Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

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Dissimilar joining of carbon steel, pure nickel and aluminum alloys by

center-driven double-sided linear friction welding
Tetsuro Ito, Masayoshi Kamai, Takuya Miura, Yoshiaki Morisada, Hidetoshi Fujii 1, *
Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka university, Osaka, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, a center-driven double-sided linear friction welding (LFW) process was employed to join three
Linear friction welding dissimilar materials: A7075-T6, S45C, and pure Ni. High pressure was applied to the A7075-T6 side, as it was
Dissimilar welding intended to be joined at a low temperature, while low pressure was applied to the S45C side, which needed to be
Steel
joined at a high temperature. By setting the applied pressure on the A7075-T6 side to 300 MPa, which corre­
Aluminum alloy: Welding temperature
Mechanical properties
sponds to the intersection in the graph of the strength dependence of A7075-T6 and pure Ni on temperature, the
joint with a joining efficiency of 92% was obtained. SEM and TEM observations were carried out on the joint,
confirming the absence of the welding defects at both the A7075-T6/Ni and Ni/S45C interfaces. A thin inter­
metallic compound layer of approximately 100 nm thick was formed at the A7075-T6/Ni interface.

Introduction external tools or consumables, an extremely rapid process (with the

fastest welding time being within 1 s), a reduced susceptibility to de­
Aluminum alloys and steels are widely utilized in transportation fects, and low-temperature welding with high applied pressure (Bhamji
equipment and structural materials, and are considered one of the most et al., 2011; Turner et al., 2011; J. Choi et al., 2021; Choi et al., 2023).
commonly used alloy combinations (Gould, 2012; Kobayashi and The history of LFW is extensive, with the first patent application filed in
Yakou, 2002; Taban et al., 2010). However, when the conventional 1929 and a detailed equipment patent granted in 1969 (Richter, 1929;
fusion welding is applied to join Al alloys and steel materials, a brittle Maurya and Kauzlarich, 1969). Later, in the 1980s, LFW equipment was
thick intermetallic compound layer with thickness of several microme­ developed at the Welding Research Institute (TWI), where research
ters to several 100 µm is formed at the joint interface, significantly primarily focused on aircraft materials such as Ti and Ni alloys (Kuroki
reducing the joint strength (Chen et al., 2011; Torkamany et al., 2010; et al., 2014; Vairis and Frost, 1998; Vairis and Frost, 2000; Mary and
Sun et al., 2015). The ideal thickness of the intermetallic compound Jahazi, 2006).
layer is approximately 1–2 µm at the weld interface, and welding should In recent years, LFW with steel and Al alloys has been extensively
be performed at low temperatures below the melting point to prevent studied, and its application is expected to expand. Kuroiwa et al. utilized
thickening of the intermetallic compound layer (Lee et al., 2009; LFW to join medium carbon steel S45C and observed that the temper­
Schubert et al., 2001). Therefore, the solid-state welding method, which ature at the interface decreased with increasing applied pressure (Kur­
can join materials below their melting points, has been attracting oiwa et al., 2020). By applying a high pressure, they succeeded in joining
attention in recent years. at low temperatures below the A1 point and obtained high-toughness
Therefore, in this study, we focused on linear friction welding (LFW). and high-strength joints without brittle martensitic transformation.
As shown in Fig. 1 (Ito et al., 2023), LFW is a solid-state joining method Wang et al. performed the LFW process on weathering steel SMA490AW
that uses the frictional heat generated as a heat source when materials and obtained a joint whose fatigue strength was equivalent to that of the
are pressed against each other and rubbed together with a linear motion. base metal by controlling the temperature of the joining interface
The interface temperature increases owing to friction, and the interface through applied pressure (Wang et al., 2022). Choi et al. achieved
material is expelled as burrs so that the new surfaces contact each other low-temperature joining below 300 ◦ C by applying a high pressure (470
and join. The process offers many advantages, including the absence of MPa) in the LFW of A7075-T6 and obtained a sound joint with 100%

