – Selecting Applicants in straight Forced-choice rating scale – a method of
rank order of their test scores. performance appraisal in which a supervisor is given
several behaviors and is forced to choose which of
Compensatory Approach – A method of making them is most typical of the employee.
selection decisions in which a high score on one test
can compensate for a low score on another test. ● Providing Employee Training and Feedback

Rule of Three – A variation on top-down selection in Performance appraisal review – a meeting between a
which the names of the top three applicants are given supervisor and a subordinate for the purpose of
to a hiring authority who can then select any of the discussing performance appraisal results.
three.
● Determining Salary Increases
Passing scores – the Minimum test score that an ● Making Promotion Decisions
applicant must achieve to be considered for hire.
Peter Principle – the idea that organizations tend to
Multiple-cutoff approach – it is a selection strategy in promote good employees until they reach the level at
which applicants must meet or exceed the passing which they are not competent – in other words, their
score on more than one selection test. One problem highest level of incompetence.
with this is that it is costly.
● Making Termination Decisions
 ● Conducting Personnel Research C. Decision 3: Use of Employee Comparisons,
Objective Measures, or Ratings
Step 2: Identify Environmental and Cultural
Limitations Employee Comparisons

Step 3: Determine Who Will Evaluate Rank order – a method of performance appraisal in
Performance which employees are ranked from best to worst.

360-degree feedback – a performance appraisal Paired comparison – a form of ranking in which a

system in which feedback is obtained from multiple group of employees to be ranked are compared one
sources such as supervisors, subordinates, and peers. pair at a time.

Multiple-source feedback – a performance appraisal Forced distribution method (also called rank and
strategy in which an employee receives feedback from yank) – a performance appraisal method in which a
sources (e.g., clients, subordinates, peers other than predetermined percentage of employees are placed
just his or her supervisor) into a number of performance categories.

● Supervisors Objective Measures

● Peers
● Subordinates (also called upward feedback) ● Quantity of Work
● Customers
Quantity – a type of objective criterion used to
Secret shoppers – current customers who have been measure job performance by counting the number of
enlisted by a company to periodically evaluate the relevant job behaviors that occur.
service they receive.
● Quality of Work
● Self-Appraisal
Quality – a type of objective criterion used to
Step 4: Select the Best Appraisal Methods to measure job performance by comparing a job
Accomplish Your Goals behavior with a standard.

Criteria – ways of describing employee success. Error – deviation from a standard of quality; also a
type of response to communication overload that
A. Decision 1: Focus of the Appraisal Dimensions involves processing all information but processing
some of it incorrectly.
Trait-Focused Performance Dimensions –
concentrates on such employee attributes as 3. Attendance
dependability, honesty, and courtesy.
● Absenteeism
Competency-Focused Performance Dimensions – ● Tardiness
concentrate on the employee’s knowledge, skills, and ● Tenure
abilities.
4. Safety
Task-Focused Performance Dimensions – organized
by the similarity of tasks that are performed. Ratings of Performance

Goal-Focused Performance Dimensions – to organize 1. Graphic Rating Scale – a method of

the appraisal on the basis of goals to be accomplished performance appraisal that involves rating
by the employee. employee performance on an interval or ratio
scale.
Contextual Performance – the effort an employee 2. Behavioral Checklists
makes to get along with peers, improve the a. Contamination – the condition in which a
organization, and perform tasks that are needed but criterion score is affected by things other
are not necessarily an official part of the employee’s than those under the control of the
job description. employee.
b. Comparison with Other Employee
B. Decision 2: Should Dimensions Be Weighted? c. Frequency of Desired Behaviors
 d. Extent to Which Organizational Leniency error – a type of rating error in which a rater
Expectations Are Met consistently gives all employees high ratings,
regardless of their actual levels of performance.
Evaluation of Performance Appraisal
Methods Central tendency error – a type of rating error in
which a rater consistently rates all employees in the
Step 5: Train Raters middle of the scale, regardless of their actual levels of
performance.
Frame-of-reference training – a method of training
raters in which the rater is provided with job-related Strictness error – a type of rating error in which a
information, a chance to practice ratings, examples of rater consistently gives all employees low ratings,
ratings made by experts, and the rationale behind the regardless of their actual levels of performance.
expert ratings.
Halo error – occurs when a rater allows either a single
attribute or an overall impression of an individual to
Step 6: Observe and Document Performance
affect the ratings that she makes on each relevant job
Critical incidents – a method of performance dimension.
appraisal in which the supervisor records employee
Proximity error – occurs when a rating made on one
behaviors that were observed on the job and rates
dimension affects the rating made on the dimension
the employee on the basis of that record.
that immediately follows it on the rating scale.
● Documentation is important for four reasons:
Contrast error – the performance rating one person
1. It forces a supervisor to focus on employee
receives can be influenced by the performance of a
behaviors rather than traits and provides
previously evaluated person; occurs between
behavioral examples to use when
separate performance evaluations of the same
reviewing performance ratings with
person.
employees.
2. It helps supervisors recall behaviors when
Assimilation – a type of rating error in which raters
they are evaluating performance.
base their rating of an employee during one rating
3. It provides examples to use when
period on the ratings the rater gave during a previous
reviewing performance ratings with
period.
employees.
4. It helps an organization defend against Low Reliability Across Raters
legal actions taken against it by an
employee who was terminated or denied a 1. Raters often commit the rating errors previously
raise or promotion. discussed (e.g., halo, leniency).
● Supervisors tend to remember the following: 2. Raters often have very different standards and
○ First impressions ideas about the ideal employee.
○ Recent behaviors 3. Two different raters may actually see very
○ Unusual or extreme behaviors different behaviors by the same employee.
○ Behavior consistent with the supervisor’s
opinion Sampling Problems
Employee Performance Record – a standardized use ● Recency effect
of the critical-incident technique developed at ● Infrequent observation – the idea that
General Motors. supervisors do not see most of an employee’s
behavior.
Step 7: Evaluate Performance
Cognitive Processing of Observed Behavior
A. Obtaining and Reviewing Objective Data
B. Reading Critical-Incident Logs a. Observation of Behavior
C. Completing the Rating Form
Factors affecting information loss:
Distribution errors – rating errors in which a rater will
use only a certain part of a rating scale when 1. Observed behavior
evaluating employee performance. 2. Behavior placed in memory
3. Behavior processed
 4. Behavior recalled ○ If a rule exists, a company must prove that
5. Behavior rated the employee knew the rule.
○ The ability of the employer to prove that
B. Emotional State an employee actually violated the rule.
○ The extent to which the rule has been
Stress – perceived psychological pressure. equally enforced.
○ The extent to which the punishment fits
C. Bias the crime.
Affect – feelings or emotion. Progressive discipline – providing employees with
punishments of increasing severity, as needed, in
Step 8: Communicate Appraisal Results to order to change behavior.
Employees
● Inability to Perform
A. Prior to the Interview ● Reduction in Force (Layoff)
a. Allocating Time
b. Scheduling the Interview The Termination Meeting
c. Preparing for the Interview
B. During the Interview Prior to the Meeting
a. Feedback sandwich – the negative
feedback is sandwiched between positive 1. To ensure that the legal process has been
feedback. followed.
b. Fundamental attribution error – to 2. To determine how much help, if any, the
attribute others’ failure or poor organization wants to offer the employee.
performance to personal rather than 3. To schedule an appropriate place and time for
situational factors. the meeting to occur.

Step 9: Terminate Employees During the Meeting

Employment-at-Will Doctrine – the opinion of courts After the Meeting

in most states that employers have the right to hire
and fire an employee at will and without any specific Step 10: Monitor the Legality and Fairness of the
cause. Appraisal System

Limitations to the employment-at-will doctrine: ----------------------------------END--------------------------------

1. State law Chapter 8: Designing And Evaluating Training

2. Provisions of federal or state law Systems
3. Public policy/interest
4. Contracts Training – a planned effort by an organization to
5. Implied contracts facilitate the learning of job-related behavior on the
6. Covenants of good faith and fair dealing part of its employees.
Employment-at-will statements – statements in Determining Training Needs
employment applications and company manuals
reaffirming an organization’s right to hire and fire at Needs analysis – the process of determining the
will. training needs of an organization.
Legal Reasons for Terminating Employees Three types of needs analysis:

Four reasons that an employee can be legally 1. Organizational analysis – the process of
terminated: determining the organizational factors that will
either facilitate or inhibit training effectiveness.
● Probationary Period 2. Task analysis
● Violation of Company Rule 3. Person analysis – the process of identifying the
○ A rule against a particular behavior must employees who need training and determining
actually exist. the areas in which each individual employee
needs to be trained.
 a. Performance appraisal score – a rating Living case – a case study based on a real situation
representing some aspect of an rather than a hypothetical one.
employee’s work performance.
b. Surveys – questionnaires asking C. Using Simulation Exercises to Practice New
employees about the areas in which they Skills
feel they need training.
c. Interviews Simulation – an exercise designed to place an
d. Skill and Knowledge Tests – a test that applicant in a situation that is similar to the one that
measures an employee’s level of some will be encountered on the job.
job-related skill (skill test); a test that
measures the level of an employee’s D. Practicing Interpersonal Skills Through
knowledge about a job-related topic Role-Play
(knowledge test).
Role-play – a training technique in which employees
e. Critical Incidents
act out simulated roles.
Establishing Goals and Objectives
E. Increasing Interpersonal Skills Through
Behavior Modeling
● Training goals and objectives should concretely
state the following:
Behavior modeling – a training technique in which
○ What learners are expected to do
employees observe correct behavior, practice that
○ The conditions under which they are
behavior, and then receive feedback about their
expected to do it
performance.
○ The level at which they are expected to do
it
Motivating Employees to Attend Training
● Goal statements usually include an action
word, an item, a condition, and a standard. Strategies to motivate employees to attend training:

Choosing the Best Training Method ● Relate the training to an employee’s immediate
job.
A. Using Lectures to Provide Knowledge ● Make the training interesting.
● Handout should include: ● Increase employee buy-in.
○ a cover sheet with the title of the ● Provide incentives.
training program as well as the date ● Provide food.
and location in which the training ● Reduce the stress associated with attending.
took place;
○ a list of goals and objectives; Delivering the Training Program
○ a schedule for the training (e.g.,
breaks, ending times) A. Conducting Classroom Training
○ a biographical sketch of the trainer; ● Initial Decisions
○ the notes themselves in outline ● Who Will Conduct the Training?
form, full text, or copies of the ○ In-house trainers – employees of
PowerPoint slides; the organization.
○ activity sheets such as personality ○ Outside trainers – contract with the
inventories, free writes, or group organization, videos, and local
activity information; universities.
○ references and suggestions for ● Where Will the Training Be Held?
further reading; and ○ On-site
○ a form to evaluate the quality of the ○ Off-site
training program ● How Long Should the Training Be?
B. Using Case Studies to Apply Knowledge ○ Massed practice – concentrating
learning into a short period of time.
Case study – a training technique in which employees, ○ Distributed practice
usually in a group, are presented with a real or ● Preparing for Classroom Training
hypothetical workplace problem and are asked to ○ Adjusting for the Audience
propose the best solution. ○ A trainer must consider the size,
demographics, and ability of the
audience.
 ● Delivering the Training Program Synchronous technologies – distance learning
○ Introducing the Trainer and the programs that require employees to complete the
Training Session training at the same time and at the same pace
○ Using Icebreakers and Energizers although they may be in different physical locations.

Types of icebreakers: Asynchronous Distance Learning

● Introductions Interactive video – a training technique in which an
● Jokes or stories employee is presented with a videotaped situation
● Activities in which trainees, either individually and is asked to respond to the situation and then
or in small groups, are given a question or receives feedback based on the response.
problem to solve
● Open-ended questions to elicit audience Programmed instruction – a training method in which
response and encourage discussion employees learn information at their own pace.
● Free writes in which audience members are
asked to write about the topic Programmed instruction is effective because it takes
advantage of several important learning principles:
Three considerations in choosing an icebreaker:
1. Learning is self-paced.
● Goal of the icebreaker 2. Each trainee is actively involved in the learning.
● Length of the training session 3. Programmed instruction presents information
● Nature of the audience in small units or chunks, because learning
smaller amounts of material is easier than
Delivering the Presentation learning larger amounts.

