Boundary Layer Flow

External flows :
• flows around bodies totally immersed in a
fluid stream
 viscous effects near the body surfaces
and its wake
 nearly inviscid far from the body
 Prandtl Boundary Layer (BL) technique :
compute viscous effects near walls,
‘patch’ these onto the outer inviscid
motion.
 Boundary Layer Flow
Nominal limit
Freestream of boundary Freestream
(inviscid flow) layer (inviscid
u = 0.99U  U flow)
NB vertical Po
y-scale U
greatly U
enlarged Boundary
layer
turbulent 
u (viscous
flow)
transition
(very short) y
viscous
sub-
Leading edge (0,0) layer
x

5.1 Flow Description

• Consider flow past a flat plate
2D, steady state, constant density and
viscosity flow (isothermal), no body force,
laminar flow.
 Laminar Boundary Layer

U = 90 mm s-1

Rex=500

Flat plate
Transition – Emmons turbulent spot

Rex = 2x105
Turbulent boundary layer
x= 5.8 m
Turbulent boundary layer

Adverse pressure
gradient
Flow separation
Laminar sub-layer
 • 2D
• steady state
• no body force – horizontal flow

u  ( u )u  ( v)u  ( w)u

   
t x y z

   u 2
 
  2    Vˆ
x   x 3
  y  vx  uy   z  wx  uz  
P
  fx
       x

• isothermal (NB implied incompressible flow)

• hence constant density and viscosity
• energy equation and Equation of State not
required

• laminar flow – check an appropriate Reynolds number.

 u=
Mathematical model P
oU
0.99U 
U
U
 u 
y

• The Equations of Motion reduces to :

u v
 0
x y

u u   2u  2u  1 P
u v   2  2  
x y  x y   x


v v   2 v  2 v  1 P
u  v    
x y  y   y
 x
2 2

• boundary conditions : y=0 : u=v=0

y =  : u = U
 5.2 Prandtl Boundary Layer
Theory 1904

• Simplify the Equations of Motion by

non-dimensionalising the equations

estimating orders of magnitude of each

term
5.2.1 Non-dimensional Equations of Motion
Boundary Layer Flow
u1 v1
 0
x1 y1

u1 u1 1   2 u1  2 u1  p1

u1  v1   
x1 
y1 Re L  x1 2 
y1  x1
2

v1 v1 1   2 v1  2 v1  p1

u1  v1   
x1 
y1 Re L  x1 2 
y1  y1
2

u1=u/U v1=v/U x1=x/L y1=y/L p1=p/(U 2 )

L = flow characteristic length UL
Re L 
U = free stream velocity 
5.2.2 Orders of P
oU
u=
0.99U 
U

Magnitude Analysis U
 u 
y

• Assume 1 : Viscous effects are confined to a thin

layer close to the surface, i.e. thin shear layer of
thickness  and  << L
where  = shear layer (boundary layer) thickness
L = length the flow has travelled in the x-direction
from the leading edge
  / L = O ()  = a 'small number' << 1

• Assume 2 : For ‘large’ Re :

velocities v << u
(since flow is mostly in the x-dir, i.e. along the plate)
 u=
P 0.99U 
oU U
U
 u 
y

• Consequences : x

1- rate of change  x   y
(i.e. high gradient in the y-dir, normal to plate)
2- within the thickness , velocity gradient
normal to the surface, u/y, is very large,
 shear stress  =  (u/y) very large
3 - Outside , small velocity gradient
 effect of viscosity negligible
- the flow outside  is essentially inviscid.
 u=
Let u1 = O(unity) and P
oU
0.99U 
U
U

x1 = O(unity), 

y
u

• hence u1 = O(unity) and x1 = O(unity),

 then y1 = O()
u1
 since  O1
x1
u1 v1
then from continuity  0
x1 y1
v1
  O1
y1

and v1 = O()
continuity equation

u1 v1
 0
x1 y1
1 
1
1 
 u-momentum equation
u1 u1 1   2 u1  2 u1  p1
u1  v1   
x1 
y1 Re L  x1 2 
y1  x1
2
1 1 1
1 1  1 2 
 2

   2 u1  2 u1  2u
• Since  then  so neglect
x y x12 y12 x12

1
• Since O(RHS) = O(LHS) then  O(2 )
Re L

i.e. 
 Re L 1
2 and in general   Re 12
L x
x
• Rate of growth of boundary layer thickness
 inverse square root of Rex
v-momentum equation
v1 v1 1   2 v1  2 v1  p1
y-momentum << x-momentum
u1
x1
 v1 
y1 Re L  x12
 
