PHYSICS FOR EVERYDAY LIFE

UNIT-1
MECHANICAL OBJECTS
1.1.BOUNCING BALL

The bouncing ball is a classic example used to study projectile motion in

mechanics. Projectile motion refers to the curved path objects near the earth's surface
follow due to gravity. When the ball hits the ground, it deforms and bounces back
up because of the force applied by the floor. As the ball bounces, it gains kinetic
energy and loses potential energy. Newton's third law states that every action has an
equal and opposite reaction, and the coefficient of restitution measures the ratio of
final to initial speed after a collision.

The motion of the ball can be divided into stages, each with its own direction
and velocity. As the ball bounces, it experiences damping, which reduces its
amplitude and eventually brings it to a stop due to friction forces like air resistance.
The ball's motion is not simple harmonic because its acceleration is not proportional
to its displacement from an equilibrium position.

Stages of bouncing ball example

When the ball reaches its maximum height, it briefly stops moving and
changes the direction of its velocity from positive to negative. At the lowest point,
the ball has its minimum potential energy and changes its velocity from negative to
positive.

The ball's acceleration is always downwards due to gravity. These stages can
be shown visually using three graphs: displacement, velocity, and acceleration vs.
time.

The displacement of the ball at 50 seconds can be found by using the area
under the graph, which is equal to the displacement. The area of the triangle can be
found using the formula: Area = (1/2) × base × height. The velocity of the ball before
it hits the ground from a height of three metres can be found by using the
conservation of energy. We equate the potential energy and the kinetic energy, and
rearrange with respect to velocity: v = √2gh, where g is the acceleration due to
gravity and h is the height of the ball.

Geometric sequence
A geometric sequence is a sequence where each term is related the previous
term by a common ratio, denoted by r. The nth term of a geometric sequence is given
by an = ar^(n-1), where a is the first term of the sequence. The sum of n terms of a
geometric sequence is given by the formula Sn = a(1-r^n)/(1-r). For an infinite
geometric sequence with a common ratio between 0 and 1, the sum of an infinite
number of terms can be calculated using the formula S∞ = a/(1-r). This is because
as n approaches infinity, r^n approaches zero, making the expression (1-r^n)/(1-r)
approach 1/(1-r).

Relation of geometric sequence and a bouncing ball

To model the height of a bouncing ball using a geometric sequence, we can
assume that the ball bounces to a fraction of its previous height with each bounce.
Let the initial height of the ball be h, and let the ball bounce to a fraction of k of its
previous height with each bounce. Then, the height of the ball after n bounces is
given by hn = h(k)^n. The sequence hn is a geometric sequence with first term h and
common ratio k. The height of the ball after the nth bounce is proportional to the nth
power of the common ratio k. As the ball bounces, the height of the ball decreases
over time until it eventually comes to a stop. This loss of energy is due to various
factors such as air resistance and the ball's elasticity. Therefore, the sequence hn
approaches zero as n approaches infinity.

Height-Time graph of a bouncing ball

For Solution A, we are given that the ball falls from a height of 6 metres and
rebounds to 38% of its previous height. This means that the common ratio k = 0.38.
We need to find the total distance traveled by the ball until it hits the ground for the
5th time. To do this, we use the formula for the sum of the first n terms of a geometric
sequence:
 Sn = a(1-k^n)/(1-k)

Here, a is the first term of the sequence, which is 6 metres, and n is 5.

Substituting these values and solving for Sn, we get:

Sn = 6(1-0.38^5)/(1-0.38) = 8.456 metres

However, this distance includes both the upward and downward travel of the
ball. To find the total distance traveled, we need to multiply this value by 2, giving
us:

Total distance = 2 x 8.456 = 16.912 metres

For Solution B, we are asked to find the distance of travel if the ball bounces
infinitely, without losing any energy. In this case, we can use the formula for the
sum of an infinite geometric sequence:

S∞ = a/(1-k)

Substituting the given values, we get:

S∞ = 6/(1-0.38) = 9.677 metres

Again, this distance includes both the upward and downward travel of the ball,
so the total distance traveled would be:

Total distance = 2 x 9.677 = 19.354 metres

Therefore, the total distance traveled by the ball in this ideal scenario would
be 19.354 metres.

Suppose, I'm dropping a rubber ball on the floor and it bounces back up. I'm
trying to understand this by considering the forces, and not using momentum,
collision, or energy.

Eventually, the ball would come to rest, due to dissipation of energy, and when
that happens, the normal reaction of the floor on the ball would be equal to the weight
of the ball, due to electrostatic force.
1.2. SPRING SCALE
The spring scale is designed to measure the overall weight of an object. Many
are confused in saying that the spring scale measures mass, but it does not.

How do I use a spring scale

To use a spring scale, hang the device or hold it tightly in your hand. Place
the object to be weighed on the hook. Allow the scale to settle and cease any
movement. Look at the dial on the spring scale and note where the indicator is
pointing. That number is the weight of your object in the units shown on the scale.

Spring scale and what does it measure

A spring scale is a device used to measure an object's weight. Using a spring
mechanism and the concept of Hooke's Law, weight is determined by the movement
of the spring in the scale. The further the spring stretches, the heavier the object is.

Spring Scale Meaning

The spring scale definition means a tool for measuring weight or force. Also
known as a spring balance or newton meter, this device is used primarily to weigh
items or objects by attaching them to a hook at the bottom of the device.

These devices work based on Hooke's Law, which states that the force or
weight that extends a spring is directly related to the distance that the spring is
extended from its resting position. The spring scale converts this extension to
measuring weight using an analog or digital gauge attached to the device.
 Image of Handheld Spring Scale

What Is a Spring Scale

Say you're walking through the grocery store looking for something to make
for tonight's dinner. You notice that organic broccoli is on sale for $1.50 per pound.
Since you love steamed broccoli, you grab a bundle.

Not wanting to be surprised by the price when you check out, you search for
a produce scale. You find one hanging from the ceiling not too far away, and drop
your broccoli in the basket.

The scale bounces around for a moment and the dial above the basket finally
settles on a weight of just under one pound. Congratulations! Not only have you
found a tasty and nutritious side dish, you have also just used a spring scale!

A spring scale, sometimes called a spring balance, is a device used to measure

the weight of an object. It hangs from above and consists of a spring with a hook at
the bottom where you can attach an object.

Notice that we said a spring scale measures the weight of an object, not its
mass. In everyday speech, we use mass and weight interchangeably (and we'll
discuss why a little bit later).
 In science however, these terms have very different meanings. It is important
to recognize these differences in order to properly understand how a spring scale
works. Now, let's look at the difference between mass and weight.

Function:
What is a spring scale used for?

Most experiences with the spring scale in daily life determine the weight of
an item or items - the device functions when an object is attached to the hook at the
bottom of the device. The weight of the object causes the spring to be extended. The
distance of the extension is directly translated into the weight of the product and is
presented on an easy-to-read dial or screen. The devices function straightforwardly
and are used in a multitude of ways. Other common uses of the spring scale are
shown below. Force

Working :
The spring scale is a device used to measure the weight of an object. By
placing an item on the hook or pan at the bottom of a spring scale, force is applied
to a spring inside the device. As this spring stretches or moves, the distance that it
travels is translated into a measurement of weight shown on a dial or screen. The
spring scale operates on a concept known as Hooke's Law. This law of
physics implies that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force
applied to it. In scientific applications, this force is measured in newtons, as that is
the standard of measurement in working with force applications.
 The spring scale was invented in or around 1770 to replace the balance scale.
The balance scale required counterweights to produce an accurate measurement, and
the industrial revolution required something more precise. British balance-maker
Richard Salter is credited with the invention of the revolutionary device. His
invention has been used commonly in domestic and commercial environments, and
it continues to be widely used today.

Spring is a tool used daily by many of us and their inertia are frequently
neglected by assuming it as massless. It’s an extremely casual activity that a Spring
when strained, undergoes displacement when it is compacted it gets compressed and
when it is free it comes to its equilibrium position. This fact tells us that spring exerts
an equal as well as an opposite force on a body which compresses or stretches it.

The Spring force formula is given by,

F = k(x – x0)

Where,
the spring force is F,
the equilibrium position is xo
the displacement of the spring from its position at equilibrium is x,
the spring constant is k.
The negative sign tells that the visualized spring force is a restoring force and acts
in the opposite direction.

1.3.ROCKET

• Rocket Propulsion
Rocket propulsion is defined as
The force that is used by the rocket to take off from the ground and into the
atmosphere.

The principle on which rocket propulsion works is based on Newton’s third law of
motion. Here, the fuel is forcibly ejected from the exit such that an equal and
opposite reaction occurs.
 • Rocket Propulsion Diagram

In the below diagram, there is a simplified diagram of liquid-fuel rockets and solid-
fuel rockets.

In a liquid-fuel rocket, the following things are found:

• A liquid rocket fuel such as liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen

• An oxidizer
 • Pumps to carry the fuel and the oxidizer

• A combustion chamber where the two liquids mix and burn

• A hot exhaust choke

• Exit from where the exhaust is removed

In a solid-fuel rocket, the following things are found:

• A solid fuel-oxidizer mixture with a cylindrical hole in the middle
(ammonium nitrate, ammonium dinitramide)

• An igniter to combust the propellant surface

• The hole in the middle of the propellant act as a combustion chamber

• The hot exhaust is choked at the throat

• Exit from where the exhaust is removed

Types of Rocket Propulsion

The following are the different types of rocket propulsion:

• Liquid-fuel chemical propulsion

• Solid fuel chemical propulsion

• Cold-gas chemical propulsion

• Ion

Acceleration of Rocket
The acceleration of the rocket is given as:

a=ve/m Δm/Δt−g

Where,
• a is the acceleration of the rocket
 • ve is the exhaust velocity

• m is the mass of the rocket

• Δm is the mass of the ejected gas

• Δt is the time taken to eject the gas

• g is the acceleration due to gravity

Factors Affecting Rocket’s Acceleration

1. The acceleration will be greater when the exhaust velocity ve of
the gases is greater with respect to the rocket.

2. The acceleration is greater when the fuel in the rocket is burned

faster.

3. As the mass of the rocket decreases, greater will the

acceleration.

1.4. BICYCLE
Bicycles working
The science behind this ‘simple’ machine.

Bicycles are used by millions of people worldwide, for various reasons.

People bicycle to work out, commute, deliver packages, compete in races, or just
ride for fun. Riding a bicycle might seem easy to some, but it’s actually very
complex. Both the rider and the bike play an integral role in the process, which is
really more of a science than an art. So, how exactly does this two-wheeled object
get us from Point A to Point B?

Bicycles turn energy created by our bodies into kinetic energy. Kinetic
energy is “a property of a moving object or particle and depends not only on its
motion but also on its mass” (Encyclopedia Britannica). If work, which transfers
energy, is done on an object by applying a net force, the object speeds up and thereby
gains kinetic energy. A bicycle can convert up to 90 percent of a person’s energy
and movement into kinetic energy. This energy is then used to move the bike. The
rider’s balance and momentum help keep the bike stable while traveling along a
path.

How Bicycle Wheels Work

A bicycle wheel and the axle it turns is an example of a simple machine. It’ll
accumulate force (speed) depending on how you turn it. Bicycle wheels are typically
taller than most car wheels. The taller the wheels, the more they multiply your speed
when you turn the axle.

The wheels ultimately support your entire weight but in a very interesting
way. If bicycle wheels were completely solid, they’d squash down as you sat on the
seat and push back up to support you. However, the wheels of most bikes are formed
by using a strong hub with a thin rim and several spokes. Bicycles have spoked
wheels to make them both strong and lightweight and to lessen drag.

How Bicycle Gears Work

Gears linked by the chain make the machine go faster or make it easier to
pedal. Gears are also an example of a simple machine. Gears can make an incredible
difference to your speed. Say the gear ratio on a racing bike is 5:1. This means a
single spin of the pedals will power you about 35 feet down the street.
 The force used by pedaling enables the gears of a bike to spin the back wheel.
As the back wheel rotates, the tire uses friction to grip the area and move the bike in
the desired direction. How much energy are we talking about? You can generate
about 10 watts of energy with a hand-cranked electricity generator, though you can’t
use one of those for very long without getting tired. This tells us that it’s much easier
to generate large amounts of power for longer time periods by using your big leg
muscles than by using your arms and hands. Bikes make great use of the most
powerful muscles in our body.

How Bicycle Brakes Work

No matter how fast you pedal, you’re always going to need to stop. Brakes on
a bicycle work using friction. Although some bikes now have disc brakes, many still
use traditional caliper-operated rim brakes with shoes.
 When you press the brake levers, a pair of rubber shoes clamps onto the metal
inner rim of the front and back wheels. As the brake shoes rub firmly against the
wheels, they turn your kinetic energy into heat, which has the effect of slowing you
down

How Bicycle Handlebars Work

The handlebars of a bicycle are actually a type of lever. Longer handlebars
provide leverage, which makes it easier to pivot the front wheel of the bike. The
further apart you space your arms, the more air resistance you create. The typical
outer parts of the handlebars are for steering, and the inner parts are for gliding.

The apparently simple two-wheeled machine uses momentum, force, and

friction and converts energy to get riders to their destination. Whether you’re
teaching the physics of a bike or a lesson on the simple machines used, there are
many exercises (no pun intended) to be learned on bicycleswork
1.5.ROLLER COASTERS
Have you ever wondered how roller coasters are able to go from a complete
stop to full speed in just a few seconds? Or how they are able to navigate steep drops
and sharp turns while still providing a safe ride? The answer to these questions lies
in the principles of potential and kinetic energy.

So come along for the ride and delve into the amazing physics of roller
coasters and discover the potential and kinetic energy at work.

Physics Of Roller Coasters

Let’s understand the physics of roller coasters and their work with the help of
the illustration which is given below.

Roller coasters are unique in that they don't have an engine or power source
of their own. Instead, they rely on the initial energy provided by the lift hill to get
the ride started. This initial energy is stored as potential energy due to the height of
the coaster, and as it descends and picks up speed, it is converted into kinetic energy.
 The forces of inertia, gravity and centripetal force all play a role in the
experience of a roller coaster. Inertia determines how a body will continue moving
in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force. Gravitational force pulls the
coaster and its riders downward, while centripetal force is responsible for the circular
motion of the coaster as it goes through turns.

The centripetal force keeps the coaster car moving in a circular path as it goes
through turns. This force acts inward, towards the centre of the turn, and is equal to
the mass of the car multiplied by its acceleration. Friction and air resistance also play
a role, as they can slow down the coaster car and affect its speed.

Throughout the ride, the law of conservation of energy states that the total
energy of the system must remain constant. This means that as the potential energy
of the coaster decreases due to its height, the kinetic energy increases to compensate,
giving the coaster its speed and thrill.

The roller coaster cars accumulate a significant amount of potential energy by

being lifted to the summit of the initial hill. The formula for potential energy is
expressed as:

PE = mgh

where:

PE = potential energy

m = mass of the object

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2 at the Earth's surface)

h = height of the object above the ground

 This equation demonstrates that the potential energy stored in an object is
directly proportional to its mass, the acceleration due to gravity, and the height of
the object above the ground. As the roller coaster cars are lifted to the top of the first
hill, they are storing a large amount of potential energy due to their height.

As they descend, this potential energy is gradually converted into kinetic

energy, providing the speed and thrill of the ride.The cars are driven downhill by the
force of gravity, and as they descend, they pick up speed and acceleration. The height
of the first drop from the first hill is a key factor in determining the speed of the
coaster cars. The longer the drop, the greater the acceleration due to gravity. As the
roller coaster cars move along the track, the energy constantly alternates between
kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential energy (stored energy due to height).
This back-and-forth conversion of energy is what provides the thrill and excitement
of the ride.

Theoretically, the constant conversion of energy means that the roller coaster
should never stop, but in reality, this is not the case. The frictional force generated
by the wheels rubbing against the track, as well as air resistance and the rattling noise
produced by the ride, all consume some of the initial potential energy stored by
lifting the coaster to the top of the hill. As a result, the cars eventually run out of
energy and come to a stop. To account for this, the loops at the end of the ride are
made smaller, allowing the cars to slow down gradually and come to a smooth stop.

Inertia And Centripetal Force

A significant aspect of a roller coaster's motion is due to a force known as

centripetal force. This is the force that is directed towards the centre of a circular
path and acts upon an object moving in a circular motion, keeping it on track and
preventing it from departing from its circular path.

On a roller coaster, when it takes a tight turn, riders feel like they are being
pushed away from the loop. This is due to inertia. Even when you are in an upside-
down loop, the force of the roller coaster's acceleration during the turn is greater than
the pull of gravity. This acceleration force is what keeps you in your seat and
prevents you from falling out while you're upside down.

It's important to mention that the design of the loops in a roller coaster must
not be circular, but elliptical, as circular loops would generate an excessive
centripetal force that would make the ride too intense and uncomfortable for riders.

With an understanding of different forces like inertia, Centripetal Force and

the concept of potential and kinetic energy, the next time you ride a roller coaster,
you'll be able to recognize why you feel a particular sensation, whether it be
excitement, fear, or dizziness.

1.6. SPACE TRAVEL

For decades, humans have traveled into space to explore what lies beyond
Earth's atmosphere. Review a brief history of space travel, discover its benefits, and
explore its risks and dangers to the people, animals, and spacecraft.

Brief History of Space Travel

'That's one small step for man...one giant leap for mankind.' These famous
words were spoken by astronaut Neil Armstrong as he stepped onto the moon in
1969 - the first person to ever do so. The Apollo 11 mission that took Armstrong and
his fellow astronauts to the moon was a landmark event, but space travel actually
began many years before.