● Tips in delivering a training presentation: Synchronous Distance Learning

● Make eye contact with the audience.
● Use gestures effectively. Webinar – short for “web seminar,” an interactive
● Don’t read your presentation. training method in which training is transmitted over
● Don’t hide behind the podium. the Internet.
● Use a conversational style.
● Be confident. Webcast – a noninteractive training method in which
● Speak at a pace that is neither too fast nor too the trainer transmits training information over the
slow. Internet.
● Avoid swearing, making off-color or offensive
remarks, and demeaning other people, groups, Blog – a website in which the host regularly posts
or organizations. commentaries on a topic that readers can respond to.
● Try to make the presentation interesting.
● Don’t force humor. Wiki – a collection of web pages in which users can
● When answering audience questions, repeat create web pages on a topic and readers can freely
the question if the room is large. If you are edit those pages.
unsure of the question, ask the audience
member to repeat the question or try to Conducting On-the-Job Training
paraphrase the question. After answering the
question, ask whether you have answered it OJT – informal training by experienced peers and
sufficiently. If you don’t know the answer to a supervisors that occurs on the job and during job
question, don’t bluff. You can ask if anyone in tasks.
the audience knows the answer.
Learning by Modeling Others
Conducting Training Through Distance Modeling – also called social learning, learning
Learning through watching and imitating the behavior of
others. Modeling is most effective under certain
Asynchronous technologies – distance learning conditions:
programs in which employees can complete the
training at their own pace and at a time of their 1. Characteristics of the Model
choosing. 2. Characteristics of the Observer
 ● The employee must pay attention to the 2. Horizontal skill plans – focus on skills used
behavior of other employees. across multiple jobs.
● The employee must be able to retain the 3. Depth skill plans – reward employees for
information that is being modeled. learning specialized skills.
● The employee must have the ability or skill 4. Basic skill plans – focus on such basic skills.
to reproduce the behavior that is seen. ● Interest
● Feedback – providing employees with
Learning Through Job Rotation specific information about how well they
are performing a task or series of tasks.
Job rotation – a system in which employees are given ● Negative feedback – telling employees
the opportunity to perform several different jobs in an what they are doing incorrectly in order to
organization. improve their performance of a task.

Cross-training – teaching employees how to perform Ensuring Transfer of Training

tasks traditionally performed by other employees.
● Transfer of training – the extent to which
Learning Through Apprentice Training behavior learned in training will be performed
on the job.
Apprentice training – a training program, usually ○ Use Realistic Training Programs
found in the craft and building trades, in which ○ Have Opportunities to Practice
employees combine formal coursework with formal Work-Related Behavior During the Training
on-the-job training. ● Overlearning – practicing a task even after it
has been mastered in order to retain learning.
Learning Through Coaching and Mentoring ○ Provide Employees with the Opportunity
to Apply Their Training
Coaching
○ Ensure Management Is Supportive of the
Training
Two forms:
○ Have Employees Set Goals
1. Experienced Employees as Coaches
Putting It All Together
Pass-through programs – a formal method of
coaching in which excellent employees spend a period If training is to be the desired intervention, several
of time in the training department learning training factors will affect its success:
techniques and training employees.
● Employees must have the skills and abilities to
2. Professional Coaches complete the training successfully.
● There should be minimal outside factors (e.g.,
Mentoring work or family problems) that might distract the
employee and keep him from concentrating on
● Mentor – an experienced employee who the training program.
advises and looks out for a new employee. ● Employees must be motivated to learn.
● Performance Appraisal ● The training method must be a good match for
the employee’s learning style, ability, and
Motivating Employees to Learn During personality.
Training ● The training method must be a good match for
the type of material being learned.
Providing Incentives for Learning ● The training program must allow for goal
setting, positive feedback, distributed practice,
● Skill-based pay – compensating an employee overlearning, and the chance to practice and
who participates in a training program designed apply the material learned.
to increase a particular job-related skill. ● There must be an opportunity and
encouragement to use the newly acquired
Four common skill-based pay plans: knowledge at work.

1. Vertical skill plans – pay for a skill in a single Evaluation of Training Results
job.
A. Research Designs for Evaluation
 a. Pretest – a measure of job performance or - Arriving to work early
knowledge taken before the - Staying late at work(???)
implementation of a training program.
b. Posttest – a measure of job performance Organizational Citizenship
or knowledge taken after a training
program has been completed. - Volunteering for extra duties
c. Solomon four-groups design – an - Helping coworkers
extensive method of evaluating the - Making suggestions for organizational
effectiveness of training with the use of improvement
pretests, posttests, and control groups. - Skipping lunch to complete a project (???)

Evaluation Criteria Self-Improvement Efforts

Six levels at which training effectiveness can be - Attending voluntary training

measured: - Participating during training
- Accepting performance
Content Validity
Is an Employee Predisposed to Being
Employee Reactions – a method of evaluating training Motivated?
in which employees are asked their opinions of a
training program. Employee Learning – evaluating the Researchers have found four (4) individual differences
effectiveness of a training program by measuring how that are most related to work motivation:
much employees learned from it.
(1) Personality: meta-analayses have found that
Application of Training – measurement of the several of the dimensions of the Big 5 (OCEAN)
effectiveness of training by determining the extent to are related to behaviors suggesting high levels
which employees apply the material taught in a of motivation
training program. - Conscientiousness is the best personality
predictor of work performance
Business Impact – a method of evaluating the - Organizational citizenship behavior:
effectiveness of training by determining whether the Behaviors that are not part of an
goals of the training were met. employer’s job but which make the
organization a better place to work
Return on Investment (ROI) – the amount of money - Academic performance
an organization makes after subtracting the cost of - Stability is most associated with salary and
training or other interventions. setting high goals; and
- Extraversion is most highly correlated with
----------------------------------END-------------------------------- the number of promotions received
(2) Self-Esteem: the extent to which a person views
Chapter 9: Employee Motivation themselves as a valuable and worthy individual

Motivation - The force that drives an employee to do Korman’s Consistency theory: employees will be
well. motivated to perform at levels consistent with their
levels of self-esteem.
Work Behaviors that Imply Motivation
- Employees who feel good about themselves are
High Performance Level motivated to perform better at work than
employees who do not feel that they are
- Excellent supervisor ratings valuable and worthy people
- High productivity
- High quality Three types of self-esteem
- Low levels of wasted materials
- Salary a. Chronic Self-esteem: the positive or negative
- Number of Promotions way in which a person views themselves as a
whole
Exemplary Attendance b. Situational self-esteem: The positive or negative
way in which a person views themselves in a
- Not missing work particular situation (also called self-efficacy)
 c. Socially influenced self-esteem: The positive or A theory developed by McClelland (1961) suggests
negative way in which a person views that employees differ in the extent to which they are
themselves based on the expectations of motivated by the need for achievement, affiliation,
others and power.

Organizations can theoretically increase self-esteem Need for achievement - The extent to which a person
and self-efficacy in three ways: desires to be successful

1. Self-Esteem Workshops: attend workshops in Need for affiliation - The extent to which a person
which they are given insights into their desires to be around other people.
strengths
2. Experience with Success: an employee is given a Need for power - The extent to which a person
task so easy that they will most certainly desires to be in control of other people.
succeed.
- It is thought that this success increases Are Employees Effectively Involved In
self-esteem, which further increases Self-Regulating Behavior?
performance, and so on.
- Loosely based on the principle of the Self-Regulation - A theory that employees can be
self-fulfilling prophecy: an individual motivated by their own progress toward the goals
performs or behaves in ways consistent they set and adjusting their behavior to reach those
with their self-image goals.
- Galatea Effect: when high
self-expectations result in higher levels of A 4-step process:
performance
3. Supervisor Behavior: Train supervisors to 1. Choose their goals and set levels for each goal
communicate a feeling of confidence in an 2. Plan how they will accomplish those goals
employee. 3. Take action toward accomplishing the goals
- Pygmalion Effect: The idea that if people (goal striving)
believe that something is true, they will act 4. Evaluate progress toward goal attainment and
in the manner consistent with that belief. either maintain, revise, or abandon a goal.
- If the employee feels that a manager has
confidence in them, their self-esteem will Have the Employee’s Values and
increase, as will their performance. Expectations Have Been Met?
- Golem Effect: The idea that when negative
expectations of an individual cause a (1) Job Expectations
decrease in that individual’s performance. - A discrepancy between what an
employee expected a job to be like
(3) Intrinsic Motivation and the reality of the job can affect
motivation and satisfaction.
Intrinsic Motivation - Work motivation in the absence - Realistic Job Preview (RJP) - A
of such external factors such as pay, promotion, and method of recruitment in which job
coworkers applicants are told both the positive
and negative aspect of a job.
- Intrinsically motivated people seek to perform (2) Job Characteristics
well because they either enjoy performing the
actual tasks or enjoy the challenge of
successfully completing the task.
(3) Needs, Values, and Wants
Extrinsic Motivation - Work motivation that arises
from such non personal factors as pay, coworkers, and Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
opportunities for advancement
Hierarchy - A system arranged by rank
Work Preference Inventory (WPI) - A measure of an
individual’s orientation towards intrinsic versus - Maslow believed that employees would be
extrinsic motivation. motivated by and satisfied with their jobs at any
given point in time if certain needs were met.
(4) Needs for Achievement and Power
 - Each level is taken one step at a time, and a - Feedback should be provided to employees on
higher-level need cannot be reached until a their progress in reaching their goals
lower-level need is satisfied - Feedback can include:
1. Verbally telling employees how they are
1st: Basic biological needs - concerning survival needs doing
for food, air, water, and the like. 2. Placing a chart on the wall
3. Using non-verbal communication such as
2nd: Safety needs - concerning the need for security, smiles, glares, and pats on the back
stability, and physical safety
Are Employees Rewarded for Achieving
3rd: Social needs - concerning the need to interact
with other people
Goals?
- An essential strategy for monitoring employees
4th: Ego needs - concerning the individual’s need for
is to provide an incentive for employees to
recognition and success
accomplish the goals set by an organization.
5th: Self-actualization needs - concerning the need to
Operant Conditioning - A type of learning based on
realize one’s own potential
the idea that humans learn to behave in ways that will
Needs Theory - A theory based on the idea that result in favorable outcomes and learn not to behave
employees will be satisfied with jobs that satisfy their in ways that result in unfavorable outcomes.
needs.
- Rewarding employees will often lead to
ERG Theory increased motivation and performance
- Six (6) factors must be considered in
- Aldefer’s needs theory, which describes three determining the effectiveness of incentive
(3) levels of satisfaction: existence, relatedness, programs:
and growth 1. Timing of the incentive
- Contrast with Maslow’s theory, an ● A reinforcer/a punisher is most
employee/person can skip levels. By allowing effective if it occurs soon after the
for such movement, Aldefer has removed one performance of the behavior
of the biggest problems with Maslow’s theory. ● If timing is too long, the
effectiveness of the incentive to
Two-Factor Theory improve performance will be
hindered
- Herzberg’s needs theory, postulating that there 2. Contingency of the consequence
are two factors involved in job satisfaction: ● Reward and punishment must be
hygiene factors and motivators made contingent upon
performance, and this contingency
Hygiene factors: job related factors that result from of consequence must be clear to
BUT do not involve the job itself employees if we want them to be
motivated.
Motivators: Elements of a job that concern the actual 3. Type of incentive used
duties performed by employee ● Different employees have different
values. Ergo, supervisors should
Do Employees Have Achievable Goals? have access to and be trained to
administer different types of
Goal setting: A method of increasing performance in reinforcers.
which employees are given specific performance goals
to aim for. TYPES OF INCENTIVES
- They should be SMART Goals: Specific, a. Premack Principle - the idea that reinforcement
Measurable, Attainable (but difficult), is relative within an individual and between
Relevant, and Time-Bound. individuals

Are Employees Receiving Feedback on Their Reinforcement Hierarchy - A rank-ordered list of

