Accepted Manuscript

Thermal modelling of linear friction welding

P. Jedrasiak, H.R. Shercliff, A.R. McAndrew, P.A. Colegrove

PII: S0264-1275(18)30510-0
DOI: doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2018.06.043
Reference: JMADE 4013
To appear in: Materials & Design
Received date: 15 March 2018
Revised date: 12 June 2018
Accepted date: 22 June 2018

Please cite this article as: P. Jedrasiak, H.R. Shercliff, A.R. McAndrew, P.A. Colegrove
, Thermal modelling of linear friction welding. Jmade (2018), doi:10.1016/
j.matdes.2018.06.043

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As
a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The
manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before
it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may
be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the
journal pertain.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Thermal Modelling of Linear Friction Welding

Jedrasiak P.1,2,*, Shercliff H.R.1, McAndrew A.R. 2,3, and Colegrove P.A.3,
1
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington St, CB2 1PZ, UK.
2
TWI, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6AL, UK
3
Welding Engineering Research Centre, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL.
* Corresponding author: patryk.jedrasiak@eng.cam.ac.uk (44-1223-748525)

Abstract

This paper presents a finite element thermal model for linear friction welding applied to an

PT
instrumented weld in Ti6Al4V. The power at the weld interface was estimated from the measured
transverse velocity and the cyclic machine load. This was compared with the power history reverse-
engineered from thermocouple data. A simple analytical model captured the lateral distribution of

RI
heat input at the interface, while geometry changes and heat loss due to the expulsion of flash were
included using a sequential step-wise technique, removing interface elements one layer at a time at

SC
discrete intervals. Comparison of predicted and experimental power showed a 20% discrepancy,
attributed to uncertainty in the power estimate from force and displacement data, and sensitivity to the
precision of locating the thermocouples. The thermal model is computationally efficient, and is
NU
sufficiently accurate for application to a new thermomechanical modelling approach, developed in a
subsequent paper [1].
Keywords
MA

Linear friction welding, titanium alloys, process modelling, finite element analysis.

Declarations of interest: none

D

1. Introduction
E

Linear friction welding (Figure 1) is a solid state joining method, in which a component subjected to
PT

reciprocating transverse motion is pressed against a stationary component. Frictional heat and
plasticity at the interface soften the material, much of which is expelled as flash, and the joint is
consolidated under axial load. Vairis and Frost [2] divided the process into four distinct stages. In the
CE

initial phase, the oscillatory motion and pressure reach a stable value. Heat is generated through
friction, and no axial ‘burn-off’ (shortening) is produced. In the transition phase, the temperature of
the surrounding material rises and a layer of plasticised material is formed, along with initial flash.
Subsequently, in the equilibrium phase, plasticised matter continues to be expelled as a constant rate,
AC

and the thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and heat-affected zone (HAZ) expand. Finally, in
the deceleration and forge phase, the amplitude is rapidly reduced to zero, and the forging pressure
consolidates the joint.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
Figure 1 Linear friction welding: (a) initial phase, (b) transition phase,

RI
(c) equilibrium phase (d) deceleration and forge phase [2].

Like other solid state friction welding methods, the process offers a number of advantages over fusion

SC
welding, including avoiding solidification and grain boundary liquation cracking, porosity, micro-
segregation and grain coarsening. The growth of intermetallic compounds can also be controlled when
welding dissimilar metals. It is fast and repeatable, easy to automate, energy efficient, and requires
NU
little preparation of joined surfaces with no shielding gas or consumables [3,4].