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fujii.hidetoshi.jwri@osaka-u.ac.jp (H. Fujii).
1
11-1, Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jajp.2023.100165

Available online 25 November 2023

2666-3309/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

and investigated the effects of these conditions on the microstructure

(Mishra et al., 2023).
Thus, the application of LFW has been reported in the homogeneous
joining of steels or Al alloys and the dissimilar joining of stainless steel and
Al alloys. However, no joining experiments have been reported on the
Fig. 1. Schematic of linear friction welding (Ito et al., 2023). application of LFW to the joining of carbon steel and Al alloys. This is
because there is no temperature at which the material strengths of carbon
steel and Al alloys are equal, making it challenging to deform both ma­
terials simultaneously and remove impurities at the interface in LFW.
Generally, when dissimilar materials are joined by LFW or friction
welding, the material with lower strength is preferentially deformed at
each joining temperature and expelled as burrs (Buffa et al., 2017;
Kimura et al., 2014; Akbarimousavi and GohariKia, 2011; Liu et al.,
2020). Therefore, no deformation occurs on the stronger material side,
leaving oxides and unbonded regions at the interface, resulting in reduced
joint strength. Fig. 2(a) shows a schematic of the temperature dependence
of the strengths of A7075-T6 and S45C. There was no temperature at
which the material strengths were equal for these material combinations,
and A7075-T6 had a lower strength than S45C, regardless of the joining
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of the temperature dependence of the material strength
temperature. Therefore, when the direct LFW of A7075-T6 and S45C was
and (b) a diagram of LFW for S45C and A7075-T6.
performed, as shown in Fig. 2(b), A7075-T6 with lower strength was
preferentially deformed, burrs were not ejected from S45C, and impu­
rities remained at the interface. Thus, with conventional LFW, it is diffi­
cult to deform S45C and A7075-T6 simultaneously, and remove
impurities from the interface to obtain a sound joint.
Therefore, in this study, we attempted to join three materials, carbon
steel S45C, pure Ni, and Al alloy A7075-T6, using pure Ni as an insert
material. As shown in Fig. 3, pure Ni has a temperature at which the
material strength is equal to those of both S45C and A7075-T6. There­
fore, LFW joining is possible by inserting Ni between S45C and A7075-
T6, and applying a high pressure to the A7075-T6/Ni interface, where
both materials deform at low temperatures, and a low pressure to the
S45C/Ni interface, where both materials deform at high temperatures.
We also employed a novel method, center-driven double-sided linear
friction welding (LFW), to join the three materials. Fig. 3(b) shows the
concept of the center drive double-sided LFW process (Ito et al., 2023).
In conventional LFW, the two materials are brought into contact and
joined by frictional heat generated by linear motion. In contrast, in
center-driven double-sided LFW, the center material is placed between
the primary materials to be joined; then, the center material is vibrated,
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic of the temperature dependence of the material strength
while the three materials are pressed against each other to join the
and (b) a diagram of center-driven double-sided LFW of A7075-T6, Ni
and S45C. center material and the primary materials to be joined simultaneously. A
center-driven double-sided LFW was developed by our group, and we
successfully joined carbon steel S45C below the A1 point by applying
Table 1 high pressure to the center-driven double-sided LFW (Ito et al., 2023).
Welding conditions. However, the process of joining dissimilar materials using center-driven
Conditions Pressure (MPa) Frequency Amplitude Upset (mm) double-sided LFW remains unexplored. Therefore, in this study, we
(A7075-T6 side (Hz) (mm) (A7075-T6 side simultaneously joined S45C with pure Ni and A7075-T6 using
/ S45C side) / S45C side) center-driven double-sided LFW, and attempted to establish a founda­
1 200 / 50 50 2.0 5.0 / 3.0 tion for joining dissimilar materials of steel and Al alloys by LFW.
2 300 / 50
3 400 / 50 Experimental methods