2  y
y1  1
 
1
 
 2
so neglect
1 y-momentum 

   v1
2
 v1
2  2 v1
• Since  then  so neglect
x y x12 y12 x12

 2 v1
Since all other terms  O() at most =O()
y12

p1
• AND  O()  NO pressure gradient in y-dir
y1

 pressure in the boundary layer varies in the x-

direction only i.e. P = P(x)
e.g. from Bernoulli’s equation
 u=
P 0.99U 
Mathematical model oU
U
U


2D steady state 

y
u

• The Equations of Motion :

u v
 0
x y

u u   2u  2u  1 P
u v   2  2  
x y  x y   x


v v   2 v  2 v  1 P
u  v    
x y  y   y
 x
2 2

• boundary conditions : y=0 : u=v=0

y =  : u = U
5.2.3 Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equations
• Eq. 5.4 u v
 0
x y
u u  2 u 1 P
u v  
x y y 2  x
• with the boundary conditions
y=0: u = v = 0 (no slip)
y=: u = U(x)
x = x0 (initial condition) u = u(x0, y) i.e. a prescribed
velocity profile
• preserve the non-linear character of the Navier Stokes
equations
• reduce the number of variables and equations from 3 to 2
• eliminate one viscous term in the remaining momentum
equation
 Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equations
• transverse pressure gradient –(p/y) is negligible.
• pressure is a known variable and can be found
from Bernoulli’s equation
 specifying P(x) is equivalent to specifying U(x)
(free stream flow) outside the BL.
 
 Re x 
1
• From Eq. 5.3 2 
x Ux
 hence for a given flow :   
• All 2nd derivatives w.r.t. x have been lost; hence
 parabolic equations instead of elliptic
 Boundary conditions are simpler and fewer. (no need to
specify those on v and x)
 Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equations

• Applicable to 3D compressible flow conditions

• Laminar and turbulent boundary layers require
different solution techniques
• Assumption/limitations ?
• large Reynolds number, Rex > 1000, leading
edge ?
• not applicable beyond flow separation point, i.e.
in a decelerating free stream flow (dU/dx < 0,
dp/dx > 0)
5.3 Blasius Solution for Flat-Plate Flow

• Laminar boundary layer flow with zero

Pressure Gradient
• Eq. 5.4 is a set of non-linear parabolic PDEs
• Solutions
either : numerical techniques
or similarity transformation - reducing
PDEs to ODEs
• Blasius’ assumptions
• 2-D flow past a flat plate of infinite length
• steady state flow
• U = free stream velocity parallel to the x-axis
= constant
• since dU /dx = 0, -dP/dx = 0, i.e. zero pressure gradient
• leading edge of the plate is at x = 0
• plate is parallel to the x-axis (i.e. plate at zero incidence)
and infinitely long downstream
• Eq. 5.4 becomes u v
 0
x y
u u  2 u 1 P
u v  
x y y 2  x

boundary conditions : y=0:u=v=0 5.6c

y =  : u = U
Blasius :
• since the flow has no preferred length
• then local velocity profiles at any
distance x must all have the same shape
• i.e. u = u(y) at various x can be made identical by
selecting suitable scale factors for u and y.

dU/dx = 0

• Scale factors - natural choices for u is U and for

y is (x)
 (x) increase with distance x
 Laminar Boundary Layer

U = 90 mm s-1

Rex=500

Flat plate
Blasius :

• Principle of similarity of velocity profiles

gives u y
  ( ) where  
U 

where the function  must be the same for all x,

i.e. the dimensionless velocity profile is a
function only of the dimensionless coordinate .
u
 (  )
U

dU/dx = 0
Blasius :

• From Eq. 5.5   x /U

y
and Eq. 5.7, 

then y
U
5.8
x

• Let  = stream function

since  
u and v
y x

Substituting for u and v in Eq. 5.6 reduces the

number of equation to one with  as the
single dependent variable, as follows
Blasius :
• let f() = dimensionless stream function
such that 
f ( ) 
 xU 
• then the velocity components and their differentials
become    df
u  U  U f '
y  y d

v

x

1 U 
2 x

 f ' f 
u U
    f ''
x 2x
u
 U  U   x f ''
y
2
 2u U
 f '''
 y2 x
 u=
P 0.99U 
Mathematical model oU
U
U


2D steady state 

y
u

• The Equations of Motion :

u v
 0
x y

u u   2u  2u  1 P
u v   2  2  
x y  x y   x


v v   2 v  2 v  1 P
u  v    
x y  y   y
 x
2 2

• boundary conditions : y=0 : u=v=0

y =  : u = U
5.2.3 Prandtl’s Boundary Layer Equations
• Eq. 5.4 u v
 0
x y
u u  2 u 1 P
u v  
x y y 2  x
• with the boundary conditions
y=0: u = v = 0 (no slip)
y=: u = U(x)
x = x0 (initial condition) u = u(x0, y) i.e. a prescribed
velocity profile
• preserve the non-linear character of the Navier Stokes
equations
• reduce the number of variables and equations from 3 to 2
• eliminate one viscous term in the remaining momentum
equation
 Blasius Equation for 2D, laminar boundary
layer with zero pressure gradient at zero
incidence
f f ''  2 f '''  0
• boundary conditions
=0: f=0 f'=0;
 =  : f '= 1.
• a third order non-linear ordinary differential
equation for f.
Blasius Equation f f ''  2 f '''  0