The process was developed mostly for joining aero-engine compressor blades to compressor disks,
and for materials such as titanium alloys, titanium aluminides and nickel superalloys [5]. Titanium is
MA

particularly well-suited for LFW because of its mechanical properties and low thermal conductivity,
which confines heat to the welded interface. An important aspect of LFW of titanium is the phase
transition between modified HCP α-titanium at low temperatures, and BCC β-titanium (at about
1000°C for Ti-6Al-4V [6]). The impact of the α-β transition on the deformation in linear friction
D

welds of Ti is discussed in the subsequent paper on modelling of the heat generation [1].
E

Overview of experimental work

PT

The early work by Vairis and Frost [2,7] concentrated on Ti-6Al-4V and the three main welding
parameters (oscillation amplitude, frequency and pressure) and their influence on the impact strength
CE

of the weld. The analysis covered several characteristics related to weld integrity: heat input, the size
of the HAZ, extrusion of flash, and interface alignment. Ti–6Al–4V, nickel superalloy and steel LFW
welds were characterized by Li et al. [8-13], who studied flash formation, axial shortening,
AC

temperature distribution, microstructure and fatigue performance. The strength, ductility and
resistance to fatigue cracking of defect-free LFW welds can be comparable to the parent material. In
Ti-6Al-4V, the weld strength may exceed that of the parent material, due to a refined microstructure
resulting from high strains and rapid cooling of fully β transformed material. Non-recrystallised
deformed grains form a TMAZ around the weld zone, but no prominent HAZ is observed in titanium
[5,14,15].

Jahazi et al. [14] provided further insight into the influence of welding parameters on tensile strength
in Ti-6Al-4V LFW, identifying axial shortening as a further important parameter. Their study showed
different microstructures in the weld zone and the TMAZ, suggesting temperatures below the Ti-6Al-
4V β-transus in the TMAZ. Investigation of the influence of welding parameters on the interface
temperature, which controls β grain growth, has identified power input and flash expulsion as key
factors controlling the temperature. [5,14]

2
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Karadge et al. studied microstructures in Ti–6Al–4V and nickel superalloy LFW, and showed that
strong texture develops within ±100µm of the weld interface, though its evolution and influence on
the properties are not fully understood. [15,16] Using SEM and EBSD they showed that some of the
observed texture could be attributed to the β → α transformation during cooling. As in most welding
processes, residual stresses in LFW can have a negative impact on the weld integrity, as a
consequence of the local thermal histories and constrained plasticity during welding [5].

Overview of numerical work

Linear friction welding has been extensively modelled with numerical methods, especially for Ti-6Al-
4V [10,17-25], other titanium alloys [12,26], and their dissimilar combinations [27]. Turner et al. [20]

PT
and Schröder et al. [24,25] studied peak temperatures and variation of the upset and flash shape, but
also strain-rates, HAZ size, the onset of plasticity, self-cleaning of the joined surfaces, and the
influence of weld size. In later work, Turner et al. [19] and Song et al.[28], successfully predicted

RI
residual stress, and verified them experimentally with X-ray diffraction. McAndrew et al. [22,23,29]
explored weld characteristics (temperatures, strain-rates, burn-off rates, TMAZ thickness, welding

SC
forces and power) and their dependence on oscillation amplitude, frequency and pressure.
Temperature distribution and heat generation, as well as residual stresses, were also studied by Buhr
et al. [30,31].
NU
To date, numerical modelling of LFW has been dominated by fully coupled thermomechanical finite
element analysis with explicit time integration. Finite element thermal models are used only to
supplement coupled thermomechanical models, e.g. for predicting the temperature field after the dry
MA

friction stage, to provide the initial temperature of a fully-coupled model of the equilibrium stage
(McAndrew et al. [22,23,29]). Buffa et al. [32] also used a heat transfer model to complement a fully-
coupled thermomechanical model for predicting shear yield stress. In contrast, Vairis and Frost [18]
separated the process into a thermal and a mechanical problem, solved in parallel during every time
D

step, and coupled via transferring the mechanical work and temperature field. The current work picks
up on this semi-coupled approach, seeking improvements in the computational efficiency of the
E

analysis.
PT

Small strain method for modelling LFW

Fully coupled thermomechanical models commonly handle the large deformations in LFW by an
CE

Arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) kinematic description or other remeshing techniques [10-

13,17,19,20,22-25,27,28,32-35], associated with significant computational effort [11,12,18,27].
Furthermore, the cyclic frequencies in LFW require prolonged analysis to capture the whole process.
AC

The present study is therefore different to previous models, aiming for computationally efficiency in
semi-coupled thermal and mechanical analyses. The central concept is to use multiple but intermittent
small-strain thermomechanical modelling to predict the heat generation from first principles – an idea
that has been tested for several large strain friction welding processes. The method, initially proposed
by Reilly et al. [36], has been applied to friction stir spot welding [37] and ultrasonic welding [38].