joint efficiency and equivalent hardness to that of the base metal (Choi Materials
et al., 2022). Furthermore, by applying 240 MPa to A6061-T6 in LFW,
they obtained a joint with excellent mechanical properties and a flat Medium-carbon steel S45C (Fe-0.47C-0.18Si-0.66Mn-0.01P-0.004S in
hardness distribution at the interface; in addition, they elucidated the wt%) and the Al alloy A7075-T6 (Al-0.08Si-0.19Fe-1.5Cu-0.04Mn-2.2Mg-
microstructural changes caused by linear motion in LFW (J. Choi et al., 0.19Cr-5.8Zn-0.03Ti in wt%) were selected as the primary materials to be
2021). Matsuda et al. applied high-frequency LFW (frequency 245 Hz) to joined and pure Ni (Ni-0.01C-0.08Mn-0.03Fe-0.03Si in wt%) was selected
a dissimilar joint between stainless steel 304ss and A5083 or A6063, and as the insert material. Ni has a face-centered cubic structure and a rela­
reported that the intermetallic compound layer was suppressed to less tively small decrease in strength with increasing temperature. Therefore,
than 500 nm due to plastic flow during LFW, resulting in a sound dis­ intersection points could be formed at each joint interface, as shown in
similar joint (Matsuda et al., 2019). Mishra et al. successfully achieved Fig. 3. The dimensions of the joint interface of the side and center ma­
dissimilar material joining by varying the applied pressure and joining terials were 5 mm (thickness) × 20 mm (width). The center material was
time in LFW of stainless steel AISI 304 and medium carbon steel EN-8, cross-shaped to provide rigidity so that it could withstand the pressure
difference between the left and right sides.

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

Fig. 4. Apparatus for center-driven double-sided LFW ((b) overall view and (c) internal view) (Ito et al., 2023).

Welding conditions pattern measurement. The specimen surfaces used for SEM observation
and EBSD measurement were prepared by wet polishing, followed by
Table 1 shows the joining conditions. The welding pressure on the electropolishing in a perchloric acid–acetic acid mixed solution elec­
S45C side was fixed at 50 MPa, and that on the A7075-T6 side was varied trolyte (HClO4:CH3COOH = 1:9) at a voltage of 20–30 V for 15 s. The
from 200 to 400 MPa. The frequency was set at 50 Hz, the amplitude was specimen for the TEM observation were prepared by a focused ion beam
2 mm, and the upsets on the A7075-T6 and S45C sides were 5 and 3 mm, (FIB), followed by the TEM observations. Tensile tests were performed
respectively. After LFW, the effects of the welding conditions on the on the joints using a tensile testing machine (SHIMADZU Autograph
mechanical properties and microstructures of the joints were AGS-X 10 kN) at a constant crosshead speed of 240 mm/min (initial
investigated. strain rate of 1.0 /s). Tensile specimens of the A7075-T6/pure Ni/S45C
Center-driven double-sided LFW machines, as shown in Fig. 4, were joint were fabricated as illustrated in Fig. 5. In addition, the high-
employed in the joining experiments (Ito et al., 2023). The joining temperature tensile strengths of the base materials were measured.
apparatus consisted primarily of a central vibration device using a crank The tensile tests were conducted in the ambient atmosphere after the
press and a pressurizing device using alternating-current (AC) servo temperature was set using an image furnace (ULVAC RHL P610CP). The
presses on both sides. The left and right AC servo presses were inde­ temperature of the image furnace was controlled using a sheath-type K-
pendently controlled. Consequently, joining conditions such as pressure, type thermocouple and ULVAC TPC-1000 temperature controller. The
upset length, and pressure timing could be specified for each side, Vickers hardness was measured on the cross sections of each joint using
making them suitable for joining dissimilar materials. a Vickers hardness tester (FUTURE-TECH FM-300), and the Vickers
The macrostructures of the obtained joints were examined using hardness distribution was measured along the pressurization direction
optical microscopy. The microstructure of the joint interface was eval­ at a load of 300 gf, with a holding time of 15 s and measurement in­
uated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron tervals of 0.25 mm.
microscope (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS)
elemental analyses and electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD)

Fig. 5. Tensile specimens for the A7075-T6/pure Ni/S45C joint.