Goal Progress? reinforcers of an individual
 b. Financial rewards - The punishment must also be equivalent to
c. Recognition the severity of the undesired behavior
d. Travel performed. Too severe of a punishment will
cause resentment, and too lenient
Expectancy theory - Vroom’s theory that motivation is punishment will not motivate change in
a function of expectancy, instrumentality, and behavior.
valence. 6. Fairness of the reward system (equity) (Are
rewards and resources given equitably?)
- Expectancy (E): the perceived relationship
between the amount of effort an employee Equity theory - A theory of job satisfaction stating
puts in and the resulting outcome that employees will satisfied if their ratio of effort to
- Instrumentality: the extent to which the reward is similar to that of other employees
outcome of a worker’s performance, if
noticed,results in a particular consequence. Inputs - In equity theory, the elements that
- Valence: The extent to which an employee employees put in to their jobs
values a particular consequence
Outputs - The ratio of how much employees believe
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸 ( 𝐼 𝑥 𝑉) they put into their jobs to how much they believe
they get from their jobs.
Internal locus of hope: the extent to which people
believe that they are responsible for and in control of Input/output ratio - the ratio of how much
their success or failure in life. employees believe they put into their jobs to how
much they believe they get from their jobs.
4. Use of individual-based versus group-based
incentives Organizational Justice - A theory that postulates that
if employees perceive they are being treated fairly,
INDIVIDUAL INCENTIVE PLANS they will be more likely to be satisfied with their jobs
and motivated to do well.
Pay for performance - A system in which employees
are paid on the basis of how much they individually ----------------------------------END--------------------------------
produce
Chapter 10: Employee Satisfaction and
Merit pay - An incentive plan in which employees Commitment
receive pay bonuses based on performance appraisal
scores. Job satisfaction - the attitude employees have toward
their jobs
GROUP INCENTIVE PLANS
Organizational commitment - the extent to which an
Gainsharing - A group incentive system in which employee identifies with and is involved with an
employees are paid a bonus based on improvements organization.
in group productivity
What Causes Employees to Be Satisfied with
Baseline - The level of productivity before the
and Committed to Their Jobs?
implementation of a gainsharing plan
3 motivational facets to organizational commitment
Stock options - A group incentive method in which
employees are given the option of buying stock in the 1. Affective commitment - the extent to which
future at the price of the stock when the options were an employee wants to retain with an
granted. organization and cares about the
organization.
5. Use of positive incentives (rewards) versus
2. Continuance commitment - the extent to
negative incentives (punishments)
which employees believe they must remain
- For punishment to be effective, an employee
with an organization due to the time,
must understand why he is being punished
expense, and effort they have already put into
and be shown alternative ways of behaving
the organization
that will result in some type of desired
reinforcement
 3. Normative commitment - the extent to which Are Rewards and Resources Given Equitably?
employees feel an obligation to remain with
an organization Equity theory - a theory of job satisfaction stating that
employees will be satisfied if their ratio of effort to
What Individual Differences Affect Job Satisfaction? reward is similar to that of other employees.

Individual difference theory - postulates that some - They are difficult to implement because:
variability in job satisfaction is due to an individual’s 1. Practicality: the organization cannot
personal tendency across situations to enjoy what easily control variables such as how
they do. far an employee lives from work or
the number of friends an employee
- Thus, certain types of people will generally be makes on the job.
satisfied and motivated regardless of the type 2. The employee’s perception of inputs
of job they hold. and outputs determine equity, not
the actual inputs and outputs.
--------
Organizational justice - a theory that postulates that
Individual differences if employees perceive they are being treated fairly,
they will be more likely be satisfied with their jobs
a. Genetic predispositions and motivated to do well
- 30% of job satisfaction appears to be
explainable by genetic factors Distributive justice - the perceived fairness of the
- Inherited personality traits such as negative decisions made in an organization
affectivity are related to our tendency to be
satisfied with jobs. Procedural justice - the perceived fairness of the
b. Core Self-Evaluations method by an organization to make decisions
- A series of personality variables appear to be
related to job satisfaction. Interactional justice - the perceived fairness of the
- Certain types of personalities are associated interpersonal treatment that employees receive in an
with the tendency to be satisfied or organization
dissatisfied with one’s job.
- Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997) have Is There a Chance for Growth and Challenge?
hypothesized that four personality variables
are related to people’s predisposition to be Job rotation - A system in which employees are given
satisfied with life with their jobs: emotional the opportunity to perform several different jobs in an
stability, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and organization
external locus of control.
- People prone to be satisfied with their jobs Job enlargement - A system in which employees are
and with life in general have high self-esteem given more tasks to perform at the same time
and a feeling of being competent, are
Job enrichment - A system in which employees are
emotionally stable, and believe they have
given more responsibility over the tasks and decisions
control over their lives.
related to their job.
c. Culture
- Workers in different countries have
Job characteristics theory - the theory proposed by
different levels of job satisfaction.
Hackman and Oldham that suggests that certain
d. Intelligence
characteristics of a job will make the job more or less
satisfying, depending on the particular needs of the
Are Coworkers Outwardly Happy?
worker.
Social Information processing theory - also known as
Job Diagnostic Survey - A measure of the extent to
“social learning theory” States that employees model
which a job provides opportunities for growth,
their levels of satisfaction and motivation from other
autonomy, and meaning.
employees
Self-directed teams - See quality circles
Social learning theory - States that employees model
the levels of satisfaction and motivation from other
employees
Quality circles - employee groups that meet to Reducing Turnover
propose changes that will improve productivity and
the quality of work life Person/Organization fit - the extent to which an
employee’s personality, values, attitudes, philosophy,
Measuring Job Satisfaction and Commitment and skills match those of the organization

Commonly Used Standard Inventories Embeddedness - The extent to which employees have
links to their jobs and community, the importance of
Measures of Job Satisfaction these links, and the ease with which they can be
broken and replaced at another job
Faces Scale - A measure of job satisfaction in which
raters place a mark under a facial expression that is Lack of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
most similar to the way they feel about their jobs
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) -
Job Descriptive Index - A measure of job satisfaction Behaviors that are not part of an employee’s job but
that yields scores on five dimension make the organization a better place to work

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire - a measure of ----------------------------------END--------------------------------

job satisfaction that yields scores on 20 dimensions
Chapter 11: Organizational Communication
Jobs in General (JIG) Scale - A measure of the over
level of job satisfaction Upward communication - communication within an
organization in which the direction of communication
Measures of Commitment is from employees up to management.

The Allen and Meyer survey ● Serial communication - communication passed

consecutively from one person to another.
- 24 items, 8 each for the three factors ● MUM (Minimize Unpleasant Messages) Effect -
measuring commitment: affective, The idea that people prefer not to pass on
continuance, and normative commitment unpleasant information, with the result that
important information is not always
Consequences of Dissatisfaction and Other communicated.
Negative Work Attitudes ● Communication channel - the medium by
which a communication is transmitted.
Absenteeism ● Proximity - physical distance between people.
● Attitude survey - a form of upward
Rewards for Attending communication in which a survey is conducted
to determine employee attitudes about an
1. Financial Incentives organization.
● Focus groups and Exit interviews - in which an
Well Pay - A method of absenteeism control in which outside consultant meets with groups of current
employees are paid for their unused sick leave employees to get their opinions and
suggestions.
Financial bonus - A method of absenteeism control in ● Suggestion box - a form of upward
which employees who meet an attendance standard communication in which employees are asked
are given a cash reward to place their suggestions in a box.
● Complaint box - a form of upward
Games - An absenteeism control method in which
communication in which employees are asked
games such as poker and bingo are used to reward
to place their complaints in a box.
employee attendance