This new method uses independent thermal and deformation models, coupled via transfer of the
thermal load and temperature field. The deformation model takes intermittent small strain “snapshots”
during the continuous thermomechanical process, in order to capture enough of the material flow
behaviour to compute realistic values of heat generation. There are two sources of computational
efficiency – firstly, the deformation model runs for only a small fraction of the total process time; and
secondly, the plastic strain and mesh distortions are small, so that demanding remeshing techniques
are avoided.

3
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

This paper presents the first part of this new approach – an implicit FE thermal model of LFW, to
predict the temperature field for the entire weld duration. For the thermal model, the important
characteristics are the spatial distribution and time evolution of the heat input, and the ability to
handle the significant axial shortening and heat loss to the flash. The integration of this thermal model
with the small-strain thermomechanical model is presented in a subsequent paper [1]. Further
potential applications of the thermal model include time-efficient parametric studies, and providing
thermal histories for modelling and interpretation of weld microstructures and properties, as
demonstrated in other friction welding contexts – for example, the post-weld hardness in
precipitation-hardened aluminium alloys [39] or the formation of intermetallic compounds at the
interface of dissimilar welds [39,40].

PT
2. Experimental work

A single instrumented weld was produced in Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy at TWI [22,23] with the

RI
following parameters: frequency 50 Hz, amplitude 2.7 mm, downforce 100 kN, and burn-off 3 mm.
Figure 2 shows the workpiece dimensions and the locations of four k-type thermocouples, fixed in the

SC
drilled holes with epoxy resin with a precision of approximately 0.1mm.
NU
MA
E D
PT
CE

Figure 2 Workpiece dimensions for both parts (dimensions in mm). Thermocouples were
positioned in the holes shown in sections A-A, B-B, at distances of 0, 0.5, 1.5 and 2mm
from the interface.
AC

Forces and displacements were logged at 500 Hz using a high-speed data acquisition system. The
axial data in Figure 3 show that the start of burn-off is approximately 0.5s after contact is made.
Figure 4 shows the transverse forces and oscillation displacement, which are used as follows to infer
the power input at the weld interface.

4
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
Figure 3 Experimentally measured downforce and burn-off through the four stages I-IV of LFW
(as defined in the Introduction).

SC
Figure 4(a) shows the upper and lower envelopes enclosing the peaks of the 50Hz sinusoidal
oscillation in the measured total transverse force, (black curves). Ofem et al. [41] showed how
NU
to account for the inertial contribution to this total force, enabling the interface force to be
inferred. Assuming sinusoidal oscillation of a mass for the chuck and workpiece (= 280kg in this
setup):
MA

where and are the oscillation acceleration, frequency and amplitude respectively. Inferring the
D

interface force from experimental data needs care however. Figure 4(b) shows sample cycles from the
E

equilibrium stage of welding. The total force and displacement curves are not entirely smooth,
particularly at the peaks, due to the data sampling frequency being too low. Acceleration was
PT

calculated by double numerical differentiation of the displacement data, giving the inertia force,
, which is 180o out-of-phase with the displacement (Figure 4b). Subtracting the inertia force
from the total force gives the interface force . Note however that the inertia force leads the
CE

experimentally measured total force by a small phase shift, and the magnitude of the resulting
sinusoidal variation in is sensitive to this phase shift. The accuracy of the data acquisition system
was therefore checked by examining the predicted interface force before contact was established,
AC

when should be zero. This revealed a small time offset between the force and displacement data,
which was therefore eliminated as far as possible before predicting . The envelopes of the
resulting predicted cycles of inertia and interface forces are also shown in Figure 4(a). At first contact
at t = 0, the small residual non-zero amplitude in can be seen – this was minimised by adjusting
the time offset in the raw data to 2.6ms.