Almost 30 years earlier, in 1942, the German V2 rocket was the first to reach
the official boundary of space. A few years later, in 1947, the first animals were sent
into space - these were fruit flies! Scientists tested the effects of space travel on these
fruit flies because the effects on their bodies could tell them a lot about the effects
that would likely occur with other animals. A few years later, in 1949, the first
monkey (named 'Albert II') was sent into space

Benefits of Space Exploration

You are likely familiar with NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. They are the U.S. government agency that's in charge of the space
program and conducts space research. It sounds like a lot of fun to travel to space,
but it's also important to collect information about space, Earth, and general aviation
during these missions.

Risks of Space Travel

There are, of course, two sides to every story, and space travel certainly does
not come without risk. I have already alluded to one major risk - human health. Our
bodies have a difficult time adjusting to micro-gravity environments, and astronauts'
limited use of bones and muscles while in space can damage these vital tissues.
Humans traveling in space are also at great risk for barotrauma, decompression
sickness (also known as 'the bends'), and immune system issues.

The atmosphere on Earth provides a large amount of protection from cosmic

radiation, but without an atmosphere surrounding us, we are much more susceptible
to this danger. This is one reason that space travel by humans to places like Mars
would be very dangerous to our health. Astronauts traveling this far would be at a
much greater risk for dangerous radiation exposure, which can lead to various
diseases like cancer.

The Four Types of Space Travel

The dream of reaching the stars has long been a part of human imagination,
and with technological advancements, space travel has transitioned from fantasy to
reality. There are four primary types of space travel that enable humanity to explore
the vastness of space: robotic space travel, manned spaceflight, commercial space
travel, and interplanetary space travel.

• Robotic Space Travel

Robotic space travel involves sending unmanned spacecraft to various celestial

bodies. These robotic explorers, such as the Mars rovers or the Voyager probes, have
been instrumental in gathering data about our solar system and beyond. They can
endure harsh environments and operate for extended periods, making them perfect
for missions that would be too dangerous or lengthy for humans.

• Manned Spaceflight

Manned spaceflight is perhaps the most captivating form of space exploration.

It involves sending astronauts into space aboard spacecraft like the International
Space Station (ISS). This type of travel allows for direct human interaction with the
space environment, conducting experiments that robots cannot and paving the way
for future colonization efforts.

• Commercial Space Travel

Commercial space travel is a burgeoning industry, with companies like SpaceX and
Blue Origin leading the charge. This sector aims to make space more accessible for
private citizens, researchers, and businesses, potentially revolutionizing how we
approach space exploration and utilization.

• Interplanetary Space Travel

Interplanetary space travel is the next frontier, involving missions to other planets
within our solar system. While still in the early stages, projects like NASA’s Artemis
program aim to return humans to the Moon and eventually send astronauts to Mars,
expanding our presence in the cosmos.
 SKILL - PHYSICS FOR EVERYDAY LIFE
UNIT :2
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS AND LASER
2.1.VISION CORRECTIVE LENSES:
➢ Correcting Vision Using Lenses
In this explainer, we will learn how to use different kinds of lenses to correct
human vision.

When our eyes are working properly, we see objects around us clearly.

The objects might be nearby, such as a coin within arm’s length, as shown

below.

The objects might also be far away. Consider the diagram below, which shows
how light rays from an increasingly distant mountain reach our eyes.

This diagram shows that the farther from the mountain the eye is, the smaller
the angle between the rays from the base and the top is, and the more nearly parallel
these rays are.
At a great distance, this is approximated by the following diagram.

Objects look clear (not blurry) to us when our eyes are able to focus the light
coming from them. Notice that the eye does not need to bend light rays from faraway
objects (like the mountain) as much as it needs to bend light coming from objects
nearby (like the coin) in order to see them clearl

In a healthy eye, a part of the eye called the lens focuses incoming light on the
back of the eye, as shown below.

At the back of the eye is a part called the retina. When light is brought to a
focus on the retina, as shown above, we see a clear, sharp image.

So far we have considered only healthy vision, where the lens is able to focus
incoming light on the retina at the back of the eye.

Proper vision depends on the shape of the eyeball. If the eyeball shape
becomes irregular, the lens may no longer be able to focus light on the retina.
➢ NEARSIGHTED EYE :

The following diagram shows a healthy eye (on the left) alongside
a misshapen eye.

Notice that the light entering the misshapen eye comes to a focus before it
reaches the retina. As the diagram shows, once this light reaches the retina, it will
not be in focus. The result is a blurry, distorted image.

An eye that focuses light to a point before the light reaches the retina is said
to be nearsighted. This name is given because a nearsighted eye can bring into focus
objects that are nearby, but not objects that are far away.

Nearsighted eyes focus some incoming light too much, bending it so the rays
meet before they reach the retina at the back of the eye. Other eyes, however, focus
incoming light too little so that the rays of light do not come to a focus at all inside
the eye.

➢ FARSIGHTED EYE:

Consider the diagram below.

 The eye on the right is narrower and taller than the normal eye. Because of
this eye’s shape, it is unable to focus some light rays to a point inside the eye. Once
again, the image formed is blurred.

The narrower eye is said to be farsighted. Farsighted eyes are able to produce
clear images of faraway objects, while objects nearby look fuzzy and indistinct.

Nearsighted eyes and farsighted eyes both suffer from limits on how much the
eye’s lens can focus light.

These limits can be changed by using lenses—such as those in a pair of

eyeglasses—outside the eye.

➢ LENSES FOR VISION CORRECTION:

In general, a pair of eyeglasses might have two types of lenses.

1) CONCAVE LENS

2) CONVEX LENS

One type makes incoming light rays spread apart, while the other type makes
those rays focus to a point.

1)CONCAVE LENS FOR CORRECTING NEARSIGHTED EYE:

A lens that spreads out incoming light is called a diverging or concave lens.
An example of a concave lens is shown below.
 By diverging incoming light, a concave lens can correct a particular vision
problem.

Recall that nearsighted eyes focus light too much, making light rays from
distant objects focus to a point before they reach the retina.

By placing a concave lens in front of a nearsighted eye, incoming light rays

are first spread out (by the concave lens) and then focused (by the lens in the eye).
The result is a set of rays focused at the retina, as shown in the following diagram.

Putting a concave lens in front of a nearsighted eye can correct the eye’s vision
problem. It is now able to focus light rays from faraway objects onto the retina,
producing clear images.
 While concave lenses are one type of lens we might use for eyeglasses, the
second common type are called convex lenses.

2) CONVEX LENS FOR CORRECTING FARSIGHTED EYE:

Convex lenses focus light rays to a point, as shown below.

Convex lenses can correct the vision of a farsighted eye. Recall that a
farsighted eye is unable to focus light from nearby objects on the retina.

However, if a convex lens is placed in front of a farsighted eye, this problem

can be corrected as follows.

2.2.COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY
Today we take colour photography for granted. Taking pictures in full, natural
colour is so easy that we don’t pause to consider how it all came about. Yet the
search for a cheap and simple process of colour photography was a long and difficult
quest.
 This story explores the different approaches early inventors and entrepreneurs
took in the race to develop a successful colour photographic process, from hand-
colouring
COLOUR FIRST ADDED TO PHOTOGRAPHS:
In 1839, when photographs were seen for the very first time, they were greeted
with a sense of wonder. However, this amazement was soon mixed
with disappointment.
People didn’t understand how a process that could record all aspects of a scene
with such exquisite detail could fail so dismally to record its colours. The search
immediately began for a means of capturing accurately not only the form but also
the colours of nature.
While scientists, photographers, businessmen and experimenters laboured, the
public became impatient. Photographers, eager to give their customers what they
wanted, soon took the matter, literally, into their own hands and began to add colour
to their monochrome images. As the writer of A Guide to Painting Photographic
Portraits noted in 1851:
When the photographer has succeeded in obtaining a good likeness, it passes
into the artist’s hands, who, with skill and colour, give to it a life-like and natural
appearance.
Several different processes and materials were used for hand-colouring, which
proved to be a cheaper, simpler alternative to early colour processes. It provided
studio employment for miniature painters who had initially felt threatened by the
emergence of photography.
In skilled hands, effects of great subtlety and beauty could be achieved.
However, even at its very best, hand-colouring remained an unsatisfactory means of
recording colour; it could not reproduce the colours of nature exactly.
Photographs could already capture light and shade. What was required was a
process that could capture colour in the same way.
THE BIRTH OF THE THREE-COLOUR PROCESS:
Before colour could be reproduced, the nature of light—and how we
perceive colour—had to be clearly understood.
 The scientific investigation of colour began in the 17th century. In 1666, Sir
Isaac Newton split sunlight with a prism to show that it was actually a combination
of the seven colours of the spectrum.
Nearly 200 years later, in 1861, a young Scottish physicist, James Clerk
Maxwell, conducted an experiment to show that all colours can be made by an
appropriate mixture of red, green and blue light.
Maxwell made three lantern slides of a tartan ribbon through red, green and
blue filters. Using three separate magic lanterns—each equipped with a filter of the
same colour the images had been made with—he then projected them onto a
screen.
When the three images were superimposed together on the screen, they
combined to make a full-colour image which was a recognisable reproduction of
the original.
EARLY EXPERIMENTS IN COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY:
While the fundamental theory may have been understood, a practical method
of colour photography remained elusive.
In 1891 Gabriel Lippmann, a professor of physics at the Sorbonne,
demonstrated a colour process which was based on the phenomenon of light
interference—the interaction of light waves that produces the brilliant colours you
see in soap bubbles. This process won Lippmann a Nobel Prize in 1908 and was
marketed commercially for a short time around the turn of the 19th century.
Not long after Maxwell’s 1861 demonstration, a French physicist, Louis
Ducos du Hauron, announced a method for creating colour photographs by
combining coloured pigments instead of light.
Three black-and-white negatives, taken through red, green and blue filters,
were used to make three separately dyed images which combined to give a coloured
photograph. This method forms the basis of today’s colour processes.
While this work was scientifically important, it was of limited practical value
at first. Exposure times were long, and photographic materials sensitive to the whole
range of the colour spectrum were not yet available.

THE JOLY PROCESS:

 Instead of making three separate exposures through red, green and blue
filters, a simpler approach was to make just one exposure through a filter that
combined all three primary colours.
The first process to use this method was devised by Dr John Joly of
Dublin in 1894. Joly covered a glass plate with very fine red, green and blue lines
(less than 0.1mm wide) in order to create a three-coloured filter screen.
When taking a photograph, this screen was placed in the camera in front of
the plate. After exposure and reversal processing, the black-and-white positive
image was carefully placed in register with another filter screen. The result was a
colour transparency which could be viewed by transmitted light (light that passes
through an object).
The Joly process was introduced commercially in 1895 and remained on the
market for a few years. However, the limited colour sensitivity of the
plates meant the results were not very successful.

Color models explain how colors work, interact and how we replicate color.

APPLICATION OF COLOR THEORY:

⚫ Additive color models

⚫ subtractive color models

are an application of color theory.

1) ADDITIVE COLOR MODELS:

THE FIRST ADDITIVE COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY PROCESSES
The first processes for colour photography appeared in the 1890s. Based on
the theory demonstrated in the 1860s by James Clerk Maxwell, they reproduced
colour by mixing red, green and blue light. These processes are known as ‘additive’
colour processes.
Cameras, televisions, phones and computer monitors use the additive
color model. The additive color model describes how light produces color. The
additive colors are red, green and blue, or RGB.

Additive color starts with black and adds red, green and blue light to
produce the visible spectrum of colors. As more color is added, the result is
lighter. When all three colors are combined equally, the result is white light.

On digital devices, a red, green or blue element is activated by an electrical

charge causing them to glow. These elements are called sub -pixels. By
combining the three colors, the desired hue is created in one pixel. The pixels
are then formed like tiny mosaics to create a picture. Hence , the unit of
measurement for a digital graphic is PPI (Pixels Per Inch).

An example of how applying each light channel, red, green and blue, to a
full-color photograph alters its color appearance. The RGB model is primarily used
for screen displays.
2) SUBTRACTIVE COLOR MODELS:

In the subtractive color model, pigment is used to produce color using

reflected light. This color model is used in printing, silk-screening, painting and
other mediums that add pigment to a substrate.
 The subtractive colors are cyan, yellow, magenta and black, also known
as CMYK. Subtractive color begins with white (paper) and ends with black; as
color is added, the result is darker. Printers use cyan, magenta and yellow inks
in various percentages to control the amount of red, green and blue light
reflected from white paper.
In theory, adding equal amounts of cyan, yellow and magenta will
produce black, but in reality, the result is often a very muddy dark brown. To
produce a true black, black pigment is added. Black is referred to as "K," or the
key color, and is also used to add density.
On a piece of paper, cyan, magenta, yellow and black pigments are distributed
by the print head in tints. A tint is a screen of tiny dots appearing as a percentage
of one color. The overlapping dots create the illusion of a hue. The various tints
are then printed in overlapping patterns to create a picture. Hence, the unit of
measurement for a print graphic is DPI (Dots Per Inch).

• When to Choose RGB vs CMYK

It is important to choose the correct color model at the beginning of
the project to get the best results. If the final product is for print, remember to
convert the color mode from RGB to CMYK. If the final product will only
appears on a screen or monitor, keep the color mode as RGB.
Because additive colors use transmitted light, the colors appear much
brighter and create a larger visible spectrum, producing millions of colors on a
screen. Subtractive colors use reflected light, so they appear muted in contrast.
Limited by the ink pigments and tints, a printer can only replicate several
hundred thousand colors.
Because of this, the RGB colors on a monitor do not always equally
translate into CMYK colors when printed on paper or other substrates.Use this
graphic as a quick reference to important basics for choosing between additive
and subtractive colors for your next project.
2.3.POLAROID CAMERA:
Instant photography has a certain charm that digital photography cannot
replicate. The ability to capture a moment and have it develop right before your eyes
is something truly magical. One of the pioneers of instant photography was
Polaroid, a company that revolutionised the world of photography with its unique
film technology. In this article, we will delve into the science behind Polaroid film
and explore how it works.
BEGINNING OF POLAROID FILM:
Polaroid film was invented by Edwin H. Land, who founded Polaroid
Corporation in 1937. Land was a physicist who was fascinated by the interaction
between light and matter. He was convinced that he could create a film that would
develop instantly, without the need for a darkroom. After several years of
experimentation, he finally succeeded in creating a film that would develop in just
60 seconds.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF POLAROID CAMERA:

The basic principle behind Polaroid film is the chemical reaction that occurs
when light strikes certain chemicals. Polaroid film is made up of three layers: the top
layer is a transparent plastic cover sheet, the middle layer is the film emulsion, and
the bottom layer is a developing agent. When light enters the camera and hits the
film, it initiates a chemical reaction that starts the development process.
The film emulsion contains millions of tiny dye molecules that are suspended
in a gelatine layer. When light strikes the film, it causes the dye molecules to become
excited and move around in the gelatine. The developing agent in the bottom layer
of the film then draws the dye molecules down into the layer, where they become
trapped in a clear plastic layer that forms the final image.
 The invention of Polaroid cameras marked the beginning of a new era for
photography. Today, we may take for granted the ability to instantly analyse our
photos – zooming in on details on a digital screen before declaring the result
unsuitable and taking another.
But prior to the 1950s, photographers had to wait between 30 minutes and two
hours for their photos to be developed. If an image turned out badly, your subject
could be gone, along with your opportunity for the perfect shot. This was until one
man sought to change all that.
Instant photography was brought about by Edwin Land, although his three-
year-old daughter also gets some of the credit. When spending a day at the beach,
she didn’t understand why she couldn’t see the picture her father had taken of her.
This made Land ask himself the same question, sparking the ideas that circulated in
his mind. The outcome meant his daughter would grow up never needing to wait for
a photograph again.
The first instant camera appeared in 1947. Named after its inventor, it was
called the Land Camera. Consisting of a roll of positive paper and developing
chemicals, the camera worked by bringing the exposed negative and the positive
paper together through rollers. In the click of a button, the camera’s shutter opened,
allowing light to enter.
This hit the extremely photosensitive film, and the light recreated the scene
before the camera. Light energy ionised the film’s silver halide coatings, converting
them to metallic silver atoms. The number of silver atoms on each part of the film
was proportional to the light exposed on the image. After around 60 seconds, the
negative paper was peeled from the positive image to reveal the finished photograph.
Polaroid’s Land Camera gained instant popularity, selling out on the first day.
The product made $5 million in its first year, and at Polaroid’s peak 1 billion shots
were being snapped a year.
INSTANT COLOURISATION:
In 1963 Polaroid launched its instant colour film after the invention of dye-
developer molecules. Whereas black and white instant cameras use one film covered
in silver halides, coloured Polaroids have three, with each coating representing a
different part of the light spectrum: blue, green and red.
Colour photography wasn’t new, but there was something striking about
holding a picture identical to what stood before you just seconds before. As well as
amateurs using it to create lasting memories, renowned photographers also praised
this new addition. Andy Warhol used these cameras to create early selfies, and his
photographs of himself and others acted as a sketchbook, inspiring his colourful
work.
Warhol took his Polaroid camera everywhere with him, continuously shooting
and documenting his surroundings. When he died he left over 60,000 Polaroids and
snapshots behind.
THE MAGIC OF INSTANT DEVELOPMENT:
What makes Polaroid film so unique is the way in which it develops. Unlike
traditional film, which requires a darkroom and chemical processing, Polaroid film
is designed to develop instantly. When the image is captured, the developing agent
in the film is activated and begins to spread through the layers. The process takes
around 60 seconds, and the final image appears before your eyes.
The Polaroid camera plays a crucial role in the development process. The
camera contains rollers that squeeze the developing agent across the film, spreading
it evenly and creating a uniform image.
DOES POLAROID FILM FADE:
After shooting a Polaroid photo, the lifespan of the image largely depends on
how it's stored and handled. Polaroid film is susceptible to fading and deterioration
over time, especially if exposed to direct sunlight, moisture, or extreme
temperatures.
The colour and quality of the image can also change over time due to chemical
reactions within the film. Therefore, it's recommended to store Polaroid photos in a
cool, dry place, away from light and moisture, to extend their lifespan. With proper
storage and handling, Polaroid photos can last for many years and remain a cherished
memento of a moment in time.
DOES POLAROID FILM GO BAD
Proper storage of Polaroid film before it has been shot is essential for ensuring
optimal image quality. The film should be stored in a cool, dry place, away from
direct sunlight and heat sources. The ideal storage temperature for Polaroid film is
between 55-70°F (13-21°C).
It's also important to avoid storing the film in humid or moist environments,
as moisture can damage the film and affect image quality. To keep the film in the
best possible condition, it should be stored in its original packaging until ready for
use. Additionally, it's recommended to use the film within its expiration date for the
best results. By following these storage guidelines, you can help ensure that your
Polaroid film produces high-quality and long-lasting images.
CONCLUSION: HOW POLAROID FILM WORKS
Polaroid film may seem like a thing of the past, but it still holds a special place
in the hearts of many photographers. Its unique ability to capture and develop an
image instantly is something that digital photography cannot replicate. The science
behind Polaroid film is fascinating, and the way in which it works is truly magical.
If you have never experienced the joy of instant photography, then we highly
recommend giving it a try. You never know, you might just fall in love with it.
2.4.POLARIZED LENSES:
➢ Who uses polarized lenses:
Polarized lenses are a great option for anyone who spends time outdoors. If
you’re working outdoors, especially when doing high-glare activities around water
or snow, polarized lenses help reduce glare and provide additional clarity while
keeping your eyes protected.