2. Time Off
Third-Party Facilitators:

Paid time off program (PTO) - An attendance policy in ● Liaison - a person who acts as an intermediary
which all paid vacations, sick days, holidays, and so between employees and management, or the
forth are combined type of employee who both sends and receives
most grapevine information.
3. Recognition programs ● Ombudsperson - a person who investigates
employees’ complaints and solves problems.
 ● Unison steward - an employee who serves as a ● Dead-enders - employees who receive such
liaison between unionized employees and grapevine information but who seldom pass it
management. to others.
● Gossip - poorly substantiated information and
Downward communication - communication within insignificant information that is primarily about
an organization in which the direction of individuals.
communication is from management to employees. ● Rumor - poorly substantiated information that
is passed along the grapevine.
● Bulletin board - a method of downward
communication in which informal or relatively Interpersonal communication - communication
important written information is posted in a between two individuals
public space.
● Policy manual - a formal method of downward ● Problem Area 1: Intended Message vs.
communication in which an organization’s rules Message Sent
and procedures are placed in a manual; legally ○ Thinking about what you want to
binding by courts of law. communicate
● Newsletters - a method of downward ○ Practice what you want to communicate
communication typically used to communicate ○ Learn better communication skills
organizational feedback and celebrate ● Problem Area 2: Messages Sent vs. Message
employee success. Received
● Intranet - a computer-based employee ○ The actual words used
communication network used exclusively by ○ Communication channel
one organization. ○ Noise - any variable concerning or
affecting the channel that interferes with
Business communication - the transmission of the proper reception of a message
business-related information among employees, ■ Nonverbal cues
management and customers. ● Body language
● Memos ● Use of space
● Telephone calls ○ Intimacy zone - a distance
● Email and voicemail zone within 18 inches of a
● Business meetings person, where only people
● Office design with a close relationship to
the person are allowed to
Informal communication - communication among enter
employees in an organization that is not directly ○ Personal distance zone - a
related to the completion of an organizational task. distance zone from 18 inches
to 4 feet from a person that
● Grapevine - an unofficial, informal is usually reserved for
communication network. friends and acquaintances.
● Single-strand grapevine - a pattern of grapevine ○ Social distance zone - an
communication in which a message is passed in interpersonal distance from
a chain-like fashion from one person to the next 4 to 12 feet from a person
until the chain is broken. that is typically used for
● Gossip grapevine - a pattern of grapevine business and for interacting
communication in which a message is passed to with strangers.
only a select group of individuals. ○ Public distance zone -
● Probability grapevine - a pattern of grapevine distance greater than 12 feet
communication in which a message is passed from a person is typical of
randomly among all employees. the interpersonal space
● Cluster grapevine - a pattern of grapevine allowed for social
communication in which a message is passed to interactions such as large
a select group of people who each in turn pass group lectures.
the message to a few select others. ■ Paralanguage - communication
● Isolate - an employee who receives less than inferred from the tone, tempo,
half of all grapevine information. volume, and rate of speech.
■ Artifacts - the things people
surround themselves with (clothes,
 jewelry, office decorations, cars, communication for someone
etc.) that communicate information else and allows only the most
about the person. important information to pass
● Open desk arrangement - an through.
office arranged so that the ● Multiple channels - a strategy
visitor can sit adjacent to rather for coping with communication
than across from the person overload in which an
behind the desk. organization reduces the amount
● Closed desk arrangement - an of communication going to one
office arranged so that a visitor person by directing some of it to
must sit across from the person another person.
behind the desk. ● Problem 3: Message Received vs. Message
■ Amount of information Interpreted
● Leveled - describes a message ○ Listening skills
from which unimportant ○ Styles of Listening
informational details have been ■ Attitudinal Listening Profile - a test
removed before the message is developed by Geier and Downey
passed from one person to that measures individual listening
another. styles.
● Sharpened - describes a ■ Leisure listening - the listening style
message in which interesting of a person who cares about only
and unusual information has interesting information
been kept in the message when ■ Inclusive listening - the listening
it is passed from one person to style of a person who cares about
another; see leveled. communication.
● Assimilated - a description of a ■ Stylistic listening - the listening
message in which the style of a person who pays
information has been modified attention mainly to the way in
to fit the existing beliefs and which words are spoken.
knowledge of the person ■ Technical listening - the listening
sending the message before it is style of a person who cares about
passed on to another person. only facts and details.
■ Reaction to communication ■ Empathic listening - the listening
overload style of a person who cares
● Omission - a response to primarily about the feelings of the
communication overload that speaker.
involves the conscious decision ■ Nonconforming listening - the
not to process certain types of listening style of a person who cares
information. about only information that is
● Error - deviation from a standard consistent with his or her way of
of quality; also a type of thinking.
response to communication
overload that involves Improving Employee Communication
processing all information but
processing some of it incorrectly. ● Interpersonal communication skills
● Queuing - a method of coping ● Written communication skills
with communication overload ○ Improving writing
that involves organizing work ○ Readability
into an order in which it will be ■ Fry Readability Graph - a method
handled. of determining the readability level
● Escape - a response to of written material by analyzing
communication overload in sentence length and the average
which the employee leaves the number of syllables per word.
organization to reduce the ■ Flesch Index - a method of
stress. determining the readability level of
● Gatekeeper - a person who written material by analyzing
screens potential
 average sentence length and the ○ Need for affiliation - the extent to which a
number of syllables per 100 words person desires to be around other people.
■ FOG Index - a method of ○ Leadership motive pattern - the name for
determining the readability level of a pattern of needs in which a leader has a
written material by analyzing high need for power and a low need for
sentence length and the number of affiliation.
three-syllable words. (the term is ○ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - a
interpreted as either the measure projective personality test in which test
of the “fog” a reader may be in or takers are shown pictures and asked to tell
as the acronym FOG, for “frequency stories . It is designed to measure various
of gobbledygook.”) need levels.
■ Dale-Chall Index - a method of ○ Job Choice Exercise - an objective test
determining the readability level of used to measure various need levels.
written material by looking at the ● Gender
number commonly used in the ● Task vs. Person Orientation
document. ○ Managerial Grid - a measure of leadership
that classifies a leader into one of five
----------------------------------END-------------------------------- leadership styles.
○ Task-centered leaders - leaders who define
Chapter 12: Leadership and structure their roles as well as the
roles of the subordinates.
Personal Characteristics Associated with ○ Theory X leaders - leaders who believe
Leadership that employees are extrinsically motivated
and thus lead by giving directives and
Leader emergence - a part of trait theory that setting goals.
postulates that certain types of people will become ○ Initiating structure - the extent to which
leaders and certain types will not. leaders define and structure their roles
and the roles of their subordinate.
Affective identity motivation - the motivation to lead ○ Team leadership - a leadership style in
as a result of a desire to be in charge and lead others. which the leader is concerned with both
productivity and employee well-being.
Noncalculative motivation - those who seek ○ Impoverished leadership - a style of
leadership positions because they will result in leadership in which the leader is
personal gain. concerned with neither productivity nor
the well-being of employees.
Social-normative motivation - the desire to lead out ○ Middle-of-the-road leadership - a
of a sense of duty or responsibility. leadership style reflecting a balanced
orientation between people and tasks.
Leader performance - a part of trait theory that
○ Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) -
postulates that certain types of people will be better
a test used to measure a leader’s
leaders than will other types of people.
self-perception of his or her leadership
● Traits: style.
○ Self-monitoring - a personality trait ○ Leader Behavior Description
characterized by the tendency to adapt Questionnaire (LBDQ) - a test used to
one’s behavior to fit a particular social measure perceptions of a leader’s style by
situation. his or her subordinates.
● Cognitive Ability ● Unsuccessful Leaders
○ Wisdom, intelligence (academic & ○ Lack of training
practical), and creativity ○ Cognitive deficiencies
● Needs ○ Personality
○ Need for power - according to trait theory,
the extent to which a person desires to be
Interaction Between the Leader and the
in control of other people Situation
○ Need for achievement - according to the
● Situational Favorability
trait theory, the extent to which a person
○ Fiedler’s contingency model - a theory of
desires to be successful.
leadership that states that leadership
 effectiveness is dependent on the and punishment; most effective in a
interaction between the leader and the climate of crisis.
situation. ○ Crisis - a critical time or climate for an
○ Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale - a organization in which the outcome to a
test used in conjunction with Fiedler’s decision has extreme consequences.
contingency model to reveal leadership ○ Tactical style - a leadership style in which a
style and effectiveness. person leads through organization and
○ Tasks structuredness- the variable in strategy; most effective in a climate of
Fiedler’s contingency plan to the extent to disorganization.
which tasks have clear goals and problems ○ Disorganization - a climate in which the
can be solved. organization has the necessary knowledge
○ Leadership position power - the variable and resources but does not know how to
in Fiedler’s contingency model that refers efficiently use the knowledge or the
to the extent to which a leader, by the resources.
nature of his or her position, has the ○ Path-goal theory - a theory of leadership
power to reward and punish subordinates. stating that leaders will be effective if their
○ Leader-member relations - the variable in behavior helps subordinates achieve
Fiedler’s contingency model that refers to relevant goals.
the extent to which subordinates like a ○ Instrumental style - in the path-goal
leader. theory, a leadership style in which the
○ Leader Match - a training program that leader plans and organizes the activities of
teaches leaders how to change situations the employees.
to match their leadership styles. ○ Supportive style - in the path-goal theory,
● Organizational Climate a leadership style in which leaders show
○ IMPACT theory - a theory of leadership concern for their employees.
that states that there are six styles of ○ Participative style - in the path-goal
leadership (informational, magnetic, theory, a leadership style in which the
position, affiliation, coercive, and tactical) leader allows employees to participate in
and that each style will be effective only in decisions.
one of six organizational climates. ○ Achievement-oriented style - in the
○ Informational style - a style of leadership path-goal theory, a leadership style in
in which the leader leads through which the leader sets challenging goals
knowledge and information; most effective and rewards achievement.
in a climate of ignorance. ○ Situational leadership theory - a theory of
○ Ignorance - an organizational climate in leadership stating that effective leaders
which important information is not must adapt their style of leadership to fit
available. both the situation and the followers.
○ Magnetic style - a style of leadership in ○ Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory -
which the leader has influence because of a leadership theory that focuses on the
his or her charismatic personality; most interaction between leaders and
effective in a climate of despair. subordinates.
○ Despair - an organizational climate ○ Vertical dyad linkage (VDL) theory - a
characterized by low morale. leadership theory that concentrates on the
○ Position style - a leadership style in which interaction between the leader and his or
the leaders influence others by virtue of her subordinates.
their appointed or elected authority; most ○ Vroom-Yetton Model - a theory of
effective in a climate of instability. leadership that concentrates on helping a
○ Instability - an organizational climate in leader choose how to make a decision.
which people are not sure what to do. ○ Expert power - power that individuals
○ Affiliation style - a leadership style in have because they have knowledge.
which the individual leads by caring about ○ Legitimate power - the power that
others and that is most effective in a individuals have because of their elected
climate of anxiety. or appointed position.
○ Anxiety - an organizational climate which ○ Reward power - leadership power that
predominates. exists to the extent that the leader has the
○ Coercive style - a leadership style in which ability and authority to provide rewards.
an individual leads by controlling reward
 ○ Coercive power - leadership that comes ● Physical Proximity - One especially strong
from the leader’s capacity to punish reason that a person might join a particular
others. group, especially if the group is informal, is
○ Referent power - leadership power that
physical proximity (Forsyth, 2013). That is,
exists when followers can identify with a
leader and the leader’s goals. people tend to form groups with people who
○ Transactional leadership - leadership style either live or work nearby
in which the leader focuses on ● Affiliation - A leadership style in which the
task-oriented behaviors. individual leads by caring about others and
○ Authentic leadership - a leadership theory that is most effective in a climate of anxiety.
stating that leaders should be honest and ● Identification - The need to associate
open and lead out of a desire to serve
ourselves with the image projected by other
others rather than a desire for self-gain.
people, groups, or objects.
----------------------------------END-------------------------------- ● Emotional Support - We also join groups to
obtain emotional support
Chapter 13: Group Behavior, Teams,
and Conflict ● Assistance or Help - People often join groups
to obtain assistance or help.
GROUP DYNAMICS
● Common Interests - People often join groups
because they share a common interest.
Group - For a collection of people to be called a
● Common Goals
group, the following four criteria must be met:
FACTORS AFFECTING GROUP PERFORMANCE
● (a) The members of the group must see
themselves as a unit; 1. GROUP COHESIVENESS
○ Dyad
■ Consists of 2 people Group Cohesiveness - The extent to which members
○ Triad of a group like and trust one another.
■ Consists of 3 people ○ In general, the more cohesive the
○ Small Group group, the greater its
■ Consists of 4 to 20 people ■ performance
● (b) the group must provide rewards to its ■ decision quality
members; ■ member satisfaction
● (c) anything that happens to one member of ■ member interaction
the group affects every other member, and ■ employee courtesy
○ Corresponding effects ● Group Homogeneity - The homogeneity of a
■ An event that affects one group is the extent to which its members are
member of a group will affect similar
the other group members. ○ Homogenous Groups - Groups whose
● (d) the members of the group must share a members share the same
common goal (Gordon, 2001). characteristics. Contains members
○ Common Goal who are similar in some or most ways
■ An aim or purpose shared by ○ Heterogeneous Groups - Groups
members of a group. whose members share few
similarities. contains members who
Reasons for Joining Groups are more different than alike.
○ Slightly heterogeneous groups -
● Assignment - In the workplace, the most Groups in which a few group
common reason for joining groups is that members have different
employees are assigned to them. characteristics from the rest of the
group.
● Stability of Membership - The extent to each individual group
which the membership of a group remains member.
consistent over time. ■ Conjunctive tasks - Tasks for
○ The greater the stability of the group, which the group’s
the greater the cohesiveness. Thus, performance is dependent on
groups in which members remain for the performance of the least
long periods of time are more effective group member.
cohesive and perform better than ■ Disjunctive tasks - Tasks for
groups that have high turnover (Bell, which the performance of a
2005), and groups whose members group is based on the
have previously worked together performance of its most
perform better than groups whose talented member.
members are not familiar with one ○ Social impact theory - States that the
another (Harrison, Mohammed, addition of a group member has the
McGrath, Florey, & Vander Stoep, greatest effect on group behavior
2003). when the size of the group is small.
● Isolation - The degree of physical distance of ● Group Status - The esteem in which the group
a group from other groups. is held by people not in the group.
○ Physical isolation is another variable ○ The higher the group’s status, the
that tends to increase a group’s greater its cohesiveness. This is an
cohesiveness. Groups that are important point: A group can be
isolated or located away from other made more cohesive by increasing
groups tend to be highly cohesive. group status. The group does not
● Outside Pressure - The amount of actually have to have high status, but
psychological pressure placed on a group by it is important that its members
people who are not members of the group. believe they have high status.
○ Groups that are pressured by outside 2. GROUP ABILITY AND CONFIDENCE - Not
forces also tend to become highly surprisingly, groups consisting of high-ability