5
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA
D

Figure 4 Transverse force and displacement profiles from the transition and equilibrium stages of
E

welding: (a) envelopes of the experimentally measured total force, , with predicted values for
PT

inertia force and interface force, ; (b) sample cycles, with workpiece displacement superimposed.

The interface force and velocity from this analysis are then used to estimate the power input to the
CE

weld, since the instantaneous power is given by:

AC

Note that both and are approximately sinusoidal, but out-of-phase (by a little over 180o). In
order to minimize the windowing error associated with the relatively low data sampling frequency, the
interface force and velocity curves were fitted to sinusoidal functions with constant frequency, but
time-dependent amplitude and phase shift. This adjustment was necessary, as the force amplitude
varies substantially throughout the process, while the power output is very sensitive to the phase
difference between force and velocity. The instantaneous power of plastic dissipation was then
averaged by integration over each cycle, to obtain the average power history over the full
welding time:

6
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figure 5 shows the inferred variation of through the weld cycle. Due to the cumulative
uncertainty in the data and the analysis, this experimental power history is not sufficiently accurate to
be used as a model input. Obtaining accurate experimental power histories in friction processing is
often difficult, or omitted altogether. The data manipulation needed here would not be suitable for
routine measurement, but is important here to give the best available semi-quantitative validation of
the power history inferred from thermocouple data and the thermal model.

PT
RI
SC
NU
Figure 5 Power history during linear friction weld, inferred cycle-by-cycle from experimental
data for transverse displacement and force, allowing for inertial effects.
MA

3. Thermal model

A thermal model should ideally use an input power history that is validated independently by direct
experimental measurement of power. But in this case the uncertainty in inferring input power to the
D

workpiece (discussed above) necessitates a different approach, reverse-engineering the power input
using thermocouple data. The spatial distribution of this power requires a physical basis, for which a
E

simple analytical model is proposed. Finally the evolving geometry, due to burnoff, is managed via a
PT

sequence of independent simulations with small step changes in the geometry.

Geometry, boundary conditions and mesh

CE

Linear friction welding can be modelled in two dimensions, without compromising the quality of the
results, for several reasons. First, heat flow is practically one-dimensional, as the horizontal cross-
section (parallel to the interface) is uniform, heat losses to the air can be neglected for a short cycle,
AC

and the heat generation can be assumed uniform for most of the interface. Second, most of the plastic
deformation and expulsion of flash takes place through shearing in the plane of the welded interface,
parallel to the oscillations. Some flash is extruded in the out-of-plane direction, but as shown later,
axial shortening and the associated heat loss can be accounted for without modelling flash formation
in full. Modelling in 2D provides a substantial gain in the efficiency of computation.

Temperature-dependent thermal properties and density of Ti-6Al-4V were used [42-46]. Due to the
low thermal conductivity of titanium and the short welding cycle (of order 1s), the heat flow distance
during the weld cycle is limited in extent – for example, the temperature rise at a distance of 10mm
from the interface was below 1°C. Hence the initial dimensions of the workpieces were limited to
10mm (including an allowance of 3mm of burn-off), and remaining parts of the workpieces and
clamping were neglected. All external boundaries were therefore defined as thermally insulated

7
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

(Figure 6). Significant amounts of heat in LFW are, however, lost from the vicinity of the interface
via mass convection into the flash, and this burn-off is accounted for in the model, as discussed later.