There are a lot of different options for protecting your eyes and polarized
lenses are just one possibility. Just like protecting your skin if you’re spending hours
in the sun, your eyes need protection as well.

WORKING PROCESS OF POLAROID LENSES:

Polarized lenses work by preventing light glare from hitting you directly in
the eye. Vision happens when your eye perceives the light rays that reflect off an
object. Normally, that light is scattered in some way before it enters your eye.

It’s typically bouncing off multiple angles because of an object’s uneven

surface, such as skin or a rock. With smooth, flat, and highly reflective surfaces,
such as water, metal, or snow, the light is much brighter. This is because it reflects
directly into the eye without being scattered.

By coating polarized lenses with a special chemical, they block some of that
light as it passes through them. It acts as a filter for what’s being reflected directly
into your eyes.

With polarized lenses, the filter is vertical, so only some of the light can pass
through the openings. Because glare is typically horizontal light, polarized lenses
block this light and only allow vertical light. With the horizontal light blocked by
polarized lenses, this helps eliminate glare from shining directly into your eyes.

ADVANTAGES OF POLARIZED LENSES

These advantages make polarized lenses great for sunglasses. They’re perfect
for anyone who spends a lot of time outdoors, and they can help improve your vision
in high-glare situations.

However, because the polarized coating also darkens the lens, polarized
lenses aren’t available for regular reading glasses.

• clearer vision, especially in bright light

• increased contrast and minimal color distortion
• reduced glare and reflection
• reduced eyestrain
DISADVANTAGES OF POLARIZED LENSES:
While polarized lenses are great for protecting your eyes from bright light and
reducing glare, there are some drawbacks.

Polarized lenses can make it difficult to see LCD screens. If it’s important to
be able to see a dashboard or screen for safety or convenience reasons, polarized
lenses may not be the best option for you.

Plus, they can also react negatively to certain tints on windshields, which means
they aren’t always the best choice for driving.

Be careful about claims about the benefits of wearing polarized or tinted lenses
at night. Polarized lenses are sometimes suitable for driving during the day, but
wearing them at night can be dangerous.

The darkened lens makes it harder to see in low-light situations, which can be
made worse if you already have trouble seeing at night.

If you’re not sure whether you should try polarized lenses, try talking to an
eye doctor about which type of protective sunglasses are best for you and your eyes.

POLARIZED LENSES AREN’T GOOD FOR…

 • looking at LCD screens
• flying
• low-light situations and driving at night
• people whose sight may be sensitive to how the lenses change lighting
ALTERNATIVES TO POLARIZED LENSES:
Some people may find polarized glasses uncomfortable or may be unable to wear
them due to their work. If you can’t wear polarized lenses for whatever reason, there
are alternatives available:

• Anti-reflective coating is available for sunglasses and reading glasses.

• Mirrored sunglasses help decrease how much light enters your eyes.
• Photochromic lenses automatically darken when exposed to a certain amount
of light.
2.5.UV PROTECTION LENSES:
SUNSCREEN FOR OUR EYES: WHY WE NEED UV PROTECTION
Applying sunscreen is a daily occurrence for many of us and for good
reason. Overexposure to harmful UV rays can damage our skin and is even
linked to skin cancer. However, we often neglect to protect our eyes from these
same rays.
With the advances in vision technology, it is now easier than ever before
to protect our eyes. Lens coatings like the Crizal range, which protect from UV
rays in both the front and back of the lenses can be used to enhance single
vision or progressive lenses.
Some of the most recommended coatings include anti -reflective,
scratch-resistance, anti-fog and of course, arguably the most vital of them all,
UV protection.
UV RADIATION:
Most of us are well aware of the UV radiation can do to the skin, and
we, therefore, make a great deal of effort to protect it from these detrimental
effects. However, few of us recognize that this same UV radiation can also
damage our eyes.
 While manmade sources like tanning beds, lasers and welding
machines also produce UV radiation, the main source of it, is, of course, the
sun. There are three forms of UV radiation:
❖ UV C is mostly absorbed by the ozone layer and is therefore not
considered a threat. However, we must acknowledge that due to the
damage to the ozone layer this may not be the case on a permanent
basis.
❖ UV A and UV B both cause damage to our skin and our eyes.

NEED OF UV PROTECTION FOR OUR EYES:

Excessive exposure to UV radiation over a brief period of time may

lead to inflammation in your cornea. This is basically a ‘sunburn’ of the eye;
and though the symptoms, which include red eyes, a gritty feeling in the eye,
pain, sensitivity to light and an increase of tears, are unpleasant, they are
mercifully temporary.
However, long-term exposure can result in increasing the risk of
individual developing cataracts, retinal damage, Pterygia (visible growths on
the eye) and macular degeneration.
This why we need to protect our eyes the same way we use sunscreen
to protect our skin. UV protection for our eyes is absolutely essential to
maintain your vision.
While sunglasses seem like the obvious choice and indeed play an
important role, a more effective step is to opt to protect yourself when wearing
your normal glasses by ensuring that you ask for a UV protective coating on
your clear lenses too.
UV PROTECTION LENSES/GLASSES:
A UV coating on your clear lenses effectively blocks ultraviolet light.
While regular plastic eyeglass lenses block most UV light, adding this invisible
UV-blocking dye to your lenses ensures that you are 100% protected.
As the worlds’ largest manufacturer of ophthalmic lenses, we have
long been a proponent of the idea that we should protect our eyes with the same
focus and enthusiasm as we do our skins.
 Essilor is responsible for the development of The Eye-Sun
Protection Factor (E-SPF™). This index certifies the global UV protection
your lenses provide your eyes as well as the delicate skin that surrounds them.
As with sunscreen, the higher the value, the greater the protection,
for example E-SPF™ 50+ offers optimal UV protection outside.
Often, people mistake UV glasses for sunglasses. Though they share some
similarities, there are many differences in their benefits and usability
UV LENSES
• Work well on sunny and cloudy days
• UV coated lenses block 99% of the sun’s UV rays
• Most UV lenses have a UV-blocking film embedded in the lens, which
prevents it from wearing off
• One pair of glasses for outdoor and indoor, so no need to carry two pairs
SUNGLASSES
• Impractical to wear when it isn’t sunny
• Carrying around an indoor pair of glasses as well as your sunglasses is
tiresome
• Because the lenses are dark tinted, it doesn’t mean it blocks out all the
rays. It is important to ensure that sunglasses block out at least 99% of
the UV rays
• The UV coating on inexpensive sunglasses can wear off after time
To get the best of both worlds, you can use Transitions lenses, which adapt to
light intensity, meaning you can have tinted glasses when outdoors in the sun
and clear lenses in a dimly-lit room.
2.6. HOLOGRAPHY:
Basic Principles, Advantages, and Applications of Holography:
Holography is a revolutionary imaging technique that allows the creation and
display of three-dimensional representations of objects. It has captured the
imagination of both scientists and enthusiasts alike.
 Holography has transformed our perception of visual media by utilizing the
fundamental principles of interference and diffraction. It helped enable us to
experience realistic and immersive visualizations.
This article will help you learn about the principles of holography, the
process involved, the types of mirrors and lasers used, different holographic
techniques, and its numerous applications and advantages.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF HOLOGRAPHY:
Holography is a technique that uses light to create 3D images. It works by
recording how light waves interact with each other. The recorded pattern contains
all the information needed to recreate an object’s shape, texture, and depth.

When illuminated with a laser, this pattern brings the object to life, making it
appear as a realistic 3D image. The key to holography is capturing the interference
pattern between a reference beam and an object beam.

This principle of holography allows us to experience immersive visual effects

beyond traditional flat images. Holography truly revolutionizes how we perceive and
interact with visual media.

PROCESS OF HOLOGRAPH:
The process of holography involves several steps to create a 3D image. First,
a coherent light source, like a laser, illuminates the object.

The light splits into two beams: the object beam interacting with the object
and carrying its information and the reference beam for comparison. These beams
combine, creating an interference pattern. This pattern is recorded onto a special
material, like a holographic plate.

During development, the hologram is enhanced for better visibility. To view

the hologram, it is illuminated with a laser beam, reconstructing the object’s 3D
image. This process allows us to see and interact with lifelike holographic visuals.

TYPE OF MIRROR AND LASER USED IN HOLOGRAPHY:

Different types of mirrors and lasers are used to create and manipulate the
light necessary for capturing and displaying holographic images in holography. A
plane mirror is commonly used, which reflects light straight back without bending
it. Concave mirrors, on the other hand, can focus light onto a specific point, allowing
for precise control of the holographic setup.

Beam splitters are also used to split the laser beam into the object and
reference beams. As for lasers, helium-neon (He-Ne) lasers are commonly employed
in holography due to their coherence and ability to emit a stable beam of red light.

Solid-state lasers, such as diode lasers, are also used for their versatility and
compactness. The choice of mirror and laser depends on the specific requirements
of the holographic experiment or application.

TYPES OF HOLOGRAPHY:
There are different types of holography that offer unique approaches to
creating and displaying 3D images.

• Reflection holography involves capturing the interference pattern on

a photosensitive material by reflecting light off the object.
• Transmission holography records the interference pattern by passing
light through the object onto the recording medium.
• Rainbow holography uses a series of vertical slits to diffract light,
creating a rainbow-like effect in the hologram.
• Multiplex holography combines multiple holograms in a single
recording, displaying different images from different angles.

Each type of holography has its characteristics and applications, providing

diverse ways to experience and interact with holographic visuals.

APPLICATIONS OF HOLOGRAPHY:
Holography finds applications in various fields, offering unique ways to
enhance our experiences and advance different industries. Here are five
applications of holography:

• Holographic Displays: Holography creates captivating 3D displays for

entertainment, advertising, and product demonstrations. These holographic
displays provide immersive visual experiences that grab attention and leave a
lasting impact.
• Biomedical Holography: In biomedical research, holography plays a role in
holographic microscopy, enabling scientists to study biological samples in three
dimensions. It aids in understanding cellular structures, tissue development, and
disease progression with greater accuracy and detail.
• Holographic Data Storage: Holography offers high-capacity data storage
solutions. Encoding information as interference patterns in holograms allows for
storing large amounts of data in a small space. Holographic data storage has the
potential to revolutionize information storage systems.
• Holographic Security Features: Holography creates secure identification
features, such as holograms on banknotes, passports, and ID cards. These
holographic security features are difficult to counterfeit, enhancing security and
preventing forgery.
• Holographic Art and Entertainment: Holography has opened up new
possibilities in art and entertainment. It allows artists and creators to produce
immersive holographic installations, performances, and exhibitions, providing
audiences with unique and mesmerizing visual experiences.

CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, holography is an amazing imaging technique that creates
realistic 3D visuals and offers an immersive experience. Its versatile applications
span entertainment, research, security, and data storage.

Holography provides secure identification features and enables high-capacity

data storage. The ability to view holograms interactively from different angles
accurately preserves 3D information. Holography is a captivating technology with
immense potential to revolutionize various industries.

2.7.LASER:

FULL FORM OF LASER:

The full form of LASER is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation. LASER is a type of electromagnetic machine that can emit light that
is an Electromagnetic Radiation. Such lights are both coherent and very weak. They
are produced by a method named as optical amplification.

HISTORY OF LASER:
 Albert Einstein was the first person to speak about the LASER process. The
system was however completely developed in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman. The
LASER was based primarily on the concept given by Charles Hard Townes and
Arthur Leonard Schawlow.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LASER:

A simple laser consists of a chamber identified as the cavity that is built to
reflect waves of visible, infrared or ultraviolet to reinforce one another. The cavity
may either include liquids, solids or gases. The material selection in the cavity
decides the output wavelength.
Mirrors are located at either end of the cavity. One of the mirrors is fully
reflective so that none of the light will pass into them. The other mirror is reflective
in part, allowing 5 per cent of the light to pass through it.
Energy is pumped into the cavity from an external source through a
method known as pumping.The waves in between the mirrors are reflected back and
forth. The length of the cavity is such that waves that are reflected reinforce each
other.
At the end of the cavity, with a partially reflective mirror, the
electromagnetic waves emerge in harmony with one another. The laser output is a
coherent, electric field. Both waves have the same phase and frequency in a coherent
beam of electromagnetic energy.

LASER TYPES:
Below is a list of LASER types, depending on their wavelengths and applications.

• Gas LASER
• Semiconductor LASER
• Chemical LASER
• Liquid or Dye LASER
• Excimer LASER

PROPERTIES OF LASER:
We may classify the laser beam characteristics into four main groups, such as

• Superior Coherence
• Superior Monochromatism
 • High Output
• Superior Directivity

Using these laser properties, they are used in various fields, such as optical
communication and protection.

APPLICATIONS OF LASER:

• LASERs are used in DVD, CD and Barcode Scanners.

• Lasers are used in different types of devices, i.e. drilling, cutting, surface
treatment, welding and soldering equipment.
• Lasers are used in medical devices such as dental treatment devices, cosmetic
treatment equipment.
• The lasers are used in laser printing devices.
• LASER is used in military equipment (anti-missile devices) and an integral
component of Nuclear Fusion Reactors.
ADVANTAGES OF LASER:

• It is used for information transmission in the field of communication because

it has an enormous capacity to support information.
• This principle of no interference of electromagnetic is used in wireless
communication systems via free space for both telecommunication and
computer networking since the laser radiation is free of this interference.
• Laser radiation includes very little leakage of the signals.
• In fibre optic systems laser-based fibre optic wires are used because they are
very lightweight.
• Lasers are commonly used for the diagnosis of cancers in the medical sector
because they are less harmful compared with X-rays. They are used to burn
small tumours on the surface of the eye, and the surface of the tissue.
DISADVANTAGES OF LASER:

• Lasers are expensive, and therefore, those patients who need laser-based
treatment options are much expenditure.
• Lasers are expensive to maintain, and therefore cause high costs to doctors
and hospital administrators.
• Lasers elevate the convolution and the treatment period based on laser
equipment.
 UNIT-3 (PHYSICS FOR EVERYDAY LIFE )
3.1 MICROWAVE OVEN:
Microwave ovens work on the principle of conversion of
electromagnetic energy into thermal energy.
Electromagnetic (EM) energy refers to the radiation (waves)
comprising an electrical field and magnetic field oscillating perpendicular
to each other. When a polar molecule, i.e., a molecule containing opposite
charges, falls in the path of these EM radiations, it oscillates to align with
them.
This causes the energy to be lost from the dipole by molecular
friction and collision, resulting in heating. The water molecules present
inside our food products go under a similar phenomenon when they come
in contact with microwave radiations, heating the food from inside out.
Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations with frequencies
between 300MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz, and the corresponding
wavelengths ranging from 0.9m to .0009m, respectively. In most of the
ovens, the microwave used is of 2.24GHz frequency (i.e., wavelength =
12.2cm).
These dimensions allow microwaves to penetrate deep inside the
food and cook it from inside, while the temperature of the air present
around the food remains constant as air is nonpolar.
There is a common misconception that microwaves in a microwave
oven excite a natural resonance in water. The frequency of a microwave
oven is well below any natural resonance in an isolated water molecule,
and in liquid water, those resonances are so smeared out that they’re
barely noticeable anyway.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF MICROWAVE OVEN:
a)High Voltage Transformer: Unlike many other household
appliances, the microwave oven requires more power than the normal
voltage that the home’s electrical wiring carries. To accomplish this, a
step-up transformer with a high-voltage output is placed inside the oven.
The 240V supply is jumped to a few thousand volts, which is then fed to
the cavity magnetron.