cohesive. To some degree, this members outperform those with low-ability
members (Devine & Phillips, 2001).
response to outside pressure can be
Furthermore, groups whose members believe
explained by the phenomenon of that their team can be successful both at a
psychological reactance (Brehm, specific task (high team efficacy) and at tasks
1966). in general (high team potency) perform better
● Group Size - The number of members in a than groups whose members aren’t as
group. Groups are most cohesive and perform confident about their probability for success
best when group size is small. Studies have (Gully, Incalcaterra, Joshi, & Beaubien, 2002).
3. PERSONALITY OF GROUP MEMBERS - An
shown that large groups have lower
important factor affecting group performance
productivity (Mullen, Johnson, & Drake, is the personality of the group members.
1987), less coordination, lower morale (Frank 4. COMMUNICATION STRUCTURE - The manner
& Anderson, 1971), are less active (Indik, in which members of a group communicate
1965), less cohesive (Carron, 1990), and more with one another
critical (Valacich, Dennis, & Nunamaker, 1992) 5. GROUP ROLES - Another factor that affects
than smaller groups. the performance of a group is the extent to
which its members assume different roles.
○ Certain types of tasks:
○ For a group to be successful, its
■ Additive tasks - Tasks for members’ roles must fall into one of
which the group’s two categories:
performance is equal to the ■ Task-oriented roles - involve
sum of the performances of behaviors such as offering
new ideas, coordinating
 activities, and finding new ○ Social loafing - The fact that
information individuals in a group often exert less
■ Social-oriented roles - involve individual effort than they would if
encouraging cohesiveness they were not in a group.
and participation. 7. INDIVIDUAL DOMINANCE - When one
■ the individual role - includes member of a group dominates the group.
blocking group activities, ○ If the leader or group member has an
calling attention to oneself, accurate solution to a problem the
and avoiding group group is trying to solve, the group will
interaction. Individual roles probably perform at a high level. But
seldom result in higher group if the leader or group member has an
productivity. inaccurate solution, he will lead the
6. PRESENCE OF OTHERS: SOCIAL FACILITATION group astray, and it will perform
AND INHIBITION poorly.
○ Social facilitation - The positive 8. GROUPTHINK - A state of mind in which a
effects that occur when a person group is so concerned about its own
performs a task in the presence of cohesiveness that it ignores important
others. information. With groupthink, members
○ Social inhibition - The negative become so cohesive and like-minded that
effects that occur when a person they make poor decisions despite contrary
performs a task in the presence of information that might reasonably lead them
others. to other options. Groupthink most often
○ Audience effects - The effect on occurs when the group:
behavior when one or more people ○ is cohesive;
passively watch the behavior of ○ is insulated from qualified outsiders;
another person. ○ has an illusion of invulnerability,
○ Coaction - The effect on behavior infallibility, or both;
when two or more people are ○ believes that it is morally superior to
performing the same task in the its adversaries;
presence of each other. ○ is under great pressure to conform;
○ Explaining Social Facilitation Effects ○ has a leader who promotes a favorite
■ Mere presence - Theory solution; and
stating that the very fact that ○ has gatekeepers who keep
others happen to be present information from other group
naturally produces arousal members.
and thus may affect ○ Groupthink can be reduced in several
performance. ways:
■ Comparison - The effect ■ First, the group leader should
when an individual working not state his own position or
on a task compares his or her beliefs until late in the
performance with that of decision-making process.
another person performing ■ Second, the leader should
the same task. promote open discussion and
■ Evaluation apprehension - encourage group members to
The idea that a person speak.
performing a task becomes ■ Third, a group or committee
aroused because he or she is can be separated into
concerned that others are subgroups to increase the
evaluating his or her chance of disagreement.
performance. ■ Finally, one group member
■ Distracting - The idea that can be assigned the job of
social inhibition occurs devil’s advocate—one who
because the presence of questions and disagrees with
others provides a distraction the group. A group member
that interferes with who intentionally provides an
concentration. opposing opinion to that
 expressed by the leader or adversarial teams,
the majority of the group. nominal teams, and
doomed teams.
INDIVIDUAL VERSUS GROUP PERFORMANCE Collaborative teams
and emergent teams
● Nominal group - A collection of individuals are what I have
whose results are pooled but who never referred to as true
interact with one another. teams, whereas
● Interacting group - A collection of individuals nominal teams and
who work together to perform a task. doomed teams are
● Brainstorming - A technique in which ideas what I have referred
are generated by people in a group setting. to as non teams.
Adversarial teams are
TEAMS somewhere in
between a true team
● Work Team - According to Devine, Clayton,
and a non team.
Philips, Dunford, and Melner (1999), a work
■ Permanency - The extent to
team is “a collection of three or more
which a team will remain
individuals who interact intensively to provide
together or be disbanded
an organizational product, plan, decision, or
after a task has been
service” (p. 681).
accomplished.
○ Identification - Identification is the
■ Proximity - Physical distance
extent to which group members
between people
identify with the team rather than
■ Virtual teams - Teams that
with other groups.
communicate through email
○ Interdependence - In a team,
rather than face to face.
members need and desire the
● Types of Teams
assistance, expertise, and opinions of
○ Work teams - Groups of employees
the other members.
who manage themselves, assign jobs,
○ Power Differentiation - The extent to
plan and schedule work, make work
which team members have the same
related decisions, and solve
level of power and respect.
work-related problems.
○ Social Distance - The extent to which
○ Parallel Teams - Also called
team members treat each other in a
cross-functional teams, they consist
friendly, informal manner.
of representatives from various
○ Conflict Management Tactics - Team
departments (functions) within an
members respond to conflict by
organization.
collaborating, whereas non team
○ Project Teams - Groups formed to
members respond by forcing and
produce one time outputs such as
accommodating
creating a new product, installing a
○ Negotiation Process - In teams,
new software system, or hiring a new
members negotiate in a win–win style
employee.
in which the goal is for every person
○ Management Teams - Teams that
to come out ahead. In non teams,
coordinate, manage, advise, and
members negotiate so that they win
direct employees and teams
and the other members lose.
● How Teams Develop
■ On the basis of the six factors
○ In an influential theory of team
just discussed, Donnellon
development, Tuckman (1965)
(1996) placed teams into one
proposed that teams typically go
of five categories:
through four developmental phases:
● Collaborative teams
■ Forming stage - The first
● Emergent teams
stage of the team process, in
● Adversarial teams
which team members “feel
● Nominal teams
out” the team concept and
● Doomed teams
attempt to make a positive
● collaborative teams,
impression.
emergent teams,
 ■ Storming stage - The second ○ Group–group conflict -
stage in group formation in Conflict between two or more
which group members groups. occurs annually as
disagree and resist their team departments fight for budget
roles. allocations and space. In
■ Norming stage - The third industry, company divisions
stage of the team process, in often conflict for the same
which teams establish roles reasons.
and determine policies and ● Causes of Conflict
procedures. ○ Competition for resources - A
■ Performing stage - The cause of conflict that occurs
fourth and final stage of the when the demand for
team process, in which teams resources is greater than the
work toward accomplishing resources available
their goals ○ Task interdependence - A
● Why Teams Don’t Always Work? potential source of conflict
○ The Team Is Not a Team that arises when the
○ Excessive Meeting Requirements completion of a task by one
○ Lack of Empowerment person affects the completion
○ Lack of Skill of a task by another person.
○ Distrust of the Team Process ○ Jurisdictional ambiguity -
Conflict caused by a
GROUP CONFLICT disagreement about
geographical territory or lines
● Conflict - The psychological and of authority.
behavioral reaction to a perception ○ Communication Barriers -
that another person is keeping you Physical, cultural, and
from reaching a goal, taking away psychological obstacles that
your right to behave in a particular interfere with successful
way, or violating the expectancies of a communication and create a
relationship. source of conflict
● Dysfunctional conflict - Conflict that ○ Personality - Relatively stable
keeps people from working together, traits possessed by an
lessens productivity, spreads to other individual. Conflict is often
areas, or increases turnover. the result of people with
● Functional conflict - Conflict that incompatible personalities
results in increased performance or who must work together.
better interpersonal relations. ● Conflict Styles - It is generally
● Types of Conflict believed that most people have a
○ Interpersonal Conflict - particular style they use when faced
Interpersonal conflict occurs with conflict.
between two individuals. In ○ Avoiding style - The conflict
the workplace, interpersonal style of a person who reacts
conflict might occur between to conflict by pretending that
two coworkers, a supervisor it does not exist.
and a subordinate, an ■ Withdrawal - An
employee and a customer, or approach to handling
an employee and a vendor. conflict in which one
○ Individual–group conflict - of the parties
Conflict between an removes him/herself
individual and the other from the situation to
members of a group. usually avoid the conflict.
occurs when the individual’s ■ Triangling - An
needs are different from the employee discusses a
group’s needs, goals, or conflict with a third
norms party such as a friend
or supervisor. In
 doing so, the negotiating an
employee hopes that agreement
the third party will ● Resolving Conflict
talk to the second ○ Prior to Conflict Occurring -
party and that the An organization should have a
conflict will be formal policy on how conflict
resolved without the is to be handled. Usually, such
need for the two a policy will state that
parties to meet. employees should first try to
○ Accommodating style - The resolve their own conflicts,
conflict style of a person who and if that is not successful,
tends to respond to conflict they can utilize a third-party
by giving in to the other intervention. Employees
person. should receive training on the
○ Forcing Style - The conflict causes of conflict, ways to
style of a person who prevent conflict, and
responds to conflict by always strategies for resolving
trying to win conflict.
■ Winning at all costs - ○ When Conflict First Occurs -
An approach to When conflict first occurs
handling conflict in between coworkers or
which one side seeks between a supervisor and a
to win regardless of subordinate, the two parties
the damage to the should be encouraged to use
other side. the conflict resolution skills
○ Collaborating style - The they learned in training to
conflict style of a person who resolve the conflict on their
wants a conflict resolved in own. These skills include
such a way that both sides expressing a desire for
get what they want. cooperation, offering
○ Compromising style - A style compliments, avoiding
of resolving conflicts in which negative interaction,
an individual allows each side emphasizing mutual
to get some of what it wants. similarities, and pointing out
■ Negotiation and common goals. A key to
bargaining - A resolving conflict is to reduce
method of resolving tension and increase trust
conflict in which two between the two parties.
sides use verbal skill ■ Dispute - A situation
and strategy to reach when two parties do
an agreement. not agree.
■ Least acceptable ■ Cooperative problem
result (LAR) - The solving - A method of
lowest settlement resolving conflict in
that a person is which two sides get
willing to accept in a together to discuss a
negotiated problem and arrive at
agreement. a solution.
■ Maximum ● Third-Party Intervention - If conflict
supportable position cannot be resolved by the parties
(MSP) - The highest involved, it is often a good idea to
possible settlement seek help—that is, to ask for
that a person could third-party intervention. This third
reasonably ask for party usually is provided through
and still maintain mediation, and if that doesn’t work,
credibility in through arbitration.
 ○ Third-party intervention - ○ The Meeting Cow - Another area ripe
When a neutral party is asked for change is the number and length
to help resolve a conflict. of meetings. Think about meetings
○ Mediation - A method of
you have attended recently. How
resolving conflict in which a
neutral third party is asked to much meeting time was spent doing
help the two parties reach an business as opposed to socializing?
agreement. Was the meeting really necessary? To
○ Arbitration - A method of reduce the number and length of
resolving conflicts in which a meetings, some organizations ask the
neutral third party is asked to person calling the meeting to
choose which side is correct.
determine the cost of the meeting
---------------------------------END--------------------------------- (e.g., one hour’s salary of each
attendee, cost of meeting room, cost
Chapter 14: Organization of refreshments and supplies) and
Development consider whether the cost will exceed
the potential benefits. In some of
MANAGING CHANGE
these organizations, the meeting
In organizations, change occurs for many reasons and costs are actually posted at the
takes on many forms. Some changes are due to such beginning of the meeting! Needless
organization development efforts as downsizing, to say, when people are forced to
reorganization, or the introduction of teams. Some consider the benefits of meetings
changes are the result of external mandates like against their cost, most meetings will
managed care or new government regulations. Still not be held.
other changes occur due to new leadership or new ○ The Speed Cow - Unnecessary
personnel. deadlines are another source for
potential change. Requiring work to
Sacred cow hunt - The first step in organizational be done “by tomorrow” is sometimes
change, in which employees look for practices and necessary. However, unnecessary
policies that waste time and are counterproductive. deadlines cause employees to work at
● In a sacred cow hunt, an organization looks at a faster than optimal pace, resulting
all of its practices and policies and asks in decreased quality, increased stress,
questions like these: and increased health problems.
○ Why are we doing it? Does it add Employee Acceptance of Change - Though change
value, quality, service, or can be beneficial to organizations, employees are
productivity? often initially reluctant to change. This reluctance is
○ What if it didn’t exist? understandable, as employees are comfortable doing
○ Is it already being done by someone things the old way. They may fear that change will
else? result in less favorable working conditions and
○ How and when did we start doing economic outcomes than they are used to. Employees
this? may also fear that their skills may not be valued in the
○ Can it be done better by another future and they might worry about whether they can
person, department, or company? adapt to the new changes (Cummings & Worley,
● According to Kriegel and Brandt, common 2015).
types of sacred cows: ● Stages
○ The Paper Cow - Paper cows are ○ Lewin (1958) theorized that
unnecessary paperwork—usually organizations go through three
forms and reports that cost stages: unfreezing, moving, and
organizations money to prepare, refreezing. In the unfreezing stage,
distribute, and read. the organization must convince
 employees and other stakeholders how it functions, and begin to make
(e.g., shareholders, the community) adjustments in the way they perform.
that the current state of affairs is Employees spend tremendous energy
unacceptable and that change is at this stage and can often become
necessary. In the moving stage, the frustrated and angry
organization takes steps (e.g., ○ Stage 5: Internalization - In this final
training, new work processes) to stage, employees have become
move the organization to the desired immersed in the new culture and
state. In the refreezing stage, the comfortable with the new system and
organization develops ways to keep have accepted their new coworkers
the new changes in place, such as and work environment.
formalizing new policies and Important Factors - The extent to which employees
rewarding employees for behaving in readily accept and handle change is dependent on the
a manner consistent with the new reason behind the change, the leader making the
change. Carnall (2008) suggests that change, and the personality of the person being
employees typically go through five changed.
stages during major organizational ● The Type of Change - Organization change
changes: denial, defense, discarding, expert Warner Burke (2014) distinguishes two
adaptation, and internalization. types of change: evolutionary and
○ Stage 1: Denial - During this initial revolutionary:
stage, employees deny that any ○ The vast majority of change is
changes will actually take place, try to evolutionary, that is the continual
convince themselves that the old way process of upgrading or improving
is working, and create reasons why processes; for example, the
the proposed changes will never work unpopular changes from Windows XP
(e.g., “We tried that before and it to Vista and Windows 7 to Windows
didn’t work. Something like that 8, a change in the supervisor to
won’t work in a company like ours.”). whom one reports, or a change in
○ Stage 2: Defense - When employees how to submit travel receipts for
begin to believe that change will reimbursement.
actually occur, they become defensive ○ Burke defines revolutionary change
and try to justify their positions and as a “real jolt to the system” that
ways of doing things. The idea here is drastically changes the way things are
that if an organization is changing the done. Examples might include
way in which employees perform, developing a brand-new product line
there is an inherent criticism that the that requires a vastly different skill
employees must have previously been set, completely changing the
doing things wrong. organizational structure or
○ Stage 3: Discarding - At some point, organizational misconduct (e.g.,
employees begin to realize not only Enron, Adelphia, Arthur Andersen)
that the organization is going to that causes an organization to
change but that the employees are completely change its ethical policies
