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UNIT 1 FORCES & ENERGY

1
 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO
PHYSICS

What is meant by a physical quantity?

A physical quantity is anything that can be measured e.g. length, time, speed, force)

And they are classified into 2 types (Scalar & Vector)

A vector can be represented by a line segment & an arrow for the direction.
resi
& ou

Scalar Vector

Physical quantity that can be identified by its physical quantity that can be identified
magnitude (value) only e.g. density, mass, completely by its magnitude & direction such
distance, speed, time… as displacement, velocity, acceleration,
momentum, force, weight…

Some important mathematical rules:

Average/mean:
In physics we need to calculate the average for many different uses.
To calculate the average :
()*"+/-./ )0 "++ #"+.$-
"#$%"&$ =
1). )0 #"+.$-
Ex: finding the average for (2.1, 2.2, 2.0, 2.3) )
2.1 + 2.2 + 2.0 + 2.3
"#$%"&$ =
4

2
 Geometrical shapes:

r
h
! "
d

b
W "

Perimeter = Circumference =
Perimeter = 2($ + () Perimeter = 4 × +
S+S+S 2"#
Area = # x W Area = $ × $
Area = 1/2 x b x h Area = "# !

Conversion of units:
X
Prefix Symbol Factor

Nano n 10−9 0.000 000 001

ge
Small Big
÷
O
Micro # 10−6 0.000 001

H
-

10!" x1000 x1000 x1000 x1000

mm Z
Milli m 0.001

% Centi C 10−2 0.01

!m

÷1000
mm m

÷1000 ÷1000
Km

÷1000
Mm

Im

ii
Or
3
Kilo K 10 1 000
x10−6 x106
Mega M 10# 1 000 000
x10−3 x103
9
Giga G 10 1 000 000 000
!m mm m Km Mm Em

3
 The graphical representation:
Types of proportionality

Direct proportionality is represented by a straight line passing through the origin.

&
In a direct proportionality, the ratio '
is always constant.

↓
↑
&

↓
Directly Proportional Linear not Proportional Inversely Proportional
Χ∝> 1
;∝
:

When there is a straight line not passing through the origin, the relation is Linear but not direct.

Inverse proportionality is when one of the variables increases as the other decreases.
In an inverse proportionality, the product : ; is always constant.

* Table of results:
• A Table of results should contain headings.
• The headings should contain the quantity and its unit.
• All measurements should be written to the same number of decimal figures.
• Any calculated quantity should have the least number of significant figures as that of the
quantities involved in the calculation (or at most one more).

• Example of table of results of the pendulum experiment is shown.

Time of 20 oscillations
L / cm T/s
*( / s *) / s *" / s **+ / s
41.7 9.3 9.4 9.7 9.5 0.473
52.4 13.5 13.7 13.3 13.5 0.675
61.3 17.2 17.2 17.3 17.2 0.862
71.0 21.0 21.4 21.5 21.3 1.07

4
Drawing graphs:
• In any graph the axes should be labeled and have a unit.
• The scale on each axis must be clear.
• Points are plotted as a cross (×) or a dot & circle (⊙).

How to calculate the gradient of a line?

The gradient can be calculated by performing a right triangle (like

w
shown in fig.)
*$ − *%
!"#$%&'( =
,$ − ,%
Rise
-
w
The chosen triangle should have the following properties: run
• The length of the hypotenuse must be greater than half the length of the line.
• If the two points are two data points, their values can be taken from the table.
• If the two points are not of data points, they should be read carefully from the axes.

5
 1.2 MEASUREMENTS
Measuring length:
Depending on the length, the instruments used to measure the
length are:
1. The micrometer (up to 1 cm with accuracy 0.001 cm).
2. The ruler (up to 30 cm with accuracy 0.1 cm)
3. The meter rule (up to 1 m with accuracy 0.1 cm)
4. The measuring tape (distances more than 1 m with accuracy of 1 cm.