• Blasius Equation with

boundary conditions
describes exactly laminar   y x
U f f'
u
f’’
U
boundary layer flow past 0 0 0 0.33206
a flat plate at zero
0.2 0.00664 0.06641 0.33199
incidence.
• It is impossible to solve 0.4 0.02656 0.13277 0.33147
Eq.5.12 in closed form,
numerical integration
yields the Blasius solution
Fig. 5.2 Longitudinal (u) Velocity
Component Distribution

1.0

0.8

f ' (  )  Uu 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
U
  y x
Fig. 5.3 Transverse (v) Velocity
Component Distribution
1.0
0.8
v U x
U  0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

U
  y x
5.3.1 Skin Friction Coefficient Cf
• Total drag = skin friction + pressure drag
• Skin friction is due to viscous stress at the wall
 u  U  ''
• From Eq. 5.11  w      U  f  0
 y  y 0 x

• From Table 5.1 at  = 0; f’’’(0) = 0.332

U  0.332U 2
• Skin friction  w  0.332U  
x Rex

• Local skin friction (wall shear stress) coefficient (at

distance x from the leading edge)
w 0.664
Cf  
1 U 2 Rex
2 
 5.3.2 Drag (Total Skin Friction)
Coefficient CF
• Without pressure gradient, total drag = total skin friction
• Drag force per unit width, F(x), 0.664U 2 x
F ( x )   w dx 
at distance x from the leading edge Rex

• Drag coefficient per unit width, on one side of the plate

F( L ) 1.328
CF    2C f ( L )
1 U 2 L ReL
2 

• i.e. Total skin friction coefficient = 2 x local

skin friction coefficient at the trailing edge.
 1
• From Eq. 5.15 Cf 
Rex
i.e drag force x

• Most skin friction drag Cf

occurs near the leading
edge

• The length of the plate is

relatively unimportant in
x
total skin friction drag.
• WHY?
• Question : at a given x, at what y does the
viscous flow end and hence becoming free
stream, inviscid flow,
i.e. what is the boundary layer thickness?

U u
  y x f f' f''
U

5.0 3.28329 0.99155 0.01591

5.2 3.48189 0.99425 0.01134

7.6 5.87924 0.99999 0.00004

7.8 6.07923 1.00000 0.00002

 5.4.1Boundary Layer Thickness 

• By convention
= y when u/U = 0.99 to 2 sf

• From Table 5.1

u/U = 0.99  = 5.0
• From Eq. 5.8
5.0 5.0 x 5.18
 
U / x Re x
 5.4.1Displacement Thickness *
• Physically meaningful measure based on the
Continuity Equation
• The distance by which the external inviscid flow
is displaced outwards (y-direction) due to the
decrease in velocity in the boundary, Fig. 5.4.
y

real fluid flow U U

streamline
h

U
h
ideal flow
streamline *
leading edge
(0,0)

x simulated effect
 y
real fluid flow streamline U U

*
h
U
h ideal flow streamline
*
leading edge
(0,0) simulated effect
x

• The decrease in volume flow due to the


influence of friction =  U   u dy
y 0

hence U     U  u dy
*

y 0

x
*    f ( )
• from Blasius U

• From Table 5.1, [ - f()]  constant for   8.0.

hence x and   3 *
  1.7208
*
U
5.4.2Momentum Thickness  (von Karman)
• compare momentum ‘loss’ in the boundary layer
with that of ideal flow
y
real fluid flow U2 U2
streamline
h
U
h ideal flow
streamline 
leading
edge x simulated effect
(0,0)

U 2     u U   u dy
y 0
 u  
• Hence   1 
u
dy
y 0 U   U 

i.e.  may be evaluated if the velocity distribution

is known
 Momentum Thickness 

• For flow past a flat plate at zero incidence

ux 
 f ' 1  f 'd  0.664
  ux
U   0 U
5.21
• cf  and *
• Valid for either laminar or turbulent flow
• Physically provides a measure of skin
friction drag on a flat plate
 5.5 Approximate Integral (Control
Volume) Methods
• Continuity equation is eliminated during the
derivation
• Only one equation remains
- von Karman Momentum Integral Equation (1921)
- Integrate over a control volume surface
- solution is exact if exact velocity profile is used
- in practice an estimated profile is used and
hence solution is approximate.
- hence particularly useful for turbulent boundary
layer flow
 5.5.1 Momentum Integral
Equation (von Karman 1921)
• A semi-empirical solution method
• Solve the Equations of Motion over a control
volume encompassing the boundary layer.
• Assumptions: incompressible, steady, 2D flow,
no body forces, flat plate at zero degree of
incidence
u u  u u   2 u P
 0   u  v    
x y  x y  y 2 x