B)Cavity Magnetron: A cavity magnetron is a high-

powered vacuum tube that transforms the electrical energy into long-
range microwave radiations, and hence it is the most important component
of a microwave oven.
C)Micro-controller: A microcontroller is something that
enables communication between a user and a machine. It is a controlling
unit that contains one or more processing cores along with memory and
programmable input/output peripherals. It processes the instructions that
a user gives to the microwave oven and also displays them on a seven-
segment display or a LED screen, depending on the model of the oven.
 D)WaveGuide: As the name suggests, a waveguide is a
hollow metallic tube that guides the waves generated at the magnetron’s
output toward the cavity (the place where we place the food).
E)Cooling Fan: Cooling fans reduce the magnetron’s
operating temperature and ensure its efficacy and longevity.

WORKING MECHANISM:
The process of heating food in the microwave oven is fairly simple;
however, the mechanism involved in that process is somewhat atypical.
After the generation of microwaves at the magnetron, they are guided by
the waveguide towards the food inside the cavity. The microwaves
penetrate through the surface of the food and reach the water molecules
present inside it.
 As the orientation of the electric field changes over time, the polar
molecules of water attempt to follow the field by changing their
orientation inside the material to line up along the field lines in an
energetically favourable configuration (namely, with the positive side
pointing in the same direction as the field lines).
As these molecules change direction rapidly (millions of times per
second at least), they gain energy, which increases the temperature of the
material. This process is called dielectric heating.
The microwave energy diminishes according to the inverse square
law, and therefore, the cavity chamber, where we place food, is designed
in such a way that it carries out the maximum efficiency of the heating
effect of microwaves. Furthermore, most of the microwave ovens come
with a door switch that does not allow the process to initiate until the door
is completely sealed.
❖ ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE OVEN:
▪ The volumetric heating process of microwaves is their
most prominent characteristic. In the conventional cooking
method, the heat must spread inwards from the surface of the
food item, whereas the spread of heat in the case of microwave
oven is done in a controlled manner with the help of the
microwaves.
▪ It’s a quick and convenient method of heating food and
leftovers.
▪ Since microwaves can only interact with polar
substances like water, they cannot affect the nutritional value of
those ingredients that are non-polar. Other conventional cooking
methods, however, may destroy some polar as well as non-polar
ingredients during the process.
▪ The user interface and micro-controller facilitate precise
control over the cooking temperature.
▪ The ease of the cooking process in a microwave oven
also results in easier cleaning of the equipment after use
 ❖ DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE OVEN:
▪ It is important to take care of what kind of utensils are
being used in a microwave. A dish that is not microwave-safe
will set off a chemical reaction between the food and the
container.
▪ The cost of equipment is high in comparison to other
conventional cooking methods.
▪ Microwave leakage may lead to electromagnetic
interference with other electrical equipment present in the
surrounding vicinity. The pacemakers installed in some patients
are particularly vulnerable to such radiation leakage.
▪ Microwave radiation can heat body tissue the same way
it heats food. Exposure to high levels of microwaves can cause
a painful burn. In particular, the eyes and the testes are
vulnerable to microwave heating because there is relatively little
blood flow in them to carry away excess heat.
▪ Another disadvantage of microwaves is that they have
limited capacity and because of this, they are not the best option
for large families.

3.2.AIR CONDITIONERS :
Many people mistakenly think that their AC works by “creating”
cold air. They don’t. Instead, they work by removing the heat inside your
house and transferring it outdoors.
WORKING OF AIR CONDITIONING TO COOL YOUR
HOME :
Many homes in North America rely on split-system air conditioners,
often referred to as “central air.” Air conditioning systems include a
number of components and do more than just cool the air inside. They
also can control humidity, air quality and airflow within your home. So
before we answer the question of how do air conditioners work, it will be
helpful to know what makes up a typical system.
CENTRAL AIR :

A typical air conditioning system, often referred to as “central air”

or “split-system air conditioning”, normally includes the following:

• a thermostat that controls system operation

• an outdoor unit that houses a fan, condenser coil and
compressor
• an indoor unit (typically either a furnace or fan coil) that
houses the evaporator coil and fan to circulate the cooled air
• copper tubing that allows refrigerant to flow between the
indoor and outdoor units
• an expansion valve the regulates the amount of
refrigerant going into the evaporator coil
• ductwork that allows air to circulate from the indoor unit
out to the various living spaces and back to the indoor unit

In its most basic description, the air conditioning process involves

two actions that occur simultaneously, one inside the home and one
outside the home.
 ▪ Inside the home (sometimes referred to as the “cold side”
of the system), warm indoor air is cooled as it blows across a cold
cooling coil full of refrigerant. Heat from indoor air is absorbed into
the refrigerant as the refrigerant turns from liquid to gas. The cooled
air is distributed back to the house.
▪ Outside the home (sometimes referred to as the “hot
side” of the system), the refrigerant gas is compressed before
entering a large coil in the outdoor unit. Heat is released outside as
the refrigerant turns back to a liquid and a large fan pulls outdoor air
through the outdoor coil rejecting the heat absorbed from the house.

The result is a continuous cycle of heat and humidity being removed

from indoor air, cool air returning to the home, and heat and humidity
exiting the home.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AIR CONDITIONERS:
Air conditioners come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but they all
operate on the same basic premise. An air conditioner provides cold air
inside your home or enclosed space by actually removing heat and
humidity from the indoor air.
It returns the cooled air to the indoor space, and transfers the
unwanted heat and humidity outside. A standard air conditioner or cooling
system uses a specialized chemical called refrigerant, and has three main
mechanical components: a compressor, a condenser coil and an
evaporator coil.
These components work together to quickly convert the refrigerant
from gas to liquid and back again. The thermostat, which is typically
mounted on a wall in a central location within the home, monitors and
controls the temperature of the indoor air.

The cooling process starts when the thermostat senses the air
temperature needs to be lowered and sends signals to the air conditioning
system components both inside and outside the home to start running. The
fan from the indoor unit pulls hot air from inside the house through return
air ducts. This air passes through filters where dust, lint and other airborne
particles are collected.

The compressor raises the pressure and temperature of the

refrigerant gas and sends it to the condenser coil where it is converted to
a liquid. Then the refrigerant travels back indoors and enters the
evaporator coil.
Here the liquid refrigerant evaporates, and cools the indoor coil. A
fan blows indoor air across the cold evaporator coil where the heat inside
the home is absorbed into the refrigerant.
The cooled air is then circulated throughout the home while the
heated evaporated gas is sent back outside to the compressor. The heat is
then released into the outdoor air as the refrigerant returns to a liquid state.
This cycle continues until your home has reached the desired temperature.
How an air conditioner moves heat outside:
Heat inside your home is absorbed and transferred outside via a
cooling agent, or “refrigerant”. The refrigerant is contained inside coils
that travel through a closed system. The coils guide the refrigerant from
inside your home to the outdoors and back inside again.
Stations along the route manipulate the state, pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant so that it absorbs or rejects heat at specific
points. These stations include:
▪ Evaporator
▪ Compressor
▪ Condenser
 Step 1: Heat is absorbed by the evaporator coil
The warm air inside your house is drawn in through a vent and blows
over the cold evaporator coil. The evaporator coil is the station located
indoors and absorbs heat from the air, cooling the air. A fan blows the cold
air into air ducts that distribute it throughout your home.
 As the refrigerant absorbs the heat from the passing air, it changes
from a liquid state to a gaseous state and continues to travel along the loop
system toward the compressor.
Step 2: Compressor raises the refrigerant temperature
The compressor decreases the gas’ volume. Usually this is done by
squeezing the gas tightly between two solid objects.
This raises the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant, preparing
it for the condensing process.
Step 3: Heat is transferred outside
The refrigerant, now a superheated vapor, reaches the condenser
(which is located outdoors) and is exposed to the outside air. The outside
air absorbs the heat from the refrigerant, lowering the temperature of the
refrigerant and changing the state from a gas back into a liquid.
Step 4: Refrigerant gets cold; process repeats
Once the heat from the refrigerant is removed to the outdoors, the
cold refrigerant travels back indoors to the evaporator to repeat the
process over again. The process continues until the inside temperature of
your home reaches your desired level. At this point, your thermostat tells
your AC to shut off.
TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONERS

As you can see, asking the question “how do air conditioners work”
can lead to a very simple or very complicated explanation. It’s the same
with describing types of air conditioners.

And because indoor living spaces come in a variety of shapes and

sizes, from today’s new tiny homes, to 30,000 square foot estates,
residential air conditioning systems are also available in different styles
and configurations to match.
 There are three primary types – split-system air conditioner,
packaged air conditioner, and ductless air conditioner. Each has its own
specialized uses, but they all essentially do the same thing – make it cool
inside your home. The type of cooling system that works best for you
depends on your geographical location, the size and physical limitations
of your home, and the way you use it.

3.3.BULB
How were electric lamps invented? In 1878, Thomas Alva Edison
began research into developing a practical incandescent lamp, and in
1879, the Electronic bulb was invented. Edison applied for a patent for
“Improvement in Electric Lights” on 14 October 1878.

EELECTRONIC BULB:
The electronic bulb is the simplest electrical lamp that was invented
for illumination more than a century ago. It was the small and
simplest light that brightened the dark space. The electronic bulb is
also known as an incandescent lamp, incandescent light globe or
incandescent light bulb. Bulb comes in different sizes and light output and
operates with a voltage range from 1.5 Volts to about 300 Volts. Now let
us study the parts and structure of the bulb in detail.
An electric light bulb or lamp that produces light by heating a
filament wire to a high temperature until it glows is known
as incandescent bulb. The incandescent bulb was invented by an
American inventor, named Thomas Alva Edison.
The incandescent bulb is an electric lamp that works on the
principle of incandescence that means it emits light by the heating of a
filament. The incandescent lamps come in different sizes with different
voltages and wattages.

STRUCTURE OF THE ELECTRONIC BULB:

An electronic bulb is a small and simple light source that uses a wire
filament to glow on the application of electricity. The structure of
incandescent light bulbs is shown in the figure below.
 The light bulb consists of three key parts
• The filament
• The glass bulb
• The base of the light bulb
The filament, which is a coiled thin wire, is made of tungsten.
Tungsten is chosen as filament since it has a high melting point, which
avoids the melting of the filament at high temperatures.
The filament is enclosed in a globe-shaped glass mount and is
connected with copper and lead wires connected to the lamp’s base. The
wires and the filament are enclosed in a glass bulb, which is filled with an
inert gas like argon. Since argon is an inactive gas, it protects the filament
from burning as well as increases the lifetime of the filament. Thin glass
is used to manufacture the bulb, preventing the air from reaching the
filament to protect it from burning.
When electric power is passed through the bulb, it reaches the
filament through copper and lead wires. The base holds the bulb upright
and connects to the electric circuit.
Copper and lead wires let the electricity pass from the base to the
tungsten filament. It causes the filament to emit light and glow.
There are two types of bulb bases:
• Spiral base
• Two side nails base
The picture of the spiral base bulb is shown below:
 The spiral base bulb features a piece of lead that directly connects
the lamp to the electric circuit.
The picture of two side nails base bulb is as shown below:

It has nails in the base and contains two pieces of lead that connect
the lamp to the electric circuit.

CONSTRUCTION OF INCANDESCENT LAMP :

The construction and the parts of an incandescent lamp is shown in
the figure below.

The most important part of the incandescent lamp is its filament.

The filament is made of specially treated tungsten to provide it the
necessary ductility and mechanical strength. The filament material has a
low temperature coefficient of resistance which is positive.
 For the tungsten filament, the cold resistance is about 1/5 th of the
hot resistance of the filament and its operating temperature is about 2700
°C to 3000 °C. At this high temperature, the filament material does not
sublimate. Also, the melting point of tungsten is 3400 °C, thus it can work
at such a high temperature and its lumens per watt efficiency depends
upon the working temperature.
In the incandescent lamp, the tungsten filament. supported by the
thin support wires, is enclosed in a glass cover which is either evacuated
or filled with an inert gas. The inert gas used to fill the lamp is argon and
nitrogen, which prevents the oxidation of the filament.
In practice, the incandescent lamps below 40 W are not filled with
the gas. It is because, a lot of heat is wasted in the small sized lamps due
to convectional flow of the gas which will transfer the heat from the
filament to the glass walls of the lamp, and this will reduce the lumens
emitted by the filament.
The type and color used for the glass cover produce a vital effect on
the quality of light produced by the incandescent lamp, for example, the
milky glass cover gives a light output which is almost natural in effect
like day light.

WORKING OF INCANDESCENT LAMP :

The incandescent lamps work on the principle of incandescence that
means light is emitted by the heating of a filament.
In case of incandescent lamp, the electric current is passed through
a thin metal (commonly tungsten) filament, which causes the filament to
heat. Once the filament is heated, it flows to emit light.
USES OF INCANDESCENT LAMP :
• It is used in portable lighting such as table lamps
• It is used in vehicle lights and car headlights.
• It is used in household and commercial lighting
• It is used in decorative and advertising lighting
Advantages and Disadvantages of Electronic Bulb
➢ Advantages
The main advantages of the incandescent lamps are as −
 • Bulbs offer longer life than any other light source.
• The working time ranges from 8000 to 15000 hours.
• It is affordable and economical.
• It is easy to install.
• It comes in various sizes and shapes.
• Produces relatively high output.
➢ Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the incandescent lamps are given below.
• It is energy inefficient.
• A short lamp lifetime is about 1000 hours typically.
• It produces warm light.
• Requires higher operating cost.
• Since it is made of glass, it is fragile and should be
handled with care.
• Bulb generates low lumen per watt.

SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS:

Here are some of the safety measures to be followed while handling
bulb:
• Electronic bulbs must be handled carefully since they
can break very easily.
• The breakable parts of the bulb are extremely sharp and
can puncture the skin if touched.
• Since the bulb contains chemicals like argon and
mercury, handling should be done carefully. Mercury is toxic to the
human body.
• When the bulb breaks, the mercury inside escapes as
vapour or fine droplets and can settle on nearby objects. Inhaling
mercury is hazardous.
• Proper disposal of the bulbs should be ensured.

APPLICATIONS OF INCANDESCENT LAMP :

The applications of the incandescent lamps are given as follows −
• Incandescent lamps are widely used in household
and commercial lightings.
 • Other applications of the incandescent lamps
include table lamps, hallway lighting, accent lighting, closets,
etc.

3.4. FAN
ELECTRIC FAN:
Electric fans, which everyone of us has seen at homes is need of
summers when the atmospheric temperature goes above the comfort level
of human body.
Electric fan when rorates, blows away air around it towards the
corners of room and thus speeds up the evaporation process resulting in
the cooling of human body and room.
COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC FAN:

Capacitor: Start capacitor is used in electric fans, As we know

capacitors stores energy and this stored energy is used to rotate the fan
from rest state. This capacitor increases electric fan motor torque and
allows motor to rotate rapidly.
 This capacitor remains in to circuit until only the electric fan reaches
predetermined speed, This predetermined speed is usually the 75% of the
full speed of fan and when fan reaches the predetermined speed this
capacitor is taken out of the circuit and will again be incorporated into
circuit when fan comes at rest state. Learn more about Capacitors
Axle: Axle or Shaft is the metallic rod mostly made up of mild steel.
Axle is connected from ceiling to fan housing. It stays at rest motion while
bearings supporting the housing over it rotates.It also has arrangement for
transfer of current to the stator windings.
Bearings: Ball bearings are used in the electric fan. As shown in the
picture, two bearings which are link between housing and axle gives the
rotary motion to the housing.
Stator: Stator winding is simply the stationary winding in the
electric fan motor winding. Stator winding means thousands of turns of
conducting wire on any non conducting structure like a coil. This winding
has very low resistance. Main purpose of stator winding is to convert
electric current into magnetic field.
Rotar: Rotor in the electric motor is the permanent magnetic in the
shape of half circles. Usually 2 pcs of Magnets are used in Electric fan but
this can change to 3 pcs or to single pc depending upon size and capacity
of electric fan.
Housing: Housing is the outer part of the electric fan which carries
stator, rotor and drive shaft bearing assembly on inside and blades on outer
sides.
Blades: Blades or wings are the hanging part bolted on the outer
area of housing. Three blades are mostly used and their length and the
angle of air throw depends upon the size and capacity of electric motor.