Since both workpieces are identical, heat generation can be assumed equally divided between them.
Any thermal contact conductance at the interface between the workpieces has no influence on the
thermal field, as there is no heat flow between them. For simplicity, perfect thermal contact was
specified throughout. Significant amounts of heat in LFW are, however, lost from the vicinity of the
interface via mass convection into the flash, and this burn-off is accounted for in the model, as
discussed later.

The two workpieces are the same material and of equal size, with rapid sinusoidal oscillations about

PT
the position of complete overlap. Hence the heat conduction problem is symmetrical about the
interface, with identical heat flow in both workpieces, and no heat transfer across this plane. The
thermal contact conductance at the interface between the workpieces therefore has no influence on the

RI
thermal field and may be assumed to be perfect for simplicity. This was recognised by Vairis and
Frost [18] and Li et al. [10], who reduced the problem to a single workpiece, treating the second a as a

SC
rigid surface. Alternatively, after full contact is established leading into the equilibrium stage, the
workpieces may be modelled as a single body, as in the work of McAndrew et al. [22] and Turner et
al. [20].
NU
The mesh (Fig. 6) was graded from 40μm to 1.5mm in the far field to limit the total number of
degrees of freedom in the model. A sequential step-wise technique was used for handling burn-off,
MA

and this defined the size of the smallest elements perpendicular to the interface. Four-node linear heat
transfer quadrilateral elements were used in the thermal model.
E D
PT
CE
AC

Figure 6 Thermal FE model of LFW – geometry, mesh and thermal boundary conditions
(dimensions in mm)

Thermal loads

Temperature data is used as an input for the thermal model in an iterative procedure, where the net
heat input is reverse-engineered until the temperature predictions match the experimental data. The
time history of power is obtained in a piecewise fashion, with the power being adjusted to match the
temperature history from the thermocouple closest to the interface. As burn-off reaches the location of
each thermocouple, it is moved and potentially damaged, so calibration then switches to the next
closest thermocouple, and so on. The fit to the full thermal cycles of all thermocouples is then

8
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

checked using the inferred power history. Inaccuracies in temperature data, and thus inferred power,
are mostly related to thermocouple locations. As a result of the low thermal conductance of Ti-6Al-
4V, temperature gradients around the interface can reach as much as 500°C/mm, requiring precise
positioning of thermocouples.

The heat input is assumed to occur only at the welded interface. This is obviously accurate in the
initial dry friction stage, but during the equilibrium stage, heat is generated in a layer of the bulk
material through plastic dissipation. In the subsequent paper [1], it is shown that the deformation takes
place in a thin layer, less than 1mm thick, so it is a reasonable assumption to apply all of the heat
input at the interface.

PT
The lateral distribution of heat input at the interface can be established with a simple analytical model,
first for the initial frictional stage. Consider two rigid blocks sliding against each other, with a
constant pressure , a coefficient of friction , and shear stress p at the interface (Figure 7a). One

RI
block is oscillating with a frequency and displacement in a coordinate system fixed with the
stationary block, while the peak-to-peak amplitude is . Contact is lost for part of the cycle in a

SC
region of width at the edge of each block (Figure 7a). The rate of heat generation per unit area is
proportional to the distance over which contact is maintained throughout a cycle. In the central region
(x > A), contact is maintained over a sliding distance of 4A per cycle, hence the average heat
NU
generation rate per unit area is equal to p (4A) f. At the edges, heat will not be generated when the
blocks are not overlapping. The edge of one workpiece is in contact with the other workpiece for
exactly half a cycle, halving the average power density. This gives a linear fall-off in power at the
MA

edge, over a distance :

E D

Due to symmetry, analogous expressions can be derived for the right-hand side of the interface,
resulting in the final distribution in Figure 7b.
PT
CE
AC

9
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
NU
Figure 7 Initial stage of LFW: (a) Instantaneous heat generation rate at an interface position
MA

throughout a half-cycle; (b) Distribution of power density at the interface averaged over a cycle.