going to have to change as well. That and behavior. Clearly, revolutionary
is, change is inevitable, and it is in the change is more difficult than is
best interest of the employee to evolutionary change.
discard the old ways and start to ● The Reason Behind the Change - Employee
accept the change as the new reality. acceptance of change is often a function of
○ Stage 4: Adaptation - At this stage, the reason behind the change. Acceptance is
employees test the new system, learn lower when employees perceive the change
 to be in organizational philosophy, a whim on Typically there is an initial timeline for each phase. As
the part of the person making the change you read the following “steps” to implementing
(“Hey, let’s do teams”), or a change because change, it is important to understand that the change
everyone else is changing (“Everyone else has process seldom (perhaps never) goes as planned and
teams, so we need to create them now before that setbacks will occur, resulting in the need to make
we get left behind”). Employees are least revisions to the change process (Burke, 2014).
likely to accept change if they don’t ● Creating an Atmosphere for Change - One of
understand or were not told the reasons the first steps in organizational change is to
behind the change. create the proper atmosphere (Denton,
● The Person Making the Change - Another 1996). This process begins by creating
factor affecting employee acceptance of dissatisfaction with the current system.
change is the person making or suggesting the Employees should be surveyed to determine
change. Not surprisingly, workers are more how satisfied they are with the current
positive about change when the source of system. If things go as normal, the results of
change is within the work group rather than the survey will indicate that many employees
an external source (Griffin, Rafferty, & Mason, are unhappy with the way things are currently
2004). done and have suggestions for improvement.
● The Person Being Changed - As one would By sharing these results with employees, an
imagine, there is considerable variability in organization can protect itself from
the way in which people instigate or react to employees reacting to change by
change remembering the “good old days.” Instead,
○ Change Agents - are people who they will focus on the “bad old days” and be
enjoy change and often make more willing to change.
changes just for the sake of it. A ● Communicating Details - Employees are most
change agent’s motto might best be responsive to change when they are kept well
expressed as “If it ain’t broke, break informed (Wanberg & Banas, 2000). Unless
it.” there is a need for secrecy (e.g., a merger),
○ Change analyst - A person who is not employees should be aware of and involved in
afraid of change but makes changes all aspects of the change, from initial planning
only when there is a compelling to final implementation. If employees are
reason to do so. kept in the dark until the very end, they
○ Receptive changer - A person who is usually suspect that something bad is
willing to change. happening. It seems to be human nature to
○ Reluctant changer - A person who will think the worst when we don’t know
initially resist change but will something. After undergoing a major
eventually go along with it. restructuring, staff at Educational Testing
○ Change resister - A person who hates Service (ETS) in Princeton, New Jersey,
change and will do anything to keep reported that poor communication was
change from occurring responsible for many of the difficulties
Implementing Change - Another important factor in encountered in the change process (Wild,
employee acceptance of change is the way the change Horney, & Koonce, 1996). During their
is implemented. That is, how and when will details be restructuring, ETS learned these important
communicated? How long will the implementation lessons:
take? Does the organization have the right personnel ○ Communicating change is hard work.
for the change? What types of training needs does ○ Training is needed.
the organization have? When organizations are ○ Two-way communication is essential
planning change, they intend the change process to ○ Honesty is the best policy.
be linear in that they begin with Phase 1, move to ● Time Frame - Most successful organizational
Phase 2, and so forth until the change is complete. changes occur in a timely fashion. The longer
 it takes to change, the greater the analyze the needs assessment to
opportunity for things to go wrong and the determine the decisions or actions
greater the chance that employees will that will reinforce the culture and to
become disillusioned. Many consultants assess the feasibility of certain
advise that organizations should not remain in changes.
a “change mode” for longer than two years. ○ Step 3: Implementation
● Training Needs - After an organization has Considerations - This area addresses
made a major change, it is often necessary to how the new culture will be
train employees. For example, if an implemented. Will committees or ad
organization changes to a new computer hoc groups be set up to carry out
system, all employees will need to be trained changes or will management execute
in the use of the new system. Likewise, if an the changes? If the organization’s
organization is changing to a self-directed desired culture includes
team environment, employees will need to be encouragement of more input by
trained in such areas as goal setting, employees, they should be allowed to
teamwork, presentation skills, and quality participate in implementing the
analysis. empowering organization in order to
Organizational Culture - The shared values, beliefs, support the new culture.
and traditions that exist among individuals in an ○ Step 4: Training - Culture change
organization. means a change of philosophy, and
● Changing Culture - Making organizational that ultimately means different role
changes doesn’t necessarily mean that expectations. As with any new skill, all
everything about the existing culture must organizational members must be
change. According to one manager, “The trained in a new philosophy for the
change process includes holding on to the new culture to thrive and be long
successful elements of the present culture lasting.
and adding new elements that are important” ○ Step 5: Evaluation of New Culture - As
(Laabs, 1996, p. 56). Consequently, the first with any changes, an evaluation
step in changing culture is assessing the mechanism must be established to
desired culture and comparing it with the review the new culture. Issues such as
existing one to determine what needs to whether the change actually has
change. Two additional steps are creating occurred or whether old norms and
dissatisfaction with the current culture to procedures still exist should be
create support for the new one and addressed.
maintaining the new culture. ● Creating Dissatisfaction with Existing Culture
● Assessing the New Culture - Assessment of - Just as creating dissatisfaction with the
the new culture involves a great deal of status quo in general is necessary to promote
discussion and analysis and should include change, for employees to accept a new
the following steps: culture, the existing culture and status quo
○ Step 1: Needs Assessment - Because must be “upset.” This might mean
parts of the existing culture may communicating to employees the future
actually support certain impact of continuing to “do business as
organizational changes, the current usual.”
culture must be analyzed and ● Maintaining the New Culture - If the new
compared with the desired culture to culture is expected to last, developing new
determine what might need to reward systems and selection methods should
change. occur. Rewarding current employees for
○ Step 2: Determining Executive successfully participating and cooperating
Direction: Management must then with the new system is imperative (Kotter &
 Cohen, 2002). These rewards can include pay ○ Importance of Decision Quality -
for performance in jobs that have increased Employees need to be involved in
responsibilities due to the new culture or decisions in circumstances in which
other changes. But they also go beyond the quality of the decision is
financial rewards, and can include employee important, the decision affects
recognition and meaningful work. employees, the supervisor doesn’t
● Selection of Employees - Future employees have the knowledge to make the
should be selected on the basis of how well decision, or the employees don’t trust
they epitomize the new culture. As current the supervisor.
employees are replaced by new ones, the ○ Leader Knowledge of the Problem
new culture can become “frozen” into the Area - The second factor in decision
desired system selected by the leadership making involves the extent to which
(Lewin, 1951). However, continuing to hire leaders have sufficient information to
employees who prefer a more structured make the decision alone. If they do,
management philosophy and who work then consultation with others is
better alone will eventually cause the desired only if leaders want their
organization to revert to its old culture. subordinates to feel involved. If
Finally, the socialization process of new leaders lack sufficient knowledge to
employees must reinforce the new culture. make a decision, consultation is
Organizational socialization is the process essential. For example, it would be
whereby new employees learn the behaviors difficult for managers to select a
and attitudes they need to be successful in benefit package without first asking
the organization. their employees about the types of
○ Organizational socialization - The benefits they need.
process whereby new employees ○ Structure Problem - The third factor
learn the behaviors and attitudes they of concern in decision making is the
need to be successful in an extent to which a leader knows what
organization. information is needed and how it can
○ Rituals - Procedures in which be obtained—that is, the problem’s
employees participate to become structure. If the leader does not know
“one of the gang.” how to obtain this information, the
○ Symbols - Organizational behaviors or decision-making process will require
practices that convey messages to other people, and the decision will
employees. take longer to reach.
EMPOWERMENT ○ Importance of Decision Acceptance -
Many employees are more satisfied with their jobs if The fourth decision-making factor
they feel they have some control over what they do. involves the degree to which it is
As a result, many organizations are “empowering” important that the decision be
employees to participate in and make decisions. accepted by others.
○ Probability of Decision Acceptance -
Making the Decision to Empower The fifth decision-making factor is
● Factors in Making the Decision to Empower - subordinate acceptance. If the leader
Employees need to be involved in decisions in feels that he can make the decision
circumstances in which the quality of the himself but that acceptance of the
decision is important, the decision affects decision is important, he must
employees, the supervisor doesn’t have the determine whether his subordinates
knowledge to make the decision, or the will accept it. If the leader is popular
employees don’t trust the supervisor. and viewed as being competent, his
subordinates will probably accept and
 follow the decision. But if the leader then make a decision that may or may
is not popular, powerful, and not be consistent with the thinking of
competent, he will probably want the group.
help from his subordinates and ○ Consultative II strategy - Leaders
colleagues in making the decision, share the problem with the group as
even though he has the ability to a whole and then make a decision
make the decision himself. This is why that may or may not be consistent
leaders often ask subordinates and with the thinking of the group.
colleagues for their opinions. ○ Group I strategy - Leaders share the
○ Subordinate Trust and Motivation - problem with the group and let the
The sixth factor in the group reach a decision or solution.
decision-making process is the extent Levels of Employee Input - When employers talk
to which subordinates are motivated about “empowering” employees, they seldom intend
to achieve the organizational goals to let employees make all of the decisions affecting an
and thus can be trusted to make organization. Instead, they most often want to give
decisions that will help the employees “more say” in day-to-day activities.
organization. Unfortunately, when employees are told that they are
○ Probability of Subordinate conflict - being “empowered,” they often apply a different
The final factor for our consideration meaning to the word than that intended by the
in the decision making process employer. In fact, one organization that went through
involves the amount of conflict that is a change spent two full meetings with employees to
likely among the subordinates when hash out what empowerment should and would
various solutions to the problem are mean in that organization! Thus, it might be useful to
considered. If there are many possible set aside the word empowerment and talk instead of
solutions and the employees are likely levels of employee input and control. Let me provide
to disagree about which is best, the two examples of why levels of input might be a better
leader will be best served by choice of term than empowerment.
gathering information from ● Following - Employees at the following level
employees and then, as in the have no real control over their jobs. They are
previous situation, making the given instructions about what to do, when to
decision herself. do it, and how it should be done.
● Decision-Making Strategies Using the Furthermore, their work is often checked by
Vroom–Yetton Model - Answering the other employees (e.g., quality control) or by
questions in the flowchart shown in Figure their supervisor. Employees at this level can
14.1 will lead to one of five possible be those who are new or inexperienced to the
decision-making strategies: Autocratic I, work being performed or those with weak
Autocratic II, Consultative I, Consultative II, or decision-making skills.
Group I. ● Ownership of Own Product - At this level,
○ Autocratic I strategy - Leaders use employees are still told what to do but are
available information to make a solely responsible for the quality of their
decision without consulting their output. For example, an employee working on
subordinates. an assembly line would follow a set of
○ Autocratic II strategy - Leaders obtain procedures in assembling a product but
necessary information from their would decide whether the quality of the
subordinates and then make their assembled product was good enough.
own decision. ● Advisory - At the advisory level, employees
○ Consultative I strategy - Leaders are asked to provide feedback, suggestions,
share the problem on an individual and input into a variety of organizational
basis with their subordinates and concerns. The key at this level is that there is
 no guarantee that an organization will follow by employee as well as by task. For example, a bank
the advice given by the employees; the only teller might be placed at the absolute level to decide
guarantee is that the organization will when she will take her breaks, at the advisory level
seriously consider the advice. The idea behind when it comes to hiring new employees, and at the
this level is that employees often have the following level when it comes to waiving check fees.
best knowledge about their jobs, so getting To reduce confusion, it is a good idea for organizations
their input makes good business sense. As to develop what I call individual employee
previously discussed, though employees often empowerment charts.
have the knowledge to make a decision, they
are placed at an advisory level because they Consequences of Empowerment - With increased
may not have the “motivation” to make the responsibility comes increased stress. With the power
best decision. In such situations, an to make decisions comes the risk of making bad ones
organization will ask employees for their and thus being fired or denied a promotion. Thus, it is
opinions and preferences to better not surprising that some employees resist efforts to
understand the employees’ positions but will empower them or their teams (Maynard, Mathieu,
reserve the right to make the actual decision. Marsh, & Ruddy, 2007). One of the things that is true
● Shared/Participative/Team - The fourth level throughout life is that people are different, and not
of employee input and control allows an everything affects everyone the same way. For
employee to make a decision. However, this example, imagine that we place all of the employees
decision is made at a group level. For in a fast-food restaurant at the absolute level in
example, an organization might put a team making decisions such as when to comp drinks or a
together to find better ways to market its meal if the service is slow or the food is bad or when
projects or to determine what type of to allow customers to make substitutions. For many of
benefits package employees will receive. This these employees, this authority will be welcome, as it
level differs from the previous level (advisory) reduces the time taken to get permission from a
in that only in very rare circumstances will the supervisor and provides them with a sense of power.
team’s decision not be implemented. At this However, for some employees, the increased stress of
level, employees must not only be well making acceptable decisions far outweighs any
trained in decision making but also be willing feelings of so-called empowerment.
to take on the responsibility of making
decisions. FLEXIBLE WORK ARRANGEMENTS
● Absolute -The final level of employee input A popular organization development intervention is to
and control gives an employee the absolute provide employees with flexibility in the hours they
authority to make a decision on his own—no work.
group consensus, no supervisory approval. It ● Strategy 1: Full-Time Work, Flexible Hours -
is important to point out, however, that he is To accommodate the family lives and personal
also responsible for the consequences of that preferences of employees, 52% of U.S.
decision. So if he makes the wrong decision, organizations provide flextime, a work
he may be reprimanded or fired. Because of schedule in which employees have some
these potential consequences, many flexibility in the hours they work (SHRM,
employees are leery about being given 2014).
absolute power. Thus, it is important in many ○ Flextime - A work schedule that
circumstances to remove the potential for a allows employees to choose their
negative sanction. own work hours.
Empowerment Charts - A chart made for each ○ Bandwidth - The total number of
employee that shows what level of input the potential work hours available each
employee has for each task. Organizations never have day.
just one level of employee input and control that
applies to every employee. Instead, levels will differ
 ○ Core hours - The hours in a flextime Thus, an employee will make more
schedule during which every per hour than her full-time
employee must work counterpart, although she will make
○ Flexible hours - The part of a flextime less money per day.
schedule in which employees may ○ Casual work - A scheduling practice in