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

Fig. 6. Appearance and cross-sectional macrophotographs of the joints obtained under various LFW conditions.

Results and discussion

Appearance and macrostructures of joints

Fig. 6 presents cross-sectional macrophotographs of joints formed

under various LFW conditions. As shown, the A7075-T6 and S45C sides
were joined together under all LFW conditions, indicating that the three
dissimilar materials—A7075-T6, pure Ni, and S45C—were successfully
joined simultaneously. In the cross-sectional macrographs focusing on
the A7075-T6 side interface, although the expansion of the interface
area due to the deformation of pure Ni was confirmed under the con­
ditions of 300 and 400 MPa, no deformation of pure Ni was observed at
200 MPa. At the interface on the S45C side, both S45C and pure Ni were
deformed under all LFW conditions, and the expansion of the interface Fig. 7. Temperature dependence of the material strength for Ni and A7075-T6.
area with burr ejection was confirmed. The deformation of the materials
can be discussed in terms of the temperature dependences of the
under each LFW condition. For the cross-sectional micrographs at 200
strengths of A7075-T6 and pure Ni, as shown in Fig. 7. This figure shows
MPa, there was a non-joined area with size of 100 µm to 1 mm at the
the results of the high-temperature tensile tests of Ni and A7075-T6. It is
edge of the joint, which reduced the joint strength. This area was caused
considered that at 200 MPa, A7075-T6 was preferentially deformed and
by the lack of deformation of pure Ni and the inability to fully expel the
welding was completed before the deformation of pure Ni because the
oxide from the weld interface. At an applied pressure of 300 MPa, no
strength of A7075-T6 falls below the applied pressure earlier than that of
defects, such as non-joined areas, were observed. At 400 MPa, a rela­
Ni during the temperature increase process. On the other hand, at 400
tively large non-joined area was observed at the edge of the joint owing
MPa, the strength of pure Ni was initially lower than the applied pres­
to the lack of deformation on the A7075-T6 side, which is why the joint
sure; therefore, pure Ni was preferentially deformed, and the A7075-T6
strength was lowest in this case.
side was slightly deformed. At 300 MPa, near the intersection of the two
In Fig. 8, the diffusion layer identified by the EDS line analysis is
materials in the figure, both pure Ni and A7075-T6 were sufficiently
shown as a black dotted line; the point where the percentage of Al in the
deformed, because the times at which the strength decreased below the
A7075-T6 and Ni in pure Ni decreased significantly was defined as the
pressure were equal for the two materials.
edge of the diffusion layer. The thickness of the diffusion layer formed at
Fig. 8 shows cross-sectional micrographs of the A7075-T6/pure Ni
200 MPa was 4.2 µm at the center and 4.1 µm at the edges, and at 300
joint interface, SEM images of the cross sections, and the elemental
MPa, the thickness was 3.3 µm at the center and 3.3 µm at the edges. At
distributions of Al and Ni measured by EDS line analysis of the joints

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

Fig. 8. Cross-sectional micrographs of the A7075-T6/Ni joint interface at different welding pressure on the A7075-T6 side and EDS line analysis results for the center
part or edge part of the A7075-T6/Ni interface.

400 MPa, it was 2.7 µm at the center and 2.6 µm at the edges. The welding temperature. Near the center of the weld interface at 200 MPa,
thicknesses of the diffusion layers at the center and edges were similar where the welding temperature was the highest, there was a flat Al
under all the conditions, suggesting that the temperature distribution at concentration distribution in the range of approximately 0.1 µm, indi­
the weld interface was uniform along the oscillation direction. However, cating the formation of a thin intermetallic compound layer.
the thickness of the diffusion layer at the weld interface decreased as the Figs. 9 to 11 depict TEM observations conducted at the A7075-T6 /
applied pressure increased, which is attributed to the reduction in the Ni interface. Fig. 9 displays submicron-order EDS mappings, Fig. 10

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

elements to the interface during the LFW of A7075-T6 and Ni.