When a length is measured, you must take care to

do the following:-
1. Place the meter rule very close to the object.
o If this is not possible you must Use a pointer.
2. The eye should be placed perpendicular to any scale to avoid parallax error.
o Some instruments that use a with a scale are provided with a mirror to avoid parallax error.
The eye should be positioned so that the pointer exactly covers its image in the mirror.
3. Each reading should be repeated several times and then get an average.
o If certain reading appears to be wrong, it should be excluded.

To get the diameter of a cylinder or a

R1↓ ↓R2
sphere
• Place between two vertical blocks and the difference
between readings is taken at the edges of the blocks.
(R1-R2).

To measure the dimension of a very thin

object
Ex: the diameter of a small ball bearing, a thin wire or thickness of
paper of your book …etc.
• Measure the total length of many of this small object and then
divide by the number to get the desired length.

6
Measuring volume:
A) Volumes of liquids:
•
⑰
The volumes of liquids are measured using a measuring
cylinder.
• Small volumes are measured by a pipette.
• The unit of volume in these instruments is @/" (liter).
• Where 1 @/" (1 liter) = 1000 A/" .
• The following precautions should be taken into consideration:
1. The measuring cylinder must be on a horizontal bench.
2. Look perpendicular to any scale to avoid parallax error.
3. The reading should be taken at the bottom of the meniscus.
o (Except mercury, from top of the meniscus).

B) Volume of regular solids:

O
Volume = Area of base x hight
V. Cube = ! x ! x !
Volume of sphere
(
V. Cuboid = ! x W x h
=) #$)
V. Cylinder = "# ! h

C) Volume of irregular solid:

This is done by one of two methods:

1- By using a measuring cylinder

a) Put some liquid in a measuring cylinder and record it (B( )
V2→
b) Insert the solid gently in the measuring cylinder so that
it becomes totally immersed. V1→
c) Measure the new volume (B) ).
d) The volume of the solid is B) − B( .

O
7
2- By using a displacement can:
If the solid is large to enter the measuring cylinder.
a) Fill a displacement can to its full capacity.
b) Insert the solid gently in the displacement can and collect the
volume of water that floods from the can in an empty
measuring cylinder.
c) Read the volume in the measuring cylinder, which is the
volume of the solid.

Measuring mass
Mass: the amount of matter contained in the object.
It can also be defined as: the property of an object that resists change in motion.

• The mass is measured in kilogram (kg) or in gram (g) 1kg = 1000g.

• The mass of an object depends on the number and type of atoms in this object.
• The mass of an object is always constant it does not depend on temperature.
• Mass can be measured by a top pan balance, beam balance. The balance should
e
be clean, horizontal and reads zero if no mass is placed on it.
• When we want the mass of a very small object (e.g.) a pin, we get the
average mass of one piece.
*)*"+ /"--
"#$%"&$ /"-- )0 1 DE$A$ =
1). )0 DE$A$-

Density: the mass per unit volume of the substance.

C
⑪
B=
D
• Density is measured in kg//" (or g/A/" ).
• Density of water = 1 g/A/" = 1000 kg//" .
• Because the mass of a certain body is always constant, and its volume increases with the temperature
rise, therefore, the density of its substance decreases as the temperature rises.

Weight: the attractive gravitational force by which the earth pulls the
body towards its center.
w=mg
The unit of weight is Newton's (N)g is called the acceleration of free fall or gravitational field strength near
the surface of earth equals 9.8 m⁄s ) .
=>

o
8
9 .

d
8

↓
Gravitational field strength (g)
80
near the Earth's surface is 9.8 N/kg, a value that can be found by dividing the weight of any of the objects
by its mass: 94

Weight = mass X gravitational field strength (g)

Gravitational field strength = Free fall acceleration = g
The approximate value of g can therefore be written either as 9.8 m⁄s ) or as 9.8 N⁄kg and you can think of
g in two ways:
1- An object falling freely near the Faith's surface will accelerate at 9.8 /⁄- ) .
2- Each kg of mass near the Earth's surface has a gravitational force of 9.8 N acting on it.

Measuring time
Instruments:
• Clock or a watch, for long times (few hours).
• Stopwatch, for shorter times (up to one hour).
o We must check that the watch is reset to zero before measuring time; otherwise, a correction
should be made.
• Electronic timer, which start and stop automatically, for very short times (up to 3 s).