• Boundary conditions : y = 0 : u = 0
y =  : u = U
 real fluid flow U
streamline

U control
u(y)
volume
Drag
leading edge force
(0,0)
x
P dU  u
• Let    U    
x dx w
y y 0
• Momentum  u u  1  w dU 
 u  v   U
 x y   y dx
• integrate the momentum equation over the boundary
layer thickness y   u u dU   w
   u  v U dy 
y  0  x y dx  
 y  
u u dU   w
  u  v U 
dy  
y 0  x y dx 

• substituting for v using the Continuity equation

and rearranging
 2  u  u  dU   u  
U    1   dy  U  
 1  dy  w
x o U   U  dx o  U   

 *
• substituting for * and  and rearranging give the
general Momentum Integral Equation
d  dU  w Cf
 H  2   
dx U  dx U 
2 2
 Momentum Integral Equation
d  dU  w Cf
 H  2   
dx U  dx U 
2 2

• An ODE – applicable to either laminar or

turbulent BL flow.
• Estimate U and hence - dU /dp from Bernoulli’s
• Assume a velocity profile shape inside the
boundary layer u/U , e.g. linear, etc
• Relate wall shear stress to the velocity field, i.e.
laminar or turbulent BL?
• Calculate boundary layer thickness
• Calculate skin friction drag
 5.5.2Local Skin Friction Coefficient Cf

• Flow over flat plate with uniform free stream flow

dp
• U = constant, from Bernoulli’s, P = constant and 0
dx
• Momentum integral equation reduces to
d w

dx U 2
• Local Skin Friction Coefficient Cf at x from leading edge
w d
Cf  2
1 dx
U 2
2
 Total Skin Friction Coefficient CF

• Integrating local skin friction over the plate area

L L
w d
 1 U 2 b dx  b  2 dx dx
0 2  o

b = plate width
D 2
• Total skin friction coefficient = C F  1 U 2 A  L
2

A = area of the flat plate, L = plate length

Turbulent boundary layer
x= 5.8 m
 y U(x)
5.5 The ‘Universal’ (x)

Turbulent Boundary Outer layer

Layer Velocity
Profile u = u(x,y) Overlap layer

Viscous
sublayer x

• Turbulent boundary layer comprises

viscous sublayer : viscous shear dominates
overlap layer : viscous and turbulent shear
equally important
outer layer: fully turbulent region turbulent
shear dominates
Question – how to describe turbulent BL flow
structure?
Atmospheric boundary layer
Velocity profile in turbulent BL
strong increasing
30 pressure
flat plate flow
 u+=y+
u  u* pipe flow
u Viscous
sublayer strong decreasing
20 log law
pressure
Eq. 5.30

10
experimental data
overlap
layer outer fully turbulent layer
0  y u*
y 
1 10 102 103 104 
 5.5.1 Viscous Sublayer - properties
• u must depend on wall shear stress, w,
vertical distance, y, and fluid properties 
and  but independent of the shear layer
thickness (Prandtl 1930)
• dimensional analysis u = (y, w, , )
and u y w  
 f 
w    
 

• the group  w  has the dimensions of

velocity and is termed friction velocity, u*
 Viscous Sublayer –
normalised velocity u+, normalised distance y+

• Law of the wall : 

u 
u  yu 
 f 
u   
 

• since the sub-layer is very thin,

u

y
= w = constant
• then u must vary nearly linearly, i.e
 u yu
u    y
u 

• y+ is a physically meaningful quantity

 5.5.2 Overlap layer- Velocity Defect Law

• viscous and turbulent shear equally important

• velocity defect = local reduction in velocity
from the free stream value = (U - u)
• von Karman (1933) - velocity defect is
independent of  but depends on distance y
relative to , shear stress at the interface with
the viscous sub-layer, ( w), and ,
• dimensional analysis (U - u) = (y, w, , )
( U  u )  y
 g 
u  
 5.5.3 Overlap layer - Logarithmic Law -
Universal Velocity Profile
• there must be an overlap region between
the viscous sub-layer and the fully
turbulent region, i.e. where both Law of the
Wall and the Velocity Defect Law apply
• a universal velocity distribution compatible
with this overlap condition is given by :
u 1  yu  

 ln  B
u    
 strong increasing
30 pressure

u+=y+ flat plate flow

pipe flow
Viscous
sublayer strong decreasing

20 log law
u  u* Eq. 5.30
pressure
u

10
experimental data
overlap
layer outer fully turbulent layer
0  y u*
y 
1 10 102 103 104 