WORKING PRINCIPLEOF ELECTRIC FAN:

Electric fan works on the principle of conversion of electric energy
into mechanical energy by means of magnetic fields and in this case
converted mechanical energy is consumed as rotary motion of fan blades.
 When AC is supplied to electric fan it first reaches the capacitor
and Capacitor delivers high energy to the stator windings. When stator
winding energizes, it develops the rotating magnetic field and which
forces the rotor to rotate in the direction of rotating magnetic field.
In this way electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy
which causes the rotor and housing to spin and the blades attached to the
housing throws away the air nearby it while creating cooling effect.
DC Ceiling Fans vs AC Ceiling Fans:
There are two types of electric motors general, AC (Alternating
Current), which is electrical current which reverses direction and DC
(Direct Current), which, as its name suggests, electrical current which
only flows in one direction. Most ceiling fans, as well as most household
appliances, use AC motors, With DC fans, the direct (AC) power source,
connects to a transformer which converts the power to DC. The effect is
that it decreases the amount of power used by only using a direct current
instead of the alternating current. ceiling fans with DC motors cannot be
connected directly to a DC power source (like solar panels or batteries)

AC vs DC:
➢ The advantages of a DC motor ceiling fan over an AC
motor ceiling fan:

• In most cases, they use less energy – up to 70% less than

a standard AC fan.
• They are generally extremely quiet.
• They will often have more speed options, the reverse
function on the remote, and are generally faster to start, stop and
change speed.
• The motor is generally more compact and lighter, which
allows for a slimmer motor design.
 ➢ The advantages of an AC motor ceiling fan over a DC
motor ceiling fan:

• DC ceiling fans tend to be more expensive when

compared to an equivalent AC model. Although you do use less
electricity and therefore save money there, it is minimal.
• AC fans can be controlled from a wall control, pull cord
or remote, while DC fans can generally only be controlled by
remote. Remotes are more likely to be lost, broken, run out of
batteries. Some DC fans are available with an optional wall
controller, at an extra charge.
AC fans are still extremely energy efficient, a standard
•
model will use no more than 100watts on high speed.
ADVANTAGES :
• Cool Down your Room (and yourself)
• Deal with smokers
• Sleep easier
• Keep humidity in check
DISADVANTAGED:
• Congestion
• Allergies
• Dry eyes and skin
• Muscle aches

3.5.TELEVISION
INTRODUCTION:
Television, or TV, is a system for sending moving pictures and
sound from one place to another. It is one of the most important and
popular forms of communication. TV programs provide news,
information, and entertainment to people all over the world.
 HISTORY:
Inventors in Great Britain and the United States made the first
demonstrations of TV in the 1920s. The first working TV sets appeared in
the 1930s. In 1936 the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) started
the world’s first TV programming. The first commercial television
stations in the United States started broadcasting in 1941.
Many families bought their first TV set after World War II, in
the late 1940s and the 1950s. The first sets could show only black-and-
white pictures. Color TV and cable TV started in the 1950s. Digital TV
arrived in the 1990s.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TV:
TV begins with a video camera. The camera records the pictures
and sound of a TV program. It changes the pictures and sound into electric
signals. A TV set receives the signals and turns them back into pictures
and sound.
i. The transmitter produces a television signal from the audio and
video signals.
ii. This TV signal is broadcasted by an antenna as
an electromagnetic wave of an assigned frequency range or
channel for that station. A television antenna picks up all
broadcast signals that reach it.
iii. These signals produce electric current within the antenna inside
the TV.
iv. The tuner selects the desired broadcast signal.
v. Other parts of the receivers separate the audio signal and send it
to a speaker system.
vi. The video signal is divided into three signals into primary colors.
vii. Thus, we get to view scenes on television.
 THE TV SIGNAL :
A standard TV camera changes the pictures into an electric
signal called the video signal. The video signal carries the pictures in the
form of tiny dots called pixels. The camera’s microphone changes the
sound into another electric signal, called the audio signal. The video and
audio signals together form the TV signal.
Digital TV, or DTV, is a newer way of handling TV signals.
A digital TV signal carries pictures and sound as a number code, like a
computer does. A digital signal can carry more information than a
standard signal can, which creates better pictures and sound. High
definition TV, or HDTV, is a high-quality form of digital TV.
A TV signal can reach a TV set in several ways. Local TV
stations use antennas to send, or broadcast, signals through the air
as radio waves. Cable TV stations send signals through underground
cables.
Satellites, or spacecraft, traveling high above Earth can send
signals to special antennas called satellite dishes. A signal can also come
from a VCR, DVD player, or DVR (digital video recorder) connected to
the TV set. VCRs, DVRs, and some DVD players can record a TV signal
coming into the TV and then play it back later.
DISPLAY :
A standard TV set turns the video signal into beams of tiny
particles called electrons. It shoots these beams at the back of the screen
through a picture tube. The beams “paint” the pixels on the screen in a
series of rows to form the picture. The TV set sends the audio signal to
loudspeakers, which reproduce the sound.
LCD and plasma TVs form the picture differently. They do not
use a picture tube and electron beams. Because they do not hold a picture
tube, LCD and plasma TVs are much thinner and lighter than standard
TVs. They can even hang on a wall.
LCD stands for liquid crystal display. Liquid crystal is a
substance that flows like a liquid but has some tiny solid parts, too. The
display sends light and electric current through the liquid crystal. The
electric current causes the solid parts to move around. They block or let
light through in a certain way to make the picture on the screen.
A plasma display has tiny colored lights containing a gas called
plasma. Electric current sent through the plasma causes it to give off light,
which makes the picture.
Advantages Disadvantages

❖ Education ❖ Sedentary Lifestyle

❖ Entertainment ❖ Negative Influence

❖ News ❖ Addiction

❖ Relaxation ❖ Time-Wasting

3.6.VACUUM CLEANER:
Imagine wanting to vacuum your carpets in the early years of the
20th century. You would have to call a door-to-door vacuuming service,
which would send a huge horse-drawn machine to your house.
Hoses would be fed through your windows, attached to the gasoline-
powered vacuum outside in the street. Not very convenient, right? And
when the first portable electric vacuum was invented in 1905, it weighed
92 pounds…also not very convenient!
 Vacuums have undergone many modifications over the years, going
from simple carpet sweepers to high-powered electric suction machines.
The vacuum cleaner as we know it was invented by James Murray
Spangler in 1907. He used an old fan motor to create suction and a
pillowcase on a broom handle for the filter. He patented his ‘suction
sweeper,’ but soon after that, William H.
Hoover bought his patent and started the Hoover Company to
manufacture the vacuum cleaners. Hoover’s ten-day free trial and door-
to-door sales soon placed vacuum cleaners in homes all over the country.
Over the years Hoover added components (such as the ‘beater bar’) to
dislodge dirt in the carpet so the vacuum could suck it up.
Vacuum cleaners work because of Bernoulli’s Principle, which
states that as the speed of air increases, the pressure decreases. Air will
always flow from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure area, to try to
balance out the pressure.
A vacuum cleaner has an intake port where air enters and an exhaust
port where air exits. A fan inside the vacuum forces air toward the exhaust
port at a high speed, which lowers the pressure of the air inside, according
to Bernoulli’s Principle. T
his creates suction – the higher pressure air from outside the vacuum
rushes in through the intake port to replace the lower-pressure air. The
incoming air carries with it dirt and dust from your carpet.
This dirt is trapped in the filter bag, but the air passes right through
the bag and out the exhaust. When the bag is full of dirt, the air slows
down, increasing in pressure. This lowers the suction power of your
vacuum, which is why it won’t work as well when the bag is full.
Make a Vacuum Cleaner
 A vacuum cleaner is able to suck dirt off carpet because high
pressure air from outside it flows toward low pressure air inside. In an
electric vacuum, a fan causes air inside the vacuum to move quickly,
which lowers the air pressure, causing suction. The higher-pressure air
from outside the vacuum is sucked in to replace the low-pressure air,
bringing dirt and dust with it to be caught in the filter bag.
THE 4 ESSENTIAL PARTS OF ANY VACUUM

Vacuum cleaners have many parts working together to ensure proper

cleaning for all your dusty surfaces. What are the parts of a vacuum
cleaner and what do they do?
MOTOR
Every vacuum has a heart, the part that keeps it running and this is
the motor. Where is your vacuum cleaner’s motor located? It is the heavy
part of your vacuum attached to a fan where air is forced over to expel the
exhaust. There are many different suction and cleaning levels depend on
the strength of your vacuum’s motor. To help determine the cleaning
capabilities, you should be aware of the power. Vacuum power is
measured in watts and has amp ratings that determine the amount of
electrical current used while operating. Find a high wattage, high amp
vacuum and you will likely have the cleanest house on the block.
INTERNAL FAN
The internal fan is located behind the rotating brush and works with
it. It acts like a tour guide, constantly guiding dirt and debris through the
filter and into the dust bag.
FILTER
Your vacuum filter is essential for separating heavy, solid objects
from dust. Why is this important? Because large objects can often break
parts of your vacuum. It is extremely important to have a good filter. Fan
blades can get damaged and holes can occur in the dust bag if hard debris
gets past the filter. The filter is like your vacuum’s shield from a sword.
You can choose which type of shield you want to use based on what you
usually use your vacuum for. There are 2 types of filters.
POST-MOTOR FILTER:
This type of filter helps stop particles from entering into the air after
being sucked up by your vacuum. Having a post–motor filter allows the
release of only clean air from the exhaust.
HEPA FILTER:
This filter captures almost 99.9% of particles, even the minutest
ones so it is a great option for you if you suffer from allergies. All those
dust microns and pollen that make you sneeze and cough will get trapped
in a HEPA filter.
POWER SOURCE :
Of course, there is the power source for your vacuum. This
component is either in the form of a rechargeable battery or an AC power
cord that plugs into the wall. You definitely need a power source to turn
your vacuum on and off. The advantage to a battery-operated vacuum is
the lightweight portability of the unit. However, for bigger jobs, you may
want to choose a vacuum with a continual source of power from a
dedicated wall plug-in to avoid draining the battery before you are
finished cleaning.
Next time you are vacuum shopping, think about all the parts of this
important cleaning tool and choose a vacuum that will work best in your
environment. Ask a vacuum expert at the Vacuum Specialists for answers
to any questions about filters, fans and motors. After all, your vacuum is
essential to a clean, dust-free living.
3.7.HAIR DRYER :
Many people are familiar with the daily routine of washing, drying,
and styling their hair. Although hair will eventually dry on its own if given
enough time, most people reach for a hair dryer to speed up the process.
While science may have disproven the link between wet heads and
catching colds, it's still no fun to sit around with a head full of wet hair,
especially in the winter.
HAIR DRYER BASIS
Hair dryers, also known as blow dryers, were first sold in the 1920s.
At first they were pretty dangerous to use -- hundreds of people were
electrocuted when they dropped their hair dryer into water-filled sinks and
bathtubs.
You can find a hair dryer like this one in almost any drug or discount
store. Basic models have two switches, one to turn them on and off and
one to control the rate of airflow. Some models have an extra switch that
also lets you regulate the temperature of the airflow.
The hair dryer dries your hair by speeding up the evaporation of
water from the hair's surface. The hot air emitted from a hair dryer
increases the temperature of the air surrounding each strand of hair. Since
warm air can contain more moisture than air at room temperature, more
water can move from your hair into the air.
Since they were first developed, thousands of patents have been
issued for different hair dryer designs.
A hair dryer needs only two parts to generate the blast of hot air that
dries your hair:
 1. a simple motor-driven fan
2. a heating element
Hair dryers use the motor-driven fan and the heating element to
transform electric energy into convective heat. The whole mechanism is
really simple:
Something seen more often these days are hair dryers with a ceramic
coating on the heating element. Coming in a variety of different
configurations, ceramic-coated heating elements are said to heat more
evenly and effectively. It's also popular to infuse the ceramic with
materials such as crushed tourmaline, which is said to support the creation
of ions and ideal heat flow.
Hair dryer safety measures
• Safety cut-off switch
• Bimetallic strip
• Thermal fuse
• Insulation
• Protective screens
• Front grill

Invented in the 1920s, the electric hairdryer is an everyday

household object that has changed significantly over the past century –
and is likely to continue developing as technology evolves. Its production
consists of various engineering elements.
Most households probably have an electric hairdryer – a handheld
device that we use to dry and style our hair. The small device uses various
engineering elements to heat and blow air. Engineers must consider:
electrical power consumption; materials for heating and cooling; the
design, consumer appeal, structure, durability and weight; and the
electronics for safe operation.
 When a hairdryer is connected to a power socket and switched on,
the electricity powers a heating element and an electric motor, which
operates a fan in the dryer. The heating element converts the electrical
energy into heat of up to 2,000 Watts. This process is known as resistive
heating and is used in other household appliances, like the electric kettle
and toaster.
Hairdryers often have a ceramic or polymer frame and casing.
Polymers are lightweight plastic materials with a limitless range of
colours and significant degrees of strength. They are also good thermal
and electrical insulators. They protect the internal components of the
hairdryer and users from burns and electric shock. Polymer casing also
allows for injection moulding; a fast manufacturing process used to
produce large numbers of identical items of plastic with compartments
that interlock with snap-fasteners for easy assembly.
The electrical motor and fan are at the back of the casing in an area
called the air inlet, which is covered with a fine mesh screen to prevent
objects accidentally getting caught in the fan blades. At the opposite end
is the air outlet, with a heat resistant and protective front grill, where the
nozzle is attached.
The heating element, which sits in between the air inlet and outlet,
is a conductor usually made of coiled nichrome wire, typically 30
centimetres in length. The wire looks like a coiled spring and is wrapped
around an insulating board so that the entire heating element is only a few
centimetres long.
This insulating board is usually made of mica, a mineral found in
India, Belgium, Brazil, and China, which can withstand extreme
temperatures. Two flat pieces of mica form a three-dimensional X that has
notches cut in the edges to keep the wrapped coiled nichrome wires in
place, allowing air to flow through the long barrel casing.
An electrical circuit connects the ends of the heating element’s
coiled wires to the power. The three-way switch in the handle controls the
power to the motor and heating element, allowing control of the airflow
and temperature.
Sensors keep the hairdryer at a comfortable temperature and detect
overheating. A cut-off switch made from a bimetallic strip shuts the unit
down when necessary, preventing the hairdryer from exceeding 60°C.
A thermal fuse built into the circuit provides another layer of safety,
instantly breaking the circuit when the temperature exceeds the limit. The
ground-fault circuit interrupter is built into the hairdryer to prevent
electrocution. It senses how much current is flowing through the circuit
and can shut it off if it detects a leak or a short circuit.
The electric fan rotates and blows air across the heating element. As
the air passes through the heating element, the air is warmed and heated
up. The hot air exits the dryer through a nozzle, to concentrate the air flow.
When it reaches wet hair, it absorbs the moisture and dries the hair.

➢ Advantages of hair dryer:

Hairdryers have become an essential part of people’s lives, and when it
comes to styling your hair, you are the expert. Some benefits of hair
dryer are.
 1. Hair dryer is Money Saver
2. Hairdryers lighten the hair
3. Decreases Drying Time
4. Blow drying is base of grooming
5. A hairdryer is also suitable for Pets
➢ Disadvantages of Hair Dryer:
There are some disadvantages of hair dryer too. Prolonged and regular
use of hair dryer can lead to several discomforting effects on hair. Here
are some ionic hair dryer dangers.
1. Excessive hair drying weakens hair follicles
2. Overheating Effects of Hair Dryer
3. Hair Dryers Weaken the thread
4. Hair Dryers affect the hearing
 UNIT-4
SOLAR ENERGY

4.1.SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun. It is
necessary for life on Earth, and can be harvested for human uses such as electricity.
Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun.
Solar energy s created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun. Fusion
occurs when protons of hydrogen atoms violently collide in the sun’s core and
fuse to create a helium atom.

This process, known as a PP (proton-proton) chain reaction, emits an enormous

amount of energy. In its core, the sun fuses about 620 million metric tons of hydrogen
every second. The PP chain reaction occurs in other stars that are about the size of
our sun, and provides them with continuous energy and heat. The
temperature for these stars is around 4 million degrees on the Kelvin scale (about 4
million degrees Celsius, 7 million degrees Fahrenheit).

In stars that are about 1.3 times bigger than the sun, the CNO cycle drives the
creation of energy. The CNO cycle also converts hydrogen to helium, but relies on
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen (C, N, and O) to do so. Currently, less than two percent
of the sun’s energy is created by the CNO cycle.

Nuclear fusion by the PP chain reaction or CNO cycle releases tremendous

amounts of energy in the form of waves and particles. Solar energy is constantly
flowing away from the sun and throughout the solar system. Solar energy warms
Earth, causes wind and weather, and sustains plant and animal life.

The energy, heat, and light from the sun flow away in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (EMR).

The electromagnetic spectrum exists as waves of different frequencies and

wavelengths. The frequency of a wave represents how many times the wave repeats
itself in a certain unit of time. Waves with very short wavelengths repeat themselves
several times in a given unit of time, so they are high-frequency. In contrast,
lowfrequency waves have much longer wavelengths.
 The vast majority of electromagnetic waves are invisible to us. The most
high-frequency waves emitted by the sun are gamma rays, X-rays, and ultraviolet
radiation (UV rays). The most harmful UV rays are almost completely absorbed by
Earth’s atmosphere. Less potent UV rays travel through the atmosphere, and can
cause sunburn.

The sun also emits infrared radiation, whose waves are much lower-frequency. Most
heat from the sun arrives as infrared energy.
Solar Panels
Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun. Solar energy can be
harnessed directly or indirectly for human use. These solar panels, mounted on a
rooftop in Germany, harvest solar energy and convert it to electricity.
PP Chain Reaction
Solar energy originates as nuclear fusion taking place in the sun's superhot core.
The sun produces energy through the proton-proton (pp) chain reaction. In the pp
chain reaction, isotopes of hydrogen (protons) fuse to form helium. The incredibly
powerful process also generates particles known as neutrinos and positrons, as well
as high-frequency gamma rays.

NATURAL SOLAR ENERGY

A)Greenhouse Effect
The infrared, visible, and UV waves that reach Earth take part in a process of
warming the planet and making life possible—the so-called “greenhouse
effect.”

About 30 percent of the solar energy that reaches Earth is reflected back into
space. The rest is absorbed into Earth’s atmosphere. The radiation warms
Earth’s surface, and the surface radiates some of the energy back out in the
form of infrared waves. As they rise through the atmosphere, they are
intercepted by greenhouse gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide.
Greenhouse gases trap the heat that reflects back up into the atmosphere.
In this way, they act like the glass walls of a greenhouse. This greenhouse
effect keeps Earth warm enough to sustain life.
 B)Photosynthesis
Almost all life on Earth relies on solar energy for food, either directly or
indirectly.