Experiment on a pendulum:

To measure the length of pendulum:

• Measure from the hanging point to the center of mass of bob.

To measure periodic time of a pendulum:

• Set the pendulum to swing.
o 1 complete swing (oscillation) starts from one end all
the way to the other end and coming back.
• Start your stopwatch and count 20 complete swings then stop your stopwatch and record the time taken
by these swings.
• The time measured should be repeated several times and an average is obtained to get the most accurate
measurement.
*)*"+ *E/$ )0 A)/D+$*$ -ME1&-
L#$%"&$ )0 1 A)/D+$*$ -ME1& =
1). )0 A)/D+$*$ -ME1&-
• You can repeat above steps for different lengths of pendulum.

9
Measuring speed using light gates
Using 2 light gates

• The light gate has a beam of invisible light.

• The peg attached to the trolley breaks the beam of one light gate to start the timer. It breaks the second
beam to stop the timer.
• The timer then shows the time taken to travel the distance between the two light gates.

Using one light gate

• A piece of card (interrupt card) is fixed on the trolly.

• As the trolley passes through the gate, the first edge of the card breaks the beam to start the timer.
• When the final edge passes the gate, the beam is no longer broken, and the timer stops.
• The faster the trolley is moving, the shorter the time for which the beam is broken.
• Given the length of the interrupt card, the trolley's speed can be calculated.

10
 1.3 KINEMATICS
Velocity and speed
Both speed and velocity are a measure of how fast a body is moving but velocity is a vector quantity and
speed is a scalar.

Distance is how far you have travelled from A to B.

Speed is: the distance travelled per unit time.

&'()*+,-
NO&&$ = (C⁄P)
)'.-

Velocity is: the speed in a given direction.

&'(/0*,-.-+)
R&STU%(* = (C⁄P)
)'.-

When the body is moving with a curtain velocity forward/right, we consider it moving in the +ve direction
(10 m/s) if it started moving in the opposite direction (backwards/left), we say it’s moving in the -ve
direction (-10 m/s), and that applies on any vector quantity (velocity, acceleration, forces, … etc.)
• Since velocity is a vector quantity so this means the even if its speed is the same, the
velocity is different, due to change in direction.

Acceleration
Acceleration is: the rate of change of velocity.
UW#'X& %' R&STU%(* R−Z
VUU&S&"#(%T' = #=
UW#'X& %' (%Y& (

11
Graphs in kinematics
Distance/Time graph
Imagine you are observing a car moving on a labeled track, and you record its position each second.

A. Constant speed
o Distance is increasing linearly with time, so the car is
moving with constant speed.
o Straight line with positive gradient.
o No Acceleration.
o Slope gives you the speed.
Slope = Speed 60 − 20
=
;) −;( 3−1
N+)D$ =
:) − :) = 20 //-
B. Slower constant speed
o Less distance is covered during the same time, so it’s
moving with slower constant speed.
o Less speed = smaller gradient.

C. At rest
o Car is at the same position all the time (at 20m mark).
o Straight horizontal line.

D. Acceleration (Increasing speed)

o Distance increasing each second but at an increasing
rate.
o Speed increasing (gradient increasing).
o Curve with increasing slope.

E. Deceleration (Decreasing speed)

o Distance increasing each second but at decreasing rate.
o Speed Decreasing (gradient decreasing).
o Curve with decreasing gradient.
Speed or Velocity/Time graph
Imagine you are observing the speed-meter of the car moving, and you record its speed each second.

1. Constant speed
o Speed is the same the whole time (20 m/s).
o straight horizontal line (gradient = zero).
o No Acceleration.

2. At rest
o Speed = zero the whole time.
o Horizontal line at 0 m/s.

3. Constant Acceleration
o Speed is increasing each second at a constant rate.
o Straight line with a positive gradient.
o Slope gives you the acceleration.
gradient = Acceleration
10 − 60
;) −;( =
N+)D$ = 1−6
:) − :)
= 10 //- )

4. Increasing Acceleration
o Speed increasing each sec. at an increasing rate.
o Acceleration increasing (slope increasing).
o Curve with increasing slope.