choose which hours to work which employees work on an
○ Gliding time - A flextime schedule in irregular or as-needed basis.
which employees can choose their ○ Job sharing - A work schedule in
own hours without any advance which two employees share one job
notice or scheduling. by splitting the work hours.
○ Flexitour - A flextime schedule in ● Strategy 4: Working from Home - Some
which employees have flexibility in employees set their own work schedules by
scheduling but must schedule their working at home rather than at the
work hours at least a week in workplace. Although working at home has
advance. recently received increased attention, it is
○ Modified flexitour - A flextime certainly not a new concept. For more than a
schedule in which employees have century, women have sewn garments at home
flexibility in scheduling but must and then sold them to factories for piece-rate
schedule their work hours a day in prices. Today, with the advancement of
advance. technology advances, other types of work can
● Strategy 2: Compressed Workweeks- also be done in the home. Many types of
Although the vast majority of people still homework are completed with little or no
work eight hours a day, five days a week, contact with a central office or factory. With
there is a trend toward working fewer days a telecommuting, however, an employee uses a
week but more hours per day. These computer to electronically interact with a
deviations from the typical five-day workweek central office.
are called compressed workweeks and usually ○ Telecommuting - Working at home
involve either 10 hours a day for four days or rather than at the office by
12 hours a day for three days. The potential communicating with managers and
advantages of compressed workweeks are coworkers via phone, computer, fax
obvious from the employees’ perspective. machine, and other off-site media.
They get more vacation days, have more time DOWNSIZING
to spend with their families, have increased When organizations restructure, the result is often a
opportunities to moonlight, and have reduced decrease in the size of their workforce (Figure 14.4).
commuting costs and times. Furthermore, if For example, the discontinuation of the space shuttle
parents have different compressed schedules, program in 2011 resulted in 2,600 fewer jobs at
childcare costs are greatly reduced. United Space Alliance. Such reductions in force are
● Strategy 3: Reducing Work Hours - A third the result of a variety of factors, including economic
strategy to increase worker flexibility is to difficulties, loss of large contracts, pressure by
allow employees to work fewer hours. Though stockholders for quick profits, mergers, new
part-time work has been a common practice technology replacing humans, and employee
for many years, two programs—peaktime pay empowerment programs resulting in less need for
and job-sharing—provide examples of the managers. Interestingly, 81% of downsizing
strategic use of part-time work. organizations were profitable the year prior to
○ Peak-Time Pay -With peak-time pay, downsizing (Cascio, 1995).
certain employees are encouraged to ● Reducing the Impact of Downsizing
work only part time but are paid at a ○ Signs of Problems - Short of a
higher hourly rate for those hours catastrophe, organizations usually
than employees who work full time. have some warning that there may be
an impending need to downsize. ○ Temporary employees - Also called
Steps taken at this stage can greatly “temps”—employees hired through a
reduce the need for, or size of, future temporary employment agency
downsizing (Cascio, 2002). A strategy ○ Outsourcing - The process of having
taken by many organizations at this certain organizational functions
stage is to freeze the hiring of new performed by an outside vendor
permanent employees and either not rather than an employee in the
fill vacancies caused by employees organization.
leaving or retiring or fill vacancies
with temporary employees (temps). ● Selecting the Employees to Be Laid Off -
Typically, these temps are hired Should the above measures not be sufficient
through temporary employment and a layoff becomes necessary, the next step
agencies such as Kelly, Olsten, Bright is to choose which employees will leave the
Services, or Manpower. The organization. Criteria used to make this
advantage to using a temporary decision might include seniority,
agency is that temps are not performance, salary level, and organizational
considered employees of the need. To reduce the chances of legal
company and thus have no problems, the committee deciding which
expectation of a future with the employees will leave should be diverse in
company. If business declines, the terms of race, sex, and age (Segal, 2001). The
company can cancel its contract with committee’s decisions should be analyzed to
the temporary agency. If business determine potential adverse impact against
remains at a good level, the temp protected classes (e.g., race, sex) or
remains with the company. A related intentional discrimination against older
strategy used by more than 80% of workers.
organizations is outsourcing—using ● The Announcement - The way in which the
outside vendors to provide services layoff is announced can affect the success of
previously performed internally. future programs designed to help employees.
Another strategy that can be taken at Layoff announcements are best done in
this stage is to encourage employees person. Some organizations opt for a general
to change careers and then help announcement, whereas others prefer that
these employees learn the skills supervisors notify their employees on a
needed to make the career change. A one-to-one basis. At this time, it is essential
fourth strategy for reducing the need that employees receive concrete information.
for layoffs is to offer early retirement A mistake made by many organizations is to
packages. A fifth option to layoffs is to announce a downsizing but not to have
ask employees to take pay cuts or answers to the hundreds of employee
defer salary increases. This strategy is questions and concerns that are bound to
based on the idea that most follow. Employees need answers to questions
economic recessions last less than a like these:
year. A final strategy involves ○ Why are the layoffs needed?
adjusting work schedules. Many ○ Isn’t there any alternative?
organizations try to avoid layoffs by ○ When will the layoffs take place?
restricting overtime, implementing ○ Who will be laid off?
job sharing, encouraging employees ○ What type of financial assistance will
to work at home, implementing be available?
payless holidays or a shortened ○ Will we get help writing our résumés?
workweek, and reducing their ○ How will this affect my pension?
employees’ pay.
When answers to employees’ questions are not under tremendous stress as they worry about
available, employees become anxious, angry, and how to make their rent, mortgage, and loan
resentful and tend to develop their own answers payments and how to pay for utilities,
(rumors). insurance, food, tuition, and medical and
● Outplacement Programs - To help layoff dental costs. Most banks and credit unions
victims move on with their lives, many have certified financial counselors who are
organizations have some type of well trained in helping people with these
outplacement program (Weinberg, concerns. The financial counseling process
Sutherland, & Cooper, 2010). These programs should include the issues of severance pay,
typically include emotional counseling, unemployment insurance, medical insurance,
financial counseling, career assessment and and any special programs that might be
guidance, and job search training available to help the layoff victims.
○ Emotional Stage - To help layoff ● Career Assessment and Guidance - Though
victims move on with their lives, many layoff victims will search for jobs similar
many organizations have some type to the ones that they left, many will need to
of outplacement program (Weinberg, consider other careers. Psychologists involved
Sutherland, & Cooper, 2010). These in this process will administer a battery of
programs typically include emotional tests that tap an individual’s basic abilities
counseling, financial counseling, (e.g., math, grammar), transferable skills (e.g.,
career assessment and guidance, and woodworking, typing), career interests, and
job search training work values (e.g., status, independence,
■ Denial stage - The first stage leadership). In discussing potential careers,
in the emotional reaction to consideration must be given to such life
change or layoffs, in which an realities as financial needs, time constraints
employee denies that an (e.g., “I can’t take four years to earn a
organizational change or degree”), and geographic constraints (e.g., “I
layoff will occur want to stay near my family” or “My spouse
■ Anger stage - The second has a good job and I can’t leave the
stage of emotional reaction immediate area”). For employees willing and
to downsizing, in which able to relocate or go back to school, finding a
employees become angry at new job is not as difficult as it is for
the organization. employees who are limited to a particular
■ Fear stage - The third geographic area and are not able or willing to
emotional stage following the be retrained.
announcement of a layoff, in Effects of Downsizing
which employees worry ● Victims - Employees who lose their jobs due
about how they will survive to a layoff. Research is clear that there are
financially many negative consequences to losing one’s
■ Acceptance stage - The fourth job. From a health perspective, victims of
and final stage of emotional downsizing report increases in headaches,
reaction to downsizing, in stomach upsets, sleeping problems,
which employees accept that cholesterol levels, physical illness,
layoffs will occur and are hospitalization rates, heart trouble,
ready to take steps to secure hypertension, ulcers, vision problems, and
their future. shortness of breath. Emotionally, victims
report high levels of stress, increased drug
● Financial Counseling - As layoff victims move and alcohol abuse, more marital problems,
through the fear stage into the acceptance and feelings of depression, unhappiness,
stage, financial counseling is needed. They are anger, frustration, and dissatisfaction with life.
 Socially, victims are reluctant to share their ○ become afraid of taking risks and are
feelings with friends, avoid family and friends more apprehensive and
due to feelings of embarrassment and shame, narrow-minded;
and avoid social situations and entertainment ○ are more stressed, anxious, secretive,
requiring money. skeptical, cynical, and distrustful;
○ uations and entertainment requiring ○ have greater role conflict and
money. To reduce the effects of ambiguity;
downsizing, Beyer and colleagues ○ lose confidence in themselves and in
(1993) have this advice for layoff management;
victims: ○ have lower levels of morale and job
■ Immediately tell families satisfaction; and
■ Evaluate the reasons for the ○ feel a loss of control.
job loss. That is, was the loss Survivors will be more productive and feel more
inevitable due to problems secure if they are allowed to participate in decisions
with the organization, or and make suggestions, are given a moderate level of
could better performance, job security, are supported by supervisors and the
more current skills, or a organization, and if the layoff victims were treated
better attitude have allowed well (Kernan & Hanges, 2002; Preston, 2003).
the employee to keep his job? ● Local Community - Though not often
■ Deal with the emotions that considered, layoffs and plant closings have a
accompany a layoff (e.g., tremendous impact on the local community.
anger, disbelief, guilt, shame) Local governments suffer as their tax base
and get help if necessary and revenues are reduced, local charities such
■ Prepare for departure by as the United Way get fewer donations and
doing such things as securing often have increased demands for their
references, negotiating a services, retail stores lose business, banks
severance package, and have greater numbers of loan defaults, crime
taking advantage of rates increase, and social problems (e.g.,
outplacement opportunities. drinking, divorce) increase. On the positive
■ Take a vacation or a short rest side, layoffs result in an increase in the quality
period to help prepare for the of the available workforce. This increased
journey ahead. quality can help other employers and may
■ Plan a new course of action even result in attracting new industry.
and go forward with ● The Organization - Though many
confidence. organizations continue to downsize, it is not
● Survivors - Employees who retain their jobs clear that downsizing produces the desired
following a downsizing. At first, one might increases in organizational effectiveness.
think that an organization need not worry
about survivors—those employees not laid
off. After all, these are people who still have ----------------------------------END--------------------------------
their jobs. However, research indicates not
Chapter 15: Stress Management:
only that survivors suffer psychological
Dealing with the demand of Life
trauma but that their future productivity is and Work
related to the way in which they and their
not-so-fortunate counterparts are treated Stress - the psychological and physical reaction to
during the downsizing process. Research certain life events (stressors) or situations.
(Cascio, 2002; Marks, 2003) indicates that ● Strains - negative physical and psychological
survivors consequences of stress.
Eustress - stress that is converted into positive energy ● 3 Main Job Characteristics
and actually becomes motivating, improvements in ○ Role Conflict - occurs when our work
performance and health. expectations and what we think we
Distress - stress that results in negative energy and should be doing don’t match up with
decreases in performance and health. the work we actually have to do.
○ Role Ambiguity - occurs when an
Predisposition to Stress individual’s job duties and
performance expectations are not
Stress Personalities
clearly defined.
● Type A Personality - A stress-prone person
○ Role Overload - develops when
who is competitive, impatient, and hurried.
individuals either feel they lack the
● Type B Personality - Non-stress person who
skills or workplace resources to
is relaxed and agreeable.
complete a task or perceive that the
● Neuroticism - A personality trait characterized
task cannot be done in the required
by a tendency to experience such negative
amount of time.
emotions as anxiety, anger, and moodiness.
Note: The key to minimizing the stress that comes
Gender, Ethnicity, and Race
from role conflict, ambiguity, and overload is to get
● Much of the research on gender and stress is
clarification about your job duties.
conflicting.
○ Most women have more stress than
Organizational Stressors
men and that is depression is twice as
● Person-Organization Fit - refers to how well
common among them.
such factors as your skills, knowledge,
○ Gender is not a contributor to stress.
abilities, expectations, personality, values, and
Presently, perhaps the best
attitudes match those of the organization.
interpretation of the research on sex
● Change - occurs most often from downsizing
and stress is that women may
and restructuring.
experience certain stressors more
● Relations with Others - coworkers and
often than men, and men and women
customers can be a major source of
may react differently to certain types
workplace stress.
of stressors (Sulsky & Smith, 2005).
● Organizational Politics - self-serving behaviors
○ Members of minority groups have
employees use to increase the probability of
higher levels of stress than do
obtaining positive outcomes in organizations
nonminorities (Sulsky & Smith, 2005)
○ Positive Politics - behaviors designed
Stress Sensitization
to influence others with the goal of
● The amount of stress you have experienced
helping both the organization and the
throughout your life seems to affect how you
person playing the politics
will handle future stress.
○ Negative Politics - manipulative
Sources of Stress behaviors designed to achieve
personal gain at the expense of
Personal Stressors - Pertains to nonwork issues as others and the organization
family and intimate relationships, marriage, divorce,
health issues, financial problems, and raising children. Stressors in the Physical Work Environment
Noise
Emotions you experience with personal stressors:
● Noise Reduction
● Fear
Temperature
● Resistance
● Effective Temperature
● Resentment
○ 4 Components:
Occupational Stressors ■ Air temperature
Job Characteristics ■ Humidity
 ■ Airflow ● Smoking Reduction
■ Temperature of objects in the ● Sleep
environment ● Support Network
● Self-Empowerment
Stress Caused by Work Schedules ● Coping Skills
Shift Work
Moonlighting Stress Reduction Interventions Related to
Other Sources of Stress Life/Work Issues
● Minor Frustration - It is the stress we
Easing the Child-Care Burden
encounter in our daily lives, and it might
● On-site child-care facility
include irritations such as waiting in traffic or
● Voucher System
not being able to get some information from
● Referral Service
the library.
Easing the Elder-Care Burden
○ Perspective-taking - rating the
Easing the Daily-Chore Burden
frustration on a scale of –, with
Providing Rest Through Paid Time Off
meaning the situation is worthy of
high levels of irritation. Measuring Stress
● Forecasting - develops from our constantly
worrying about the future and wasting time Commonly Used Measures
and energy on “what ifs?” It quickly becomes ● Self-report Questionnaires
long-term stress as we continue to keep our ● Occupational Stress Inventory
minds and bodies in a fearful and anxious ● Job Stress Inventory
state. ● Maslach Burnout Inventory
● Residual Stress - stress that is carried over ● Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale
from previous stressful situations that we ● Organizational Constraints Scale
refuse to let go of. ● Qualitative Workload Inventory
● Physical Symptoms Inventory
Consquences of Stress
Workplace Violence
Personal Consequences - the consequences of how
we respond to stress. Perpetrators of Workplace Violence
Organizational Consequences ● The typical employee who engages in
● Job Performance workplace violence:
● Burnout - the state of being overwhelmed by ○ A man between ages 20 to 50
stress, is usually experienced by highly ○ Has self-esteem tied to their job and
motivated professionals faced with high work perceives they have been
demands. disrespected or unfairly treated
● Absenteeism and Turnover ○ Feels that there’s no other way of
● Drug and Alcohol Abuse resolving mistreatment other than
● Health-Care Costs violence
○ Has demonstrated a recent pattern of
Managing Stress problems at work
○ Has tried to get others to take his
Planning for Stress - consists of techniques that are
dilemma seriously by threatening,
suggested to proactively reduce stress should
harassing, intimidating, yelling, and
also be considered during times you are actually
threatening to file grievances and
engaged in stress.
lawsuits
● Exercise
○ Has begun showing signs of paranoid
● Laughter
thinking, delusions of persecution,
● Diet
and other bizarre thought patterns
 ○ Has become isolated and withdrawn
○ Has ready access to guns