Fig. 12 shows an EBSD inverse pole figure (IPF) map of Ni near the
A7075-T6 / Ni interface of the joint obtained at an applied pressure of
300 MPa. The OD, ND and PD represent the oscillating direction,
thickness direction and applied pressure direction, respectively. In the
area of approximately 1 mm from the interface, grains with sizes as
small as approximately 10 µm and as large as 200 µm or more were
observed. The TEM bright-field image in Fig. 11 shows sub-micron order
(approximately 0.2 µm to 0.7 µm) grains in the range of approximately 2
µm from the interface. These results suggest that grain refinement occurs
only in a very narrow region near the interface. In Fig. 12, the contrast
changes within the grains, suggesting that the grains are highly
distorted.
Fig. 13(a) shows a cross-sectional micrograph of the S45C/Ni joint
interface formed at 300 MPa; no weld defects are observed. The
microstructure of the S45C base metal consisted of pearlite and ferrite,
whereas martensite was observed in the microstructure of the joint,
suggesting that the joint temperature on the S45C side increased to the
A3 point or higher. Figs. 9(b) and (c) show SEM images of the cross
section of the joint and the elemental distributions of Ni and Fe
measured by EDS line analysis. The thickness of the diffusion layer was
2.2 mm at the center and 2.1 mm at the edge. There was no significant
difference in the thickness of the diffusion layer between the center and
edge, suggesting that the temperature distribution at the S45C/Ni
interface was uniform in the oscillation direction.

Mechanical properties

Fig. 14 shows the cross-sectional Vickers hardness distribution along

the direction of the applied pressure at the center of the cross section of
the joint obtained at each applied pressure (a) in the entire joint, (b) near
the A7075-T6/pure Ni interface, and (c) near the pure Ni/S45C inter­
face. The left and right joint interfaces were approximately ±12.5 mm
from the center of the joint. The average base-metal hardness values of
A7075-T6, pure Ni, and S45C, which are indicated by the black dotted
lines in the graph, were 181, 151, and 228 Hv, respectively.
In the hardness distribution depicted in Fig. 14(b), an increase in the
hardness of the Ni material was observed within a range of approxi­
mately 5 mm from the A7075-T6/Ni interface. Furthermore, the hard­
ening increased as the applied pressure was raised. Both TEM
observations and EBSD measurements indicate that grain refinement
and solid solution strengthening occurred in a highly localized region on
a microscale near the interface. Therefore, the hardness increase several
millimeters away from the interface is unlikely to be attributed to grain
refinement or solid solution strengthening. The IPF map reveals signif­
icant grain distortion, even in the region located about 1 mm from the
Fig. 9. TEM-EDS mapping (submicron order) of the A7075-T6 / Ni interface at interface, suggesting that the hardness increase is a result of work
300 MPa applied pressure. hardening. Since the area of increased Ni hardness corresponds to the
protrusion length of the sample, it is inferred that the LFW pressuriza­
illustrates the EDS line analysis results, and Fig. 11 presents the micro- tion deformed the protrusion and introduced strain to the region several
scale copper element distribution. The dotted lines in Fig. 9 suggest millimeters away from the interface. For the A7075-T6, softening was
the presence of thin intermetallic compound layers of approximately observed near the A7075-T6/pure Ni interface. This is a general trend
100 nm, and the line analysis results in Fig. 10 indicate that these observed in FSW joints of precipitation-strengthened Al alloys and is
intermetallic compound layers are composed of Ni3Al and Al3Ni. The thought to be due to the re-solidification of precipitates and a reduced
uniform presence of these thin intermetallic phases contributes to a dislocation density caused by heat input and plastic flow due to friction
sound joint. In Fig. 10(a), a high amount of copper (Cu) is found, (Uematsu et al., 2009). The hardness of S45C increased to approximately
overlapping the Al3Ni layer. As shown in Fig. 11, Cu precipitates are 700 Hv in the vicinity of the S45C interface. The martensitic structure of
scattered within the aluminum (Al) grains, and it is considered that these S45C is confirmed in Fig. 13(a), and the hardness increase is caused by
precipitates diffused and concentrated near the interface during the phase transformation.
joining process. Additionally, the mapping in Fig. 9 and Fig. 11(a), (c), Fig. 15 shows the tensile strengths of the joints obtained under
and (d) confirms an increased presence of oxygen (O) and magnesium various LFW conditions. Because the tensile strengths of A7075-T6 and
(Mg) elements near the interface, suggesting the formation of Mg-based pure Ni were 570 and 396 MPa, respectively, Ni was used as the stan­
oxides at the interface. Moreover, both the mapping and line analysis dard for joint efficiency. In the tensile test, the joints ruptured at the
showed a decrease in the amount of zinc (Zn) elements at the interface interface on the A7075-T6 side under all the conditions. The tensile
and in the Al diffusion layer, indicating that there is no diffusion of Zn strengths of the joints obtained at 200, 300, and 400 MPa on the A7075-
T6 side were 304, 363, and 215 MPa, respectively. The efficiency of each