5. Decreasing Acceleration
o Speed increasing each sec. at a decreasing rate.
o Acceleration decreasing (slope decreasing).
o Curve with decreasing slope.
 6. Constant Deceleration
o Speed decreasing at a constant rate.
o Straight line with negative slope.

7. Increasing Deceleration
o Speed decreasing each sec. at an increasing rate.
o Acceleration increasing (slope increasing).
o Curve with increasing slope.

8. Decreasing Deceleration
o Speed increasing each sec. at a decreasing rate.
o Acceleration decreasing (slope decreasing).
o Curve with decreasing slope.

To get distance from Speed/Time graph

On any speed or velocity/time graph you can calculate the distance using :

Distance = Area under graph

1
Distance/Time graph summary:

Speed or Velocity/Time graph summary:

1
Instantaneous velocity and instantaneous
Acceleration:
On any curved graph (distance/time or Speed/time) the gradient is not constant and is continually changing.
So you can’t calculate the gradient using the usual method.
Since the gradient is always changing you need to specify the instant (time) at which you need to calculate
its gradient and use a tangent to guide you to calculate the gradient.

Since the graph is a curve you should

draw a tangent to guide you:
1. Mark a point on your graph at the time needed to
calculate its gradient.
2. Using your ruler fix the position of the time on the
ruler and keep turning it till you have an accurate
tangent.
3. As a guide for you, an accurate tangent should have
nearly equal angles (by eye) at both sides.

For example:

To get the speed at 4.5 s from a To get the acceleration at 6 s from a

distance/time graph you need to calculate speed/time graph you need to calculate the
the gradient from a tangent at 4.5 s mark gradient, from a tangent at 6 s mark
Equations of motion with uniform acceleration
A body is moving with uniform acceleration when its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal time
intervals.
R−Z
#= a = Acceleration u = initial velocity
(
% s = distance moved v = Final velocity
N = (Z + R)(
$

Example:
A car traveling at 22.4 m/s breaks to a stop in 2.55 s. Determine the distance moved by the car as it comes to
a stop (assume uniform acceleration).

Answer:
U = 22.4 m/s V = 0 m/s t = 2.55 s Find: S = ??
Q
P= (T + U)W
R
Q
P = (RR. X + Y) × 2.55
R
P = 28.6 /

Acceleration of free fall

On Earth, falling objects normally travel through air.
If and a hammer and a feather were dropped side by side, the feather will surely
take more time to reach the ground.
However, if they were dropped in a vacuumed tube, they would hit the ground
at the same time.

Conclusion :
• Objects falling freely (without air resistance) near the Earth's surface
always accelerate at the same rate of 9.8 //- ) .
o Speed increases by 9.8 m/s each second as the object falls.
• The feather took more time to fall in air as it is slowed by air much
more than the hammer due to air resistance.
• The free fall acceleration on earth is 9.8 //- ) .
• The free fall acceleration on the moon is 1.6 //- ) .
This is known as the acceleration of free fall, and it is represented by the symbol g.
Although it varies slightly from one place to another because the pull of the Earth's gravity varies.

1
Changing weight
• The weight of an abject depends on its distance from the Earth's center. If this distance is increased,
the gravitational pull of the earth is reduced, so the weight becomes less.
• The weight of the stone varies slightly from one place to another on earth because the Earth is not a
perfect sphere, so some regions are further away from the center than others. These weight variations
are very small, in most calculations, they can be ignored. The Moon has a smaller mass than the
Earth so ," !""#$* × " %&'() , while mass on moon = mass on earth.
-

Moving up and down

If the acceleration of free fall is 9.8 m/s ) and air resistance is negligible, an object thrown straight upwards
will change its velocity by 9.8 m/s every second until it reaches the ground.

Free fall sideways

When a ball was dropped whilst at the same instant a second
ball was thrown sideways the photograph show that.
Both balls hit the ground at the same time. The downward
acceleration of both balls was exactly the same.
Horizontally, the second ball moves over the ground at a
constant speed. These results suggest that the horizontal and
vertical movements of a falling object are quite independent of
each other.