Reducing Workplace Violence

● Security Measures - Increased security
measures can decrease the probability of
workplace violence.
● Employee Screening - reducing violence
committed by current and former employees
is to use psychological tests, reference checks,
and background checks to screen applicants
for violence potential.
● Management Awareness - making managers
aware of high risk situations and empowering
them to take immediate action

---------------------------------END---------------------------------
Question Bank!
Bisen, Prya Industrial Psychology
1. Define industrial psychology. Discuss its characteristics also.
2. Elaborate the scope of industrial psychology.
3. Discuss the historical development of industrial psychology.
4. Discuss the contribution of scientific management to the development of industrial psychology.
5. Write short notes on:
○ Contribution of Henry L. Gantt to scientific management
○ Contribution of Gilbreths to scientific management
○ Limitations of scientific management
6. Briefly describe the experiments conducted at the Hawthorne plant of General Electric Company, Chicago.
7. Discuss the implication and limitations of Hawthorne studies/
8. What do you understand by time and motion study?
9. “Time study is understood as setting up the method to determine the actual time for performing a particular
task.” Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
10. What are the aims and objectives of time study? Explain with the support of time study procedure.
11. What do you understand by the term “therblings?”
12. Elucidate the tools of motion study.
13. Discuss the advantages and limitations of motion study.
14. State the difference between the time and motion study.
15. Discuss the difference of motivation by which supervisors motivate their subordinates.
16. Define motivation.
17. “Motivated workers are more productive and work more efficiently.” Discuss.
18. Briefly describe Maslow's need for hierarchy theory.
19. Write notes on:
○ ERG theory
○ Theory X and Y.
○ Acquired need theory.
20. Discuss the Two factors theory of Herzberg.
21. Discuss Process theories in detail.
22. Which motivation theory is based on the relationship between behaviour and its consequences not on need?
Explain.
23. What are the implications of motivation theories in the workplace?
24. Discuss any two studies conducted on workplace motivation.
25. Give some tips for improving workers motivation.
26. What do you understand about job satisfaction?
27. Elaborate the history of job satisfaction.
28. Discuss the different factors in detail which influence job satisfaction.
29. What are the consequences of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at the workplace?
30. Point out some tips which are helpful in minimizing dissatisfaction in the workplace.
31. Define the concept of stress and also discuss the dynamics of stress.
32. Write short notes on:
○ Eustress
○ Distress
○ Hyper stress
○ Hypo stress
33. What are the different causes of stress? Explain in detail.
34. Discuss symptoms or sign of stress.
35. How do you address the cause of stress? Explain.
36. Define workplace stress. Explain the different work related stress.
37. How does management manage stress at the workplace? What are the steps they have taken to reduce the
stress at the workplace?
38. Briefly describe the organizational culture and their importance in organization.
39. What are the different types of organizational culture?
40. What are the steps taken by management for changing their organizational culture effectively?
41. Explain the concept and importance of leadership.
42. Good leader possess some good qualities. What are these good qualities?
43. Elucidate the principles of leadership.
44. How do normal leaders become great leaders? Explain with the help of process of great leadership.
45. Discuss any two leadership theories.
46. Write short notes on:
○ Great man theory
○ Trait theory
○ Behavioural theory
47. Explain participative leadership.
48. “Best action of the leader depends on a range of situational factors”. Explain.
49. Discuss the different contingency theories.
50. Compare Bass with Burn’s transformational leadership theory.
51. Elaborate leader-members exchange theory with LMX process.
52. Define group. And discuss the features of group.
53. Discuss the concept of group dynamics.
54. What are the different theories of group formation? Discuss in detail.
55. Discuss the different phases of group development proposed by Tuckman.
56. Explain the four stage model of group development.
57. Discuss the various types of group.
58. Differentiate between:
○ Formal and informal group.
○ Primary and secondary group.
○ Task and command group.
59. What are the reasons which motivate the individuals to join particular group.
60. Discuss the reasons proposed by Robbins why individuals join the group.
61. Write short notes on:
○ Group status
○ Group role
○ Group norms
○ Group size
○ Group leadership
62. Discuss the factors which influencing the group cohesiveness.
63. What do you understand by group cohesiveness? Explain with the help of their advantages.
64. Examine the importance of atmospheric condition in increasing industrial efficiency. Justify your answer with
experimental finding.
65. Give some tips for reducing adverse effect of atmospheric conditions.
66. Explain the significance of “Observation” and “Interview” as sources of information for job-analysis.
67. What do you understand by ‘work environment’? Analyze the importance of music in improving the efficiency
of workers.
68. How illuminations affect the efficiency of worker? What are the difficulties comes from illumination and
advising tips for reducing that difficulty?
69. Discuss the influence of long working hours in the efficiency of workers.
70. Suitable working condition is required for high production. Discuss.
71. Describe the importance of reducing noise at workplace. Support your answer with experimental studies.
72. Explain the term Industrial fatigue with example.
73. What are the different types of Industrial fatigue?
74. Why do we get fatigued?
75. What are the basic symptoms of fatigue?
76. Discuss the causes and remedies of Industrial fatigue.
77. Describe some experiments which has boned on Industrial fatigue.
78. What are the effects of fatigue on Industrial workers?
79. Define Industrial boredom.
80. (80) Describe the effect of boredom on industrial work.
81. What are the action taken by the management to reduce the boredom of their workers?
82. Discuss the different causes and remedies of boredom.
83. Define the concept of industrial accident.
84. What are different causes of industrial accident?
85. What is meant by accident proneness?
86. ‘Accident not only affects the workers but also affect management. Explain.
87. Write notes on:
 ○ Accident cost
○ Accident measurement
88. How industries prevent accident? Give some safety measure.
89. Write down some safety measures given by 'US department of Labour’ in 1947.
90. Define the concept of job analysis and also job analysis contents.
91. Why job analysis is important?
92. Discuss the different methods of job analysis
93. Write short notes on:
○ Work participation method.
○ Diary method
○ Group interview
○ Questionnaire method
94. How do you define recruitment? Also discuss need of recruitment.
95. What are the objectives of recruitment?
96. Discuss the process of recruitment.
97. What are the factors which influence the recruitment?
98. Discuss the different sources of recruitment.
99. How selection is different from recruitment process? What is the objective behind selection?
100. Discuss selection process in detail.
101. Figure out the importance of reliability and validity test.
102. Define reliability test. And also their types.
103. What do you understand by validity test? Explain with the help of their different types.
104. Is there any relationship in reliability and validity? Explain.
105. Define the concept of performance management.
106. Discuss objectives of performance management.
107. Explain the process of performance management.
108. Elaborate the approaches of performance development.
109. Discuss any two methods of traditional and modern method of performance management.
110. Write short notes on:
○ Checklist method
○ Straight ranking method
○ Critical incident method
○ Group appraisal method
111. 'MBO' is the modern method for evaluation of worker performance. Explain MBO with its process.
112. What do you understand by 360° performance appraisal system?
113. Write notes on:
○ (i) BARS
○ (ii) Assessment centre
○ (iii) Human resource accounting
114. Define the concept of training and development.
115. How training is different from development?
116. Elaborate the importance of training and development.
117. Explain the process of training.
118. Tiffin and McCormick classify training in seven categories, what are these categories?
119. Discuss the different types of training.
120. How management evaluate the effectiveness of training program?