Producers rely directly on solar energy. They absorb sunlight and convert it
into nutrients through a process called photosynthesis. Producers, also called
autotrophs, include plants, algae, bacteria, and fungi. Autotrophs are the
foundation of the food web.

Consumers rely on producers for nutrients. Herbivores, carnivores,

omnivores, and detritivores rely on solar energy indirectly. Herbivores eat
plants and other producers. Carnivores and omnivores eat both producers and
herbivores. Detritivores decompose plant and animal matter by consuming it.

C)Fossil Fuels
Photosynthesis is also responsible for all of the fossil fuels on Earth. Scientists
estimate that about three billion years ago, the first autotrophs evolved in
aquatic settings. Sunlight allowed plant life to thrive and evolve. After the
autotrophs died, they decomposed and shifted deeper into the Earth,
sometimes thousands of meters. This process continued for millions of years.

Under intense pressure and high temperatures, these remains became what we
know as fossil fuels. Microorganisms became petroleum, natural gas, and
coal.

People have developed processes for extracting these fossil fuels and using
them for energy. However, fossil fuels are a nonrenewable resource. They take
millions of years to form.
4.2.SOLAR CONSTANT
A solar constant is a measurement of the solar electromagnetic radiation
available in a meter squared at Earth's distance from the sun. The solar constant is
used to quantify the rate at which energy is received upon a unit surface such as a
solar panel. In this context, the solar constant provides a total measurement of the
sun's radiant energy as it is absorbed at a given point.
Solar constants are used in various atmospheric and geological sciences.
Though called a constant, the solar constant is merely relatively constant. The
relative constant does vary by 0.2% in a cycle that peaks once every eleven years.
The first attempt at estimating the solar constant was made by Claude Pouillet in
1838 at 1.228 kW/m2. The constant is rated at a solar minimum of 1.361 kW/m 2 and
a solar maximum of 1.362.
The entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is included in the
measurement of a solar constant and not just that of visible light. The best direct
measurements of the solar constant are taken from satellites. The Stefan-Boltzman
constant can also be used as a means to calculate a solar constant. In this context, the
constant defines the power per unit area emitted by a black body as a function of its
thermodynamic temperature
The measure of the solar electromagnetic radiation in a meter squared at Earth's
distance from the sun is called a solar constant. To quantify the rate at the unit surface
of a solar panel in which the energy is received upon the solar constant is used. In
this case, the solar constant is absorbed at a given point and provides a total
measurement of the sun's radiant energy.
The solar constant which is denoted by the symbol GSC is a flux density which
is the measuring mean of solar electromagnetic radiation. It is the solar irradiance
per unit area. It is said to be measured on a surface perpendicular to the rays that is
one astronomical unit denoted by AU from the Sun which is roughly the distance
from the Sun to the planet.
The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation and not just visible light.
It is said to be measured by satellite as being 1.361 kilowatts per square meter which
is written as kW/m2 at solar minimum that is the time in the 11-year solar cycle when
the number of sunspots is minimal) and approximately 0.1% greater roughly 1.362
kW/m2 at solar maximum.
Solar Constant ValueThe time per unit of area on a theoretical surface that is
perpendicular to the rays of the Sun and at Earth’s mean distance from the Suns is
said to be the most accurate measurement that is measured from satellites where
atmospheric effects are absent.
The value of the constant is approximately said to be 1.366 kilowatts per square
metre. The “solar constant” is fairly constant, increasing by only 0.2 per cent at the
peak of each 11-year solar cycle. The sunspots usually block out the light and reduce
the emission by a few tenths of a percent but the bright spot, also known as the
plagues that are associated with the solar activity, is more extensive and longer-lived.
Moreover, as the Sun burns up its hydrogen presence, the solar constant increases by
about 10 percent every billion years.The solar constant is not a physical constant in
the modern CODATA scientific sense; unlike the Planck constant or the speed of
light which are absolutely constant in Physics. The solar constant is said to be an
average of a varying value.
In the past 400 years, it has varied even less than 0.2 per cent. That is we can
say that billions of years ago or so, it was significantly lower. This constant is said
to be used in the calculation of radiation pressure which helps in the calculation of a
force on a solar sail
THE DIMENSIONAL FORMULA FOR SOLAR CONSTANT
The solar constant is the incident ray of solar energy per unit area per second
on the earth surface.
Solar constant = Energy / (Unit area x Unit time)
= ML²T⁻² / (L²T)
= MT⁻³

SOLAR CONSTANT VARIATION

The luminosity of the Sun is said to be approximately about 3.86 x 1026 watts.
This is the total power that is said to be radiated out into space by the Sun. Most of
this radiation is in the visible as well as the infrared part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
With less than 1% emitted in the radio, UV and X-ray spectral bands. The
energy of the sun is radiated uniformly in all directions.As the Sun is about 150
million kilometers from the Earth and because the Earth is about 6300 km in radius,
only 0.000000045% of this power is intercepted by our planet. This still amounts to
a massive 1.75 x 1017 watts.
For the purposes of the energy of the solar capture we normally talk about the
amount of power in sunlight which is generally passing through a single square metre
face-on to the Sun. The power of the Sun at the planet Earth as per square metre is
known as the solar constant and is approximately 1370 watts per square metre is
denoted by W/m2.

4.3. SOLAR WATER HEATER

Solar water heaters -- sometimes called solar domestic hot water systems -- can
be a cost-effective way to generate hot water for your home. They can be used in
any climate, and the fuel they use -- sunshine -- is free.
Solar water heating systems include storage tanks and solar collectors. There
are two types of solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps
and controls, and passive, which don't.
 A)Active Solar Water Heating Systems
There are two types of active solar water heating systems:
⚫ Direct circulation systems
Pumps circulate household water through the collectors and into the home. They
work well in climates where it rarely freezes.
⚫ Indirect circulation systems
Pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and
a heat exchanger. This heats the water that then flows into the home. They are
popular in climates prone to freezing temperatures.freezing temperatures.

B)Passive Solar Water Heating Systems

Passive solar water heating systems are typically less expensive than active
systems, but they're usually not as efficient. However, passive systems can be more
reliable and may last longer. There are two basic types of passive systems:
⚫ Integral collector-storage passive systems
These consist of a storage tank covered with a transparent material to allow the
sun to heat the water. Water from the tank then flows into the plumbing
system. These work best in areas where temperatures rarely fall below freezing.
They also work well in households with significant daytime and evening
hotwater needs.
⚫ Thermosyphon systems
Water is heated in a collector on the roof and then flows through the plumbing
system when a hot water faucet is opened. The majority of these systems have
a 40 gallon capacity.
STORAGE TANKS AND SOLAR COLLECTORS
Most solar water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar storage
tanks have an additional outlet and inlet connected to and from the collector. In
twotank systems, the solar water heater preheats water before it enters the
conventional water heater. In one-tank systems, the back-up heater is combined with
the solar storage in one tank.
SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
Solar water heating system is a device that helps in heating water by using the
energy from the SUN. This energy is totally free. Solar energy (sun rays) is used for
heating water.
Water is easily heated to a temperature of 60-80o C. Solar water heater of Solar
water heaters (SWHs) of 100-300 liters capacity are suited for domestic use.
Larger systems can be used in restaurants, canteens, guest houses, hotels,
hospitals etc. A 100 liters capacity SWH can replace an electric geyser for residential
use and may save approximately 1500 units of electricity annually.
The use of 1000 SWHs of 100 liters capacity each can contribute to a peak load
saving of approximately 1 MW. A SWH of 100 liters capacity can prevent emission
of 1.5 tones of carbon dioxide per year.
WORKING OF A SOLAR WATER HEATER
The Sun’s rays fall on the collector panel (a component of solar water heating
system). A black absorbing surface (absorber) inside the collectors absorbs solar
radiation and transfers the heat energy to water flowing through it. Heated water is
collected in a tank which is insulated to prevent heat loss. Circulation of water from
the tank through the collectors and back to the tank continues automatically due to
thermo siphon system.
Based on the collector system, solar water heaters can be of two types:
A solar water heater consists of a collector to collect solar energy
and an insulated storage tank to store hot water. The stored hot water can be used
later any time.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
Main components of solar water heater system are
1. Solar Collector( to collect solar energy)
2. Insulated tank (to store hot water)
3. Supporting stand
4. Connecting pipes and instrumentation etc.
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR WATER HEATER
Water heating is one of the most cost-effective uses of solar energy. Every year,
several thousands of new solar water heaters are installed worldwide. Solar water
heaters can be used for Homes, Community Centers, Hospitals, Nursing homes,
Hotels, Restaurants, Dairy plants, Swimming Pools, Canteens, Ashrams, Hostels,
Industry etc. Use of solar water heater can curtail electricity or fuel bills
considerably.
Usage of solar water heater for any application where steam is produced using
a boiler or steam generator can save 70-80% of electricity or fuel bills. A residence
can save 70-80% on electricity or fuel bills by replacing its conventional water heater
with a solar water heating system. Solar water heaters are known to have the fastest
repayment of investment in 2 to 4 years depending upon use and fuel replaced.
TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATER
Basically two types of solar water heater are available in the market
• Flat Plate solar water heater – Solar radiation is absorbed by flat plate
collectors which consist of an insulated outer metallic box covered on the top
with glass sheet.
• Evacuated Tube Collector – The Collector is made of double layer
borosilicate glass tubes evacuated for providing insulation.
4.4.SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity
 A photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly called a solar cell, is a nonmechanical
device that converts sunlight directly into electricity. Some PV cells can convert
artificial light into electricity.
Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons
contain varying amounts of energy that correspond to the different wavelengths of
the solar spectrum.
A PV cell is made of semiconductor material. When photons strike a PV cell,
they may reflect off the cell, pass through the cell, or be absorbed by the
semiconductor material. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate
electricity.
When the semiconductor material absorbs enough sunlight (solar energy),
electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. Special treatment of the material
surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to
the dislodged, or free, electrons so that the electrons naturally migrate to the surface
of the cell.
THE FLOW OF ELECTRICITY IN A SOLAR CELL
The movement of electrons, each carrying a negative charge, toward the front
surface of the solar photovoltaic cell creates an imbalance of electrical charge
between the cell's front and back surfaces.
This imbalance, in turn, creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive
terminals of a battery.
Electrical conductors on the cell absorb the electrons. When the conductors are
connected in an electrical circuit to an external load, such as a battery, electricity
flows through the circuit.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS, PANELS, AND ARRAYS
The PV cell is the basic building block of a PV system. Individual cells can vary
from 0.5 inches to about 4.0 inches across. However, one cell only produces 1 or 2
Watts, which is only enough electricity for small uses, such as powering calculators
or wristwatches.
PV cells are electrically connected in a packaged, weather-tight PV panel
(sometimes called a module). PV panels vary in size and in the amount of electricity
they can produce. PV panel electricity-generating capacity increases with the number
of cells in the panel or in the surface area of the panel.
PV panels can be connected in groups to form a PV array. A PV array can be
composed of as little as two to hundreds of PV panels. The number of PV panels
connected in a PV array determines the amount of electricity the array can generate.
Photovoltaic cells generate direct current (DC) electricity. DC electricity can be used
to charge batteries that power devices that use direct current electricity. Nearly all
electricity is supplied as alternating current (AC) in electricity transmission and
distribution systems. Devices called inverters are used on PV panels or in arrays to
convert the DC electricity to AC electricity.
PV cells and panels will produce the most electricity when they are directly
facing the sun. PV panels and arrays can use tracking systems that keep the panels
facing the sun, but these systems are expensive.
PV Cell or Solar Cell or Photovoltaic Cell is the smallest and basic building
block of a Photovoltaic System (Solar Module and a Solar Panel). These cells vary
in size ranging from about 0.5 inches to 4 inches. These are made up of solar
photovoltaic material that converts solar radiation into direct current (DC) electricity.
Materials used for photovoltaic include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline
silicon, microcrystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide
/sulfide.
Converting DC to AC Electricity
The PV cells generate DC or direct current. This DC electricity has to be
converted to AC or alternating current so that it can be used in a home lighting
system or running appliances. An inverter is used to convert DC to AC. This is
same as converting DC from a battery to AC.

THE EFFICIENCY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

The efficiency at which PV cells convert sunlight to electricity varies by the
type of semiconductor material and PV cell technology. The efficiency of
commercially available PV panels averaged less than 10% in the mid-1980s,
increased to around 15% by 2015, and is now approaching 25% for state-of-the art
modules. Experimental PV cells and PV cells for niche markets, such as space
satellites, have achieved nearly 50% efficiency.
APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
The smallest photovoltaic systems power calculators and wristwatches. Larger
systems can provide electricity to pump water, power communications equipment,
supply electricity for a single home or business, or supply electricity to thousands of
electricity consumers.
SOME ADVANTAGES OF PV SYSTEMS ARE
1. PV systems can supply electricity in locations where electricity distribution
systems (power lines) do not exist, and they can also supply electricity to an
electric power grid.
2. PV arrays can be installed quickly and can be any size.
3. The environmental effects of PV systems located on buildings is minimal.
Materials used for photovoltaic include monocrystalline
silicon, polycrystalline silicon, microcrystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, and
copper indium selenide /sulfide.
4.5.APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is a highly beneficial and practical source that is typically used in
taking advantage of its two main forms: heat and light. We use solar energy to charge
vehicles, to generate power with photovoltaic (PV) cells and to heat water.
Solar energy is a highly beneficial and practical source that is typically used in
taking advantage of its two main forms: heat and light. We use solar energy to charge
vehicles, to generate power with photovoltaic (PV) cells and to heat water.
This article discusses the seven most common applications of where and how
we can use solar energy in our lives.
A)GENERATION OF SOLAR POWER (ELECTRICITY)
The reduction in the prices of solar panels and their improved durability has
driven more people to select them as alternatives for powering their homes and
industries.
Solar energy generates electricity through photovoltaic cells – which convert
direct sunlight to electricity. The energy generated by the solar power system can be
used to offset or even to completely replace the user’s monthly bills.
Excess power can be sent to the grid for other consumers within the locality to
consume. With solar energy, you have a choice between on-grid and off-grid
systems. Off-grid systems depend solely on solar energy, with no connections or
power use from utility companies.
 The system is connected to solar batteries to guarantee backup power operation
during the night, cloudy days and emergencies.
On-grid systems on the other hand are connected to a solar energy system and
to a utility company source, to fluctuate between the two depending on the conditions
and need.
Excess energy produced by your solar energy can be stored in battery banks,
but can also be fed back into the grid, where the power provider distributes it to other
customers, which has a great effect on offsetting your electric bills. And in case your
solar system fails to generate power, the electric utility company can meet your
electricity needs.
B)WATER HEATING
Solar energy is commonly used to heat water in our homes, industries, hotels
and even hospitals.
Homeowners use rooftop photovoltaic cells (PV) to absorb heat from the sun
and heat the water in an insulated water tank, which stores the hot water for a
considerable time for use in our homes.
Solar systems can also heat swimming pools by circulating water through a
solar collector and warmed by the sunlight, before using it again in swimming pools.
C)DRYING OF AGRICULTURAL AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Solar energy can also be used to dry agricultural and animal products such as
fruits, milk, fish, potato chips, and maize grains.
Products are placed in a cabinet dryer comprising a box with a foundation
insulated at the bottom, an interior side painted black and covered with an inclined
transparent sheet.
Ventilation holes are punctured at the bottom and top to allow air to circulate
over the drying material, located on perforated trays inside the cabinet.
D)SOLAR HEATING
You can use solar energy for space heating of homes and businesses. Devices
like Flat plate collectors convert solar radiation into heat (thermal energy).
The Flat plate collectors consist of a blackened metal plate with a top
transparent sheet of glass cover and a thermal insulation layer underneath it that is
heated by the sunlight.
The metal collector absorbs heat from the sun and transfers it to the water or air
as a carrier fluid that flows through the plate to the insulated water tank that stores
hot or warm water.
 This heating water system can also supply your home with hot or warm water
flowing through the ceilings or floors tubes.
When the building needs heat, the hot water or air can be transferred by
conventional equipment like fans, air outlets, and ducts from these collectors or
devices to the building interior spaces.
D)SOLAR ENERGY LIGHTING
Solar energy is a suitable solution for security lights, street lights, indoor lights,
and road signs as they are affordable, environmentally friendly and readily available.
You can use solar energy to light your home or business as it is a great option to
save on electricity, energy and costs and do not dissipate or lose power as do other
energy systems.
E)SOLAR PUMPING WATER FOR IRRIGATION
The solar energy generated by a solar panel system can be used to pump water
to use for irrigation during the summer.
During hot seasons, crops lose more water through the transpiration process,
but at the same time, solar panels generate more solar energy because they get a high
exposure to sunlight. This makes solar energy solutions great to use for irrigation
purposes because it is readily available and cheap.
F)SOLAR ENERGY WATER DISTILLATION
Solar energy can greatly help distill water, especially in arid, semi-arid, or
coastal areas with saline water and plenty of sunlight. Sunlight in these areas can be
used to convert saline water into pure water for consumption.
Solar heat is transferred through transparent glass to a shallow blackened basin
containing saline water. The heat radiation gets absorbed and is converted into heat
in the blackened bay.
The heat evaporates from saline, as pure water from the saline, in the form of
vapour, condenses into pure water, and is collected in basins and shifted to water
tank storage.
Solar energy has numerous benefits to your health, finances, environment and
well-being. You can use solar energy for lighting, distilling water, drying crops, and
animal products. You can also use it to power air ventilators in your house and
irrigate crops during summer.
Apart from being durable and cheap, solar energy systems can also add value
to your property, offering more value than any other type of energy system.
 PHYSICS FOR EVERYDAY LIFE
UNIT-5
INDIAN PHYSICIST AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION