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

Fig. 10. TEM-EDS line analysis results at various positions in the A7075-T6 / Ni interface of the joint obtained at applied pressure of 300 MPa.

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

Fig. 11. Cu element mapping (micron order) at the A7075-T6 / Ni interface of

the joint obtained at applied pressure of 300 MPa.

joint was 77% at 200 MPa and 54% at 400 MPa on the A7075-T6 side,
and the highest strength with 92% joint efficiency was successfully ob­
tained at 300 MPa. The reason why the highest strength was obtained at
300 MPa is considered to be that the oxides at the butt interface were
sufficiently expelled as burrs by simultaneously deforming both the pure
Ni and A7075-T6 materials, as the applied pressure was near the
strength at the intersection point in the strength–temperature depen­
dence graph shown in Fig. 7. The joint efficiency at 200 MPa was lower
than that at 300 MPa because of the poor deformation of pure Ni.
However, the joint efficiency decreased owing to the poor deformation
of A7075-T6 at 400 MPa.

Conclusions

In this study, three types of dissimilar materials—A7075-T6, S45C,

and Ni—were joined using a new welding method called center-driven
double-sided LFW, and the effects of the welding conditions on the Fig. 13. (a) Cross-sectional microphotograph and EDS line analysis results for
mechanical properties and microstructure of the joint were investigated the S45C/Ni interface formed at 300 MPa ((b) center and (c) edge).
in detail. The following conclusions are drawn.

Fig. 12. EBSD IPF Map of Ni near the A7075-T6 / Ni interface of the joint obtained at applied pressure of 300 MPa.

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

Fig. 14. Vickers hardness distribution of the joint obtained at each applied pressure: (a) hardness distribution of the entire joint; (b) near the A7075-T6/pure Ni
interface; (c) near the pure Ni/S45C interface.

(1) Three types of dissimilar materials can be joined by applying

pressure suitable for the deformation of the left and right ma­
terials in center-driven double-sided LFW.
(2) By setting the applied pressure on the A7075-T6 side to 300 MPa,
which is near the intersection of the temperature dependence of
the strengths of A7075-T6 and pure Ni, a high-strength joint with
a joint efficiency of 92% was obtained.
(3) SEM observations demonstrated the absence of bonding defects
at both the A7075-T6 / Ni and Ni / S45C interfaces under the
applied pressure of 300 MPa. TEM observation further revealed
the formation of a thin intermetallic compound layer, measuring
approximately 100 nm, at the A7075-T6/Ni interface.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

Fig. 15. Tensile strengths of the joints obtained under various LFW conditions
and the base metal.

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T. Ito et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 8 (2023) 100165

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