5.1.APJ ABDUL KALAM :

❖ APJ Abdul Kalam Biography, Birth, Full Name,
Awards, Death:
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM BIOGRAPHY:
Dr. Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam, popularly known as APJ Abdul
Kalam, was an extraordinary scientist, visionary leader, and one of India’s most
beloved personalities. Born on October 15, 1931, in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, Dr.
Kalam’s life journey serves as an inspiration to millions around the globe. From
humble beginnings to becoming the 11th President of India, his story exemplifies
the power of perseverance, knowledge, and a deep-rooted love for his country.
Kalam’s journey to become one of India’s most beloved and respected
figures started with a modest upbringing. He hailed from a simple family and faced
numerous challenges in his early life. However, he had a strong desire for knowledge
and an insatiable curiosity about science and technology.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM BIOGRAPHY LIFE :
After completing his studies in aeronautical engineering, Kalam joined
India’s defense research and development organization, where he played a key role
in the country’s missile development program. He became known as the “Missile
Man of India” for his significant contributions to India’s defense capabilities,
particularly his work on the development of ballistic missiles like Agni and Prithvi.
Throughout his career, Kalam received numerous awards and honors,
including the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, for his outstanding
contributions to science and technology.
In 2002, Kalam was elected as the President of India, and during his tenure,
he emerged as the “People’s President” due to his down-to-earth nature, accessibility,
and his focus on inspiring the youth of the nation.
Beyond his scientific and political achievements, Kalam was a prolific writer
and a gifted speaker. He penned several books, including “Wings of Fire” and
“Ignited Minds,” in which he shared his experiences, vision, and ideas to inspire the
younger generation to dream big and work towards a better India.
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam’s legacy continues to resonate with people across India
and beyond. He remains an inspirational figure for his humility, dedication to
education, and passion for making India a technologically advanced and prosperous
nation. His life and work serve as a beacon of hope and encouragement for countless
individuals, especially aspiring scientists and young minds aspiring to make a
positive impact on society.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM BIRTH :
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was born to a Tamil Muslim family
on October 15, 1931, in the pilgrimage town of Rameswaram on Pamban Island,
which was formerly part of the Madras Presidency and is now a state of Tamil Nadu.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM FULL NAME :
The Full name of APJ Abdul Kalam was Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul
Kalam. Scientist in aerospace and statesman Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam
led India as its 11th president from 2002 to 2007. He studied physics and
aeronautical engineering and was nurtured in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION :
Abdul Kalam’s childhood was marked by simplicity and an unwavering thirst
for knowledge. Growing up in a modest family, he faced numerous hardships, but
his determination and curiosity propelled him forward. Kalam was an avid learner
and displayed a keen interest in mathematics and science from a young age.
In his early years, Kalam faced the challenges of a financially modest
background, but his parents instilled in him a strong work ethic, discipline, and the
value of education. He had a curious mind and was deeply fascinated by science and
technology from a young age.
After completing his elementary education at the Rameswaram Elementary
School, Kalam went on to attend the Schwartz Higher Secondary School in
Ramanathapuram. His academic performance was exemplary, and he showed a keen
interest in mathematics and science.
In 1950, Kalam gained admission to St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirappalli, to
pursue a degree in physics. However, in his second year of college, he decided to
change his course and pursue aeronautical engineering, a field he was passionate
about.
 In 1954, Kalam graduated with a degree in aeronautical engineering from the
Madras Institute of Technology (MIT), Chennai (formerly Madras). His time at MIT
laid the foundation for his future achievements as a scientist and aerospace engineer.
After completing his studies, Kalam joined the Defense Research and
Development Organization (DRDO) in 1958 and later the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO). He played a crucial role in India’s missile development
program, making significant contributions to the development of ballistic missiles.
Kalam’s journey from a small town in Tamil Nadu to becoming one of India’s
most esteemed scientists and eventually the President of India is a testament to his
dedication, perseverance, and unwavering passion for science and technology.
Throughout his life, he remained committed to education, inspiring generations of
students and youth to dream big and work towards a better and technologically
advanced India. His early life and education laid the groundwork for his
extraordinary achievements and his lasting legacy as an inspirational figure for the
nation.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM: THE MISSILE MAN OF INDIA :
Dr. Kalam’s journey in the field of science and technology began at the
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO). He played a pivotal role in India’s space and missile
development programs, contributing significantly to the nation’s defense
capabilities. Kalam’s notable achievements include his involvement in the
development of India’s first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III) and the
successful launch of the Rohini satellite.
However, it was his pivotal role as the chief project coordinator for India’s
Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998 that brought him widespread recognition and
admiration. The tests established India as a nuclear power on the global stage, and
Kalam’s leadership and technical expertise were instrumental in the success of the
mission. His exceptional contributions earned him the title “Missile Man of India.”
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM BEYOND SCIENTIFIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS :
Beyond his scientific accomplishments, Dr. Abdul Kalam possessed a deep
sense of responsibility toward society, particularly the youth. He firmly believed that
the progress and development of a nation are directly linked to the strength of its
youth. Kalam ardently advocated for investing in education, nurturing scientific
temper, and fostering an entrepreneurial spirit among the youth. He traveled
extensively, delivering lectures and inspiring students across the country,
emphasizing the importance of education, hard work, and moral values.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM AS THE PRESIDENT OF INDIA :
In 2002, Dr. Kalam’s remarkable journey reached its zenith when he was
elected as the President of India, the highest office in the country. His presidency
was marked by his commitment to empowering the underprivileged and engaging
with the youth of the nation. As President, he continued to inspire and connect with
people from all walks of life, from schoolchildren to scientists, from farmers to
world leaders. His presidency was characterized by his simplicity, humility, and
unwavering dedication to the progress and unity of India.
APJ Abdul Kalam served as the 11th President of India from 2002 to 2007.
His presidency was characterized by a profound commitment to the welfare of the
nation and a deep connection with the people. Kalam’s journey from being a
renowned scientist to becoming the nation’s first citizen was a testament to his
exceptional intellect, humility, and dedication.
During his term as President, Kalam was affectionately referred to as the
“People’s President” due to his approachable and down-to-earth demeanor. He
actively engaged with citizens, especially the youth, encouraging them to dream big
and contribute to the development of the nation.
Kalam used his position to emphasize the importance of education, science,
and technology for the country’s progress. He urged for the empowerment of rural
communities through sustainable development and inspired the youth to embrace
innovation and entrepreneurship.
Throughout his tenure, Kalam traveled extensively, interacting with people
from all walks of life and tirelessly promoting the values of unity, integrity, and
progress. He believed in an inclusive India that would embrace diversity and work
together towards common goals.
As the “Missile Man of India,” Kalam’s scientific background and expertise
in defense research were evident in his vision for a strong and self-reliant India in
the fields of science and technology.
Above all, Kalam was a great human being, known for his simplicity,
integrity, and kindness. He touched the hearts of millions and left an indelible mark
on the collective consciousness of the nation.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM DEATH :
Tragically, on July 27, 2015, Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam passed away while
delivering a lecture at the Indian Institute of Management, Shillong. His sudden
demise was mourned by millions worldwide, and his loss was deeply felt by the
entire nation. However, his legacy lives on, inspiring generations to dream big, work
hard, and contribute to the progress of society.
⚫ APJ ABDUL KALAM LEGACY :
APJ Abdul Kalam’s life and achievements serve as a testament to the
limitless possibilities that lie within each individual. From a modest background to
becoming a revered statesman, his journey reminds us that determination,
knowledge, and integrity can transcend barriers and create a lasting impact. Dr.
Kalam’s vision for a developed India, his love for education, and his unwavering
commitment to the nation continue to inspire and guide us, urging us to strive for
excellence and work towards a brighter future.

5.2.CHANDRASHEKHRA VENKATARAMAN OR C.V. RAMAN:

❖ C.V. Raman Biography: Early Life,Family, Education, Career,
Awards and Achievements
National Science Day 2023: Every year November 7 commemorates the
birth of Indian physicist Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. He discovered the
Raman Effect on 28 February 1928 and for this discovery, he was honoured by the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.
C.V Raman or Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was born on 7 November,
1888 at Tiruchirappalli in Southern India. His father was a lecturer in mathematics
and physics. At a young age, he was exposed to an academic environment. His
contribution to science and innovative research helped India and the World.
He discovered the Raman Effect and won a Nobel Prize in Physics for the
discovery. Every year on 28 February, National Science Day is celebrated to pay
tribute to the Nobel Laureate Dr. C.V. Raman.
NAME: Dr. Chandrashekhra Venkataraman or C.V. Raman
PLACE OF BIRTH: Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu
FATHER'S NAME: R. Chandrashekhara Aiyer
MOTHER'S NAME: Parvathi Ammal
SPOUSE NAME: Lokasundari Ammal
DIED ON: 21st November, 1970
 PLACE OF DEATH: Bangalore, India
DISCOVERY: Raman Effect
AWARDS: Matteucci Medal, Knight Bachelor, Hughes Medal, Nobel
Prize in Physics, Bharat Ratna, Lenin Peace Prize, Fellow of the Royal Society
⚫ DR. CHANDRASEKHARA VENKATA RAMAN (C.V. RAMAN): EARLY
LIFE AND FAMILY :
Dr. C.V. Raman was born on 7 November 1888 in a South Indian Brahmin
family in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu. His father's name was Chandrasekhara
Ramanathan Iyer he was a lecturer in Mathematics and Physics at a college in
Vishakhapatnam. His mother's name was Parvathi Ammal.
C. V. Raman was an intelligent student since his early childhood. At the age
of 11, he passed his matriculation and 12th class at the age of 13 on a scholarship.
In 1902, he joined the Presidency College and received his graduate degree in 1904.
At that time, he was the only student who received the first division. He has done
his Master's in Physics from the same college and broke all the previous records. In
1907, he married Lokasundari Ammal and had two sons namely Chandrasekhar and
Radhakrishnan.
⚫ DR. CHANDRASEKHARA VENKATA RAMAN (C.V. RAMAN):
CAREER :
Because of his father's interest, he appeared for the Financial Civil Services
(FCS) examination and topped it. In 1907, he went to Calcutta (now Kolkata) and
joined as Assistant Accountant General. But in his spare time, he went to the
laboratory to do research at the Indian Association for Cultivation of Sciences. Let
us tell you that, his job was very hectic then also he continued his research work at
night due to his core interest in science.
 Though the facilities available in the laboratory were very limited, he
continued his research and published his findings in leading international journals
including 'Nature', 'The Philosophical Magazine', 'Physics Review', etc. At that time,
his research was focused on the areas of vibrations and acoustics.
He got an opportunity to join the University of Calcutta in 1917, as the first
Palit Professor of Physics. After 15 years at Calcutta, he became a Professor at the
Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore from 1933 to 1948 and since 1948, he
became the Director of the Raman Institute of Research at Bangalore which was
established and endowed by him only.
⚫ DR. CHANDRASEKHARA VENKATA RAMAN (C.V. RAMAN): WORKS
AND DISCOVERY :
He established the Indian Journal of Physics in 1926 where he was the Editor.
He also sponsored the establishment of the Indian Academy of Sciences and served
as the President since its inception. He was the President of the Current Science
Association in Bangalore, which publishes Current Science (India).
In 1928, he wrote an article on the theory of musical instruments for the 8th
Volume of the Handbuch der Physik. He published his work on the "Molecular
Diffraction of Light" in 1922 which led to his ultimate discovery of the radiation
effect on the 28th of February 1928 and gained him receive Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1930. He became the first Indian to receive a Nobel Prize.
Other research carried out by Dr. C.V. Raman was the diffraction of light by
acoustic waves of ultrasonic and hypersonic frequencies and effects produced by X-
rays on infrared vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light.
In 1948, he also studied the fundamental problems of crystal dynamics. His
laboratory has been dealing with the structure and properties of diamonds, and the
structure and optical behaviour of numerous iridescent substances like pearls, agate,
opal, etc.
He was also interested in the optics of colloids, electrical and magnetic
anisotropy, and the physiology of human vision.
No doubt, he was honoured with a large number of doctorates and
memberships in scientific societies. In 1924, he was also elected as a Fellow of the
Royal Society early in his career and was knighted in 1929.
As briefly described he is best known for discovering the 'Raman Effect' or
the theory related to the scattering of light. He showed that when light traverses a
transparent material, some of the deflected light changes its wavelength.
⚫ DR. CHANDRASEKHARA VENKATA RAMAN (C.V. RAMAN):
AWARDS AND HONOURS :
- In 1924, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society early in his career
and was knighted in 1929.
- He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.
- He was awarded the Franklin Medal in 1941.
- He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954, the highest civilian award in
India.
- In 1957, he was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize.
⚫ DR. CHANDRASEKHARA VENKATA RAMAN (C.V. RAMAN): DEATH
The American Chemical Society and the Indian Association for the
Cultivation of Science in 1998 recognised Raman's discovery as an International
Historic Chemical Landmark.
On 28 February every year, India celebrates National Science Day to
commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect in 1928 in his honour.
 In 1970, he received a major heart attack while working in the laboratory. He
took his last breath at the Raman Research Institute on 21st November 1970.
Dr. C.V. Raman was one of the great legends from India whose hard work
and determination made India proud and became the first Indian to receive a Nobel
Prize in Physics.
“He proved that, if a person wants to pursue his/her desires nobody can
stop. His interest in science and dedication towards research work made him
discover the Raman Effect. He will always be remembered as a great Scientist,
Physicist, and Nobel laureate”.

5.3. VIKRAM SARABHAI:

On August 12, 1919, Vikram Sarabhai was born in Ahmedabad, India. His
full name is Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai and he was the son of Ambalal Sarabhai who
was a Gujarati industrialist.
Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was an Indian physicist and an astronomer who
started the space research organization and initiated the nuclear power plant in India.
Because of his achievement, he is regarded as the Father of the Indian space
program.
He was honoured with Padma Bhushan in 1966 and the Padma Vibhushan in
1972. Vikram Sarabhai passed away on December 30, 1971, in Kovalam.
⚫ VIKRAM SARABHAI INFORMATION
FULL NAME: Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai
DATE OF BIRTH: August 12, 1919
DEATH DATE: December 30, 1971
CAUSE OF DEATH: Cardiac arrest
 AGE(AT THE TIME OF DEATH): 52
⚫ INFORMATION ABOUT VIKRAM SARABHAI :
Vikram Sarabhai was born on August 12, 1919, in a Gujarati industrial
family. His father’s name was Ambalal Sarabhai who was an industrialist, a
philanthropist, and the founder of the Sarabhai group of companies.
His mother’s name was Sarla Devi and he was the Eighth son of Ambalal
Sarabhai. In 1942, Vikram Sarabhai married Mrinalini who was a classical dancer
by profession.
The couple had two children. His daughter’s name is Mallika, who went on
and became an actress and an activist. His son’s name is Kartikeya who is one of the
world’s leading environmentalist educators and a dedicated community builder, he
was awarded the Padma Shri in 2012.
During his lifetime, Vikram Sarabhai practised Jainism and had dedicated his
life to building the Indian space program and that is why he is called the Father of
the Indian space program.
⚫ VIKRAM SARABHAI EDUCATION:
Vikram Sarabhai came from the famous Sarabhai family who was a major
industrialist committed to the Indian Independence movement.
Vikram Sarabhai attended the Gujarati college in Ahmedabad to complete his
higher studies and after doing so he then took admission to the University of
Cambridge in England where in 1940, he gave his final honour exam in the Natural
Sciences.
Sarbhai returned to Cambridge post world war 2 to pursue his doctorate and
in 1945 he submitted a thesis on “Cosmic Ray Investigation in Tropical Latitudes”.
⚫ VIKRAM SARABHAI ACHIEVEMENTS :
 Dr. Vikram Sarabhai is considered the father of the Indian space program. He
was a great institution builder and helped in establishing a large number of
institutions in diverse fields.
After returning from Cambridge in 1947, he requested his friends and family
members to help him in opening a research institution near his home in Ahmedabad,
thus at the age of only 28, he founded the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in
Ahmedabad on November 11, 1947.
The Physical Research Laboratory was the first of many institutions which
Vikram Sarabhai created and cultivated. He served in the Physical Research
Laboratory from 1966 to 1971.
Vikram Sarabhai was also very active in his family’s industry and the
business which it had. After Independence in 1947, Vikram Sarabhai founded the
Ahmedabad Textile Industry’s Research Association and then actively looked after
it until 1956.
Seeing the immediate need for management professionals in the country,
Vikram Sarabhai also helped in setting up the Indian Institute of Management at
Ahmedabad in 1962. The Indian National Committee for Space Research
(INCOSPAR) which was later renamed the Indian Space Research
Organization(ISRO) was established by Vikram Sarabhai in 1962.
After the death of the beloved physicist Homi Bhabha in 1966, Vikram
Sarabhai was appointed as the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India.
He is also credited for setting up the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
in Southern India. Vikram Sarabhai also helped in developing indigenous nuclear
technology for defence.
⚫ VIKRAM SARABHAI DISCOVERIES:
Vikram Sarabhai helped in setting up many institutions all around the country and
here are some of the well-known institutions established by Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.
➢ In 1947, Vikram Sarabhai established the Physical Research Laboratory
(PRL) in Ahmedabad. PRL is a National Research Institute for space and
allied sciences.
➢ Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad founded on 11 December
1961 is considered to be the best institute of management in the country.
➢ Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL), Jaduguda, Bihar was
founded in 1967, under the department of atomic energy.
➢ Vikram A. Sarabhai Community Science Centre (VASCSC) or the
Community science centre was established in 1960 at Ahmedabad. VASCSC
is working towards popularizing science and mathematics education among
students, teachers, and the public. Its main objective is to improve and find
innovative methods of scientific education.
➢ Darpan Academy for Performing Arts, Ahmedabad was founded in 1949
along with his wife and now directed by his daughter Mallika Sarabhai for
the last three decades.
➢ Faster Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR), Kalpakkam was founded in 1985 and
it is the testbed for fast fuel reactors and materials
➢ Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL), Hyderabad was founded in
1967 to create a strong indigenous base in electronics
➢ Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram founded on 21
November 1963, is a major space research centre of the ISRO which mainly
focuses on rocket and space vehicles for the Indian satellite program.
 ➢ Space Applications Centre( SAC), Ahmedabad was founded in 1972. The
Space Applications Centre has played an important role in realizing the
vision and the mission of ISRO.
➢ Variable Energy Cyclotron Project or the VECC is located in Calcutta and
was founded in 1972. VECC performs research in basic and applied nuclear
sciences and the development of the nuclear particle accelerator.
⚫ VIKRAM SARABHAI INVENTIONS/INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH
ORGANIZATION :
The establishment of the Indian space research organization by Vikram
Sarabhai is considered to be his greatest achievement. When he returned to India
after completing his Doctorate from Cambridge University in London in 1947, he
was able to convince the newly formed independent Indian government of the
importance of a space program for a developing country like India.
Dr. Sarabhai was also supported by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha who is
widely regarded as the father of the Indian nuclear science program. He supported
Dr. Sarabhai in setting the first rocket launch station in India.
At Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram on the coast of the Arabian sea, the
first rocket launch centre was establishedThe inaugural flight was launched on
November 21, 1963, with sodium vapour payload after a remarkable effort in setting
up the infrastructure, personnel, communication links, and launch pads.
Dr. Vikram Sarabhai was constantly in negotiations with the other leading
country’s space organization such as NASA and because of his efforts, the Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was launched during July 1975 - July
1976.
 Dr. Vikram Sarabhai was very much interested in science education and
founded the Community Science Centre at Ahmedabad in 1956. It is also called
Vikram Sarabhai Community Science Centre (VASCSC).
He also started a project for the fabrication and the launch of an Indian
satellite.Vikram Sarabhai worked very passionately to ignite India’s first satellite,
Aryabhatta but unfortunately, he passed away four years before the launch of the
satellite. Dr. Vikram Sarabhai was honoured with Padma Bhushan in 1966 and
Padma Vibhushan in 1972 to remember and celebrate his life and the legacy he left
behind.

5.4.HOMI BHABHA BIOGRAPHY :

Homi Bhabha Biography: Birth, Age, Family, Education, Career, Awards,
Death
⚫ CHILDHOOD:
Homi Bhabha was born on October 30, 1909, in Bombay’s famous Parsi legal
family. Jehangir Bhabha and Meherbai Bhabha were his parents. .He was connected
to Dorabji Tata and came from a highly affluent and illustrious family. Before
enrolling at Elphinstone College, he attended Bombay’s Cathedral and John Connon
School for his elementary schooling.
⚫ EDUCATION:
He continued his education at the Royal Institute of Science through 1927.
Homi enrolled at Cambridge University to begin his mechanical engineering studies.
But he came to understand that studying science rather than engineering was his
genuine calling.
He informed his parents about the problem. Homi’s caring father agreed to
pay for his remaining science courses for a first-class mechanical engineering
degree. He received a first-class passing grade on the mechanical engineering test in
1930.
His father honoured his commitment and permitted him to finish his
education. While pursuing his doctorate in theoretical physics, Paul Dirac was
Homi’s maths teacher.
His first academic article, “The Absorption of Cosmic Radiation,” published
in 1933 after earning his PhD in nuclear physics, contributed to his success in 1934
when he was awarded the Isaac Newton Full scholarship, which he retained for the
following three years. Nuclear physics was a developing field in the 1930s that
frequently sparked contentious discussions among scientists. There were numerous
developments in this area. He will also make another significant scientific
breakthrough in 1935. He could ascertain the characteristics of electron-positron
scattering while collaborating with Niels Bohr. Later, in his honour, this was changed
to Bhabha scattering.
⚫ RETURN TO INDIA:
Bhabha returned to India as a result of the start of World War II in 1939. He
returned to India for a little vacation but ultimately decided to remain there. Bhabha
held the position of Reader in the Indian Institute of Science’s Physics Department,
with eminent Indian physicist C.V. Raman headed. Later, the Sir Dorab Tata Trust
gave him a research grant. With the grant funds, Bhabhi started the Cosmic Ray
Research Unit at the Institute. He played a major role in establishing TIFR( Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research).
⚫ HIS CAREER:
Under Sir C. V. Raman, Bhabha accepted a position as a Fellow in
Theoretical Physics at the IIsc Bangalore. He received the Royal Society Fellow
designation in 1941. He received a promotion the following year to Professor of
Cosmic Ray Studies. Additionally, he turned down opportunities to be the chair of
the physics department at Allahabad University and IACS. He was chosen to serve
as the Indian Science Congress’s Chairperson of Physics in 1943.
⚫ CONTRIBUTION TO THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD:
In April 1948, Bhabha wrote a letter to Jawaharlal Nehru to create an Atomic
Energy Commission to oversee the growth of India’s nuclear energy programme for
peaceful reasons. Nehru approved the idea, and the committee was created by
parliamentary legislation in August of that same year. Bhabha was appointed as the
commission’s chairman. He was elected president of the Indian Science Congress in
1951, and in 1954 he was appointed secretary to the Indian government.
Bhabha travelled to the UK in October 1958 to assess the development of
nuclear power. He had to deal with several disputes with nuclear technology experts
from other countries, particularly the United States.
Dr Homi Jehangir Bhabha developed a plan to harness the country’s
abundant thorium reserves rather than its limited uranium reserves to generate
electricity. In sharp contrast to every other nation in the world, this one adopted a
thorium-centred policy. Additionally, this evolved into India’s three-stage nuclear
power programme.
➢ STAGE 1: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
➢ STAGE 2: Fast Breeder Reactor
➢ STAGE 3: Thorium-Based Reactors
⚫ AWARDS AND HONOURS:
1. Bhabha was chosen as a Fellow of the Royal Society in March
1941.
2. Bhabha received the Adams Prize, the highest honour bestowed
by the University of Cambridge, in 1942.
 3. The honourable Government of India bestowed the distinguished
Padma Bhushan upon Bhabha in 1954.
4. He also received the nobel prize in physics in 1951.
⚫ UNFORTUNATE DEATH - 1966:
In 1966, Bhabha perished in an Air India Boeing 707 disaster close to Mont
Blanc. According to official reports, the pilot and Geneva Airport misunderstood the
plane’s position relative to the mountain, which led to the disaster. But his death is
still a mystery, but conspiracy theories indicate murder was meant to hinder India’s
nuclear programme.
Bhabha was of tremendous stature and always had an impact outside his
particular area of expertise. He made significant contributions to more diverse
fields of Indian science outside of the atomic power programme and empirical
studies in physics and mathematics, thanks to his limitless energy, all-encompassing
vision, and influence in the power networks.

J R D Tata, who said of Bhabha: “Homi was a truly complete man.

He was a scientist, architect, master builder, and administrator,
versed in humanities, art, and music.”

5.5.VENKATARAMAN RAMAKRISHNAN:
BORN ON: 1952
BORN IN: Chidambaram in Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu
CAREER: Structural Biologist
NATIONALITY: American

Indian born American, Venkataraman Ramakrishnan is a senior scientist

in the Structural Division at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of
Molecular Biology, in Cambridge, England. This great scholar has worked in
various fields of biology during the earlier part of his career.
However, Venkat along with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath were
honored with the Nobel Prize for their spectacular work in cellular machines
called ribosomes. Ramakrishnan started out as theoretical physicist before his
interest shifted to organelles.
Previously, he had also worked closely with histone and chromatin
structures that earned him much success. Over the years, he has been the co-
author of more than a few scientific journals on ribosomes and its structure.
Although Mr. Venkataraman migrated to the U.S., his name still
shines among the people in India, for his contributions to science. Apart from his
interest in scientific research, he loves to listen to Carnatic music. To know more
on Venkataraman Ramakrishnan, go through the sections below.
A)EARLY LIFE :
Venkataraman Ramakrishnan was born to C.V. Ramakrishnan and
Rajalakshmi in a town called Chidambaram belonging to the Cuddalore District
of Tamil Nadu. Both his parents were scientists and lecturers in Biochemistry at
the Maharaj Sayajirao University in Baroda, Gujarat.
He did his schooling from Convent of Jesus and Mary in Baroda.
After his preliminary education, he continued his pre-university at the Maharaja
Sayajirao University. From here, he obtained an undergraduate degree in Physics
in 1971. He also received the National Science Talent Scholarship.
Later, Venkataraman migrated to America to continue his further
studies. In 1976, he earned his Ph.D. in Physics from Ohio University. He
changed his field into biology at the University of California, San Diego. Here,
he conducted research along with Dr. Mauricio Montal.
 During this time, Venkataraman got married to Vera Rosenberry, an
author of children's' books. The couple has two children - a step daughter, Tanya
Kapka who is a doctor in Oregon and a son, Raman Ramakrishnan, a cellist who
plays with Daedalus Quartet.

B) CAREER:
Venkataraman Ramakrishnan began his career as a postdoctoral fellow
with Peter Moore at Yale University, where he worked on ribosomes. After
completing this research, he applied to nearly 50 universities in the U.S. for a
faculty position. But he was unsuccessful. As a result of this, Venkataraman
continued to work on ribosomes from 1983 to 1995 in Brookhaven National
Laboratory.
In 1995, he got an offer from University of Utah to work as a
professor of Biochemistry. He worked here for almost four years and then moved
to England where he started working in Medical Research Council Laboratory of
Molecular Biology. Here, he began a detailed research on ribosomes.
In 1999, along with his fellow mates, he published a 5.5 angstrom
resolution structure of 30s subunit of ribosome. In the subsequent year,
Venkataraman submitted a complete structure of 30s subunit of ribosome and it
created a sensation in structural biology. Following this, he conducted several
studies on these cell organelles and its mechanism. Recently, he determined the
complete structure of ribosomes along with the tRNA and mRNa.

C)AWARDS AND ACCOLADES:

Venkataraman earned a fellowship from the Trinity College,
Cambridge and the Royal Society. He is also an honorary member of the U.S.
National Academy of Sciences. In 2007, he was awarded with the Louis-Jeantet
Prize for his contribution to Medicine.
In 2008, he was presented with Heatley Medal of British
Biochemistry Society. In 2009, Venkataraman Ramakrishnan, along with two
other scientists were awarded with the Nobel Prize for their major breakthrough
made in the area of ribosomes.
For his contribution to Science, he was conferred with India's second
highest civilian award, the Padma Vibhushan in 2010.

D)TIMELINE:
●1952: Venkataraman Ramakrishnan was born in a small district of
Tamil Nadu.
●1971: He obtained an undergraduate degree in Physics.
● 1976: Received a Ph.D. from Ohio University.
● 1983-1995: Continued his studies on ribosomes in Brookhaven
National Laboratory.
● 1995: Got an offer to work as a professor of Biochemistry in the
University of Utah.
● 1999: Published a 5.5 angstrom structure resolution structure of 3s
subunit of a ribosome.
●2007: Awarded the Louis-Jeantet Prize for his work in Medicine.
● 2008: Given the Heatley Medal of British Biochemistry Society.
●2009: Received Nobel Prize for his work on ribosomes.
●2010: Recipient of the Padma Vibhushan for his contributions to
Science.
5.6.SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR:
On 19 October 1910, Indian American astrophysicist Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar was born in Lahore, British India. He received the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1983 along with William A Fowler
ACTIVE RESEARCH ERA: 20th Century
DATE OF DEATH: 08/21/1995
FIELD OF STUDY: Astrophysics
AFFILIATED INSTITUTIONS OF WORK:
• Presidency College- B.Sc (w/ honors) in Physics
• Cambridge University- Ph.D
• Trinity College- Fellowship
• University of Chicago- Faculty
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, popular as “Chandra”, was an Indo-
American scientist and astrophysicist who stayed in America during his profession.
He was one of the popular scientists of the 20th century. Subrahmanyan
Chandrasekhar contributions to physics, applied mathematics, and astrophysics are
exceptional. He shared the Nobel prize with William A. Fowler in 1983 for the
important discoveries on the developmental stages of massive stars.
He was famous for the invention of the Chandrashekhar limit, the theory of
Brownian motion, the theory of illumination and the polarisation of the sunlit sky,
the general theory of relativity, and relativistic astrophysics and the mathematical
theory of black holes. In January 2011, an exhibition of life and works was conducted
at Science City in Kolkata.
⚫ CHILDHOOD LIFE:
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was born in Lahore, British India, on
19th October 1910. The family shifted from Lahore to Allahabad in 1916 and settled
in Madras finally in 1918. He had two elder sisters, three younger brothers, and four
younger sisters.
His father, Chandrashekhara Subrahmanya Iyer, was an officer in the Indian
Audits and Accounts Department. His mother, Sita, was a woman of high analytical
skills. C.V. Raman, the first Indian to be awarded the Nobel prize in science, was his
father’s younger brother.
⚫ MARRIED LIFE:
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar married Lalitha Doraiswamy in September
1936. She was a fellow student at Presidency College. They both got US citizenship
in the year 1953 and settled there.
⚫ EDUCATION :
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar completed his homeschooling with the help
of his parents until the age of 12. His father taught him physics and mathematics,
whereas his mother taught him Tamil.
He later joined Hindu High School in Triplicane, Madras, in 1922.
Afterwards, he was admitted to Presidency College, affiliated with the University of
Madras from 1925-to 1930, and secured a bachelor’s degree in B.Sc. (Hon.) in
physics.
After completing his graduation, he joined Born’s Institute of Gottingen. He
completed his final year of post-graduate studies at the Institute for Theoretical
Physics in Copenhagen. In 1933, he was granted a PhD at Cambridge with a
dissertation on rotating self-gravitating polytropes. Trinity College at Cambridge
granted the prize fellowship after obtaining his doctorate.
⚫ PROFESSION AND RESEARCH :
In December 1936, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was appointed as an
assistant professor of Theoretical Astrophysics at Yerkes and stayed at the University
of Chicago. Later, in 1941, he was promoted to Associate Professor 1941. In 1953,
he was nominated as the Morton D.
Hull Distinguished Service Provider of Theoretical Astrophysics. In 1966,
NASA constructed the Laboratory for Astrophysics and Space Research (LASR),
and he seized one of the four corner offices on the second floor. During World War
II, i.e. in 1943, he also worked with the Ballistic Research Laboratory at Aberdeen
Proving Ground in Maryland.
He was declared a Fellow of the Royal Society of London and received the
society’s Royal Medal in 1963. He was also honoured with the US National Medal
of Science in 1967.
⚫ OTHER WORKS :
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked as an editor of “The Astrophysical
Journal” from 1952 to 1971. He also worked on a project dedicated to describing the
detailed geometric arguments by using the language and the methods of ordinary
calculus.
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar became a voluntary member of the
International Academy of Science. He published approximately ten books on
different topics of theoretical astrophysics. He guided over 50 students to their PhDs,
and many of them got Nobel Prizes, too.
⚫ SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR’S CONTRIBUTION TO
ASTROPHYSICS :
Between 1929 and 1939, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was deeply
interested in astrophysics. While travelling by ship in 1930 to start his PhD at
Cambridge, he calculated a number, which is now known as the Chandrashekhar
Limit, in his memory. Its value is 1.4 and identifies the fate of stars. He declared this
result in the Astrophysical Journal in 1931.
In 1930, scientists trusted all-stars would gradually fade to become white
dwarfs. Chandrashekhar discovered that a white dwarf appears only if its mass is
less than or equal to 1.4 times our sun’s mass. It is known that the inward pull of
gravity and the outward pressure of nuclear reactions are balanced usually. When the
star ends of normal existence, the outward push is weak, and the star shrinks. It
depends on its mass. As there is more mass, the inward pressure of gravity will be
stronger.
If the pulled inward mass is less than or equal to the Chandrashekar limit, the
star will be a white dwarf, whereas if the pulled inward mass is greater than the
Chandrashekar limit, the star would become a neutron star or black hole. It was
agreed that the ultimate fate of stars depends on their masses.
⚫ THE NOBEL PRIZE :
Subrahmanyan Chandrashekar was honoured with the Nobel Prize in physics
for his “theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure
and evolution of the stars”, shared with William Fowler.
⚫ LEGACY OF S CHANDRASEKHAR :
Chandrasekhar’s most notable work is on the astrophysical Chandrasekhar
limit. The limit gives the maximum mass of a white dwarf star, ~1.44 solar masses,
or equivalently, the minimum mass that must be exceeded for a star to collapse into
a neutron star or black hole (following a supernova). The limit was first calculated
by Chandrasekhar in 1930 during his maiden voyage from India to Cambridge,
England for his graduate studies.
 On 19 October 2017, Google showed a Google Doodle in 28 countries
honouring Chandrasekhar’s 107th birthday and the Chandrasekhar limit.
⚫ CONCLUSION :
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar inventions on the origin and structure of stars
gain a major place in the world of science. His work in astrophysics is amazing,
and he always wanted to remain outside the mainstream of research. Throughout his
journey in life, he aimed to gain knowledge and understanding.