After full contact of the joint develops, heat is generated via plastic dissipation, by shearing of the
material close to the interface. It is then assumed that power is generated continuously over the entire
interface, regardless of the overlap between the blocks, which are now physically connected. And if
D

the temperatures and strain-rates are also uniform over the interface, the flow stress and resulting heat
E

input distribution can be assumed uniform across the entire interface (Figure 8). The results of the
thermal model show that it is reasonable to assume a uniform temperature, while uniform strain-rates
PT

are a natural consequence of the constrained geometry of the plasticized layer.

CE
AC

Figure 8 Equilibrium stage of LFW: (a) Plasticized layer of material;

(b) Distribution of heat input at the interface averaged over a cycle.

Axial shortening

One particularly challenging aspect of modelling LFW with the proposed small-strain framework is
the need to handle the change of geometry associated with burn-off. This is achieved in the thermal
model by “deleting” layers of elements at the interface at intervals, with each layer of elements
corresponding to an equivalent volume of material extruded to flash (that is, discretising further what

10
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

is in reality a cycle-by-cycle event). The procedure is illustrated in Figure 9. All the elements in the
weld zone are arranged in regular layers of constant thickness. The rate of removal of element layers
is controlled using the experimentally recorded axial displacement (which determines the rate of flash
expulsion). After each operation of “deleting” a layer of elements, a new model is assembled by
closing the gap vacated by the “deleted” layer. The initial thermal field is imported from the previous
model on an element-by-element basis, excluding the deleted layer. The new thermal model is then
run for a time corresponding to burn-off of the next single layer of elements, and the resulting thermal
field is again exported to the next iteration.

PT
RI
SC
NU
Figure 9 Iterative axial shortening in the thermal model

Since the non-linearities associated with temperature-dependent material properties are mild, the
MA

solution can be obtained in one time-step in each implicit thermal model (corresponding to a single
step in burn-off). Consequently, CPU time associated with each model can be assumed constant, and
the overall computational time is proportional to the total number of burn-off steps:
E D

As the cycle-by-cycle removal of interface material is simulated in larger steps, most of the time the
PT

volume of material in the model is slightly different than in the real experiment. Furthermore, the
distance between the heat input and the thermocouple used for its calibration also changes in discrete
steps. As a result, the element thickness has a comparable effect on the accuracy of the calibrated heat
CE

input as does the lack of precision in thermocouple positioning. As a compromise between

computational efficiency and accuracy, an element thickness of 40μm was adopted.
AC

4. Results

Full temperature cycle predictions, obtained with the resulting inferred power history, are compared
with the thermocouple data in Figure 10. Prediction at each location finishes when burn-off reaches
that point, except for the 2mm case, where the data are truncated at the end of the heating stage. A
good match was obtained for temperature predictions at each of the thermocouple positions.

The most important source of the observed discrepancy between the predicted and experimental
temperatures is the steep temperature gradient near the interface, due to the low thermal conductivity
of titanium. First, the finite contact size of a thermocouple averages over a temperature range. Second,
there is uncertainty in the position of the thermocouples, so that even small deviation from the
nominal position can substantially affect the recorded temperature. According to Vairis and Frost [18]
and McAndrew et al. [22], who used thermocouple data for model validation, this can be particularly
pronounced in LFW as the thermocouples enter the deformation zone, and are pushed back into the

11
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

thermocouple holes, moving them away from the interface. Several other authors [11,13,23,29,32]
have compared temperature predictions of their FE models with thermocouple data, but did not
comment on the reasons for discrepancies.

PT
RI
SC
Figure 10 Predicted temperature histories (dashed lines) and thermocouple data (solid lines),
NU
for given (initial) distances from the interface.

Figure 11 shows the inferred power history fitted sequentially using the temperature of the
thermocouple closest to the interface. Because of the low thermal conductivity and the finite distance
MA

between heat input and thermocouple location, there is a time delay between the moment when heat is
generated, and when a change in temperature is recorded. An iterative routine was therefore
developed to calibrate the power history retrospectively through a given thermal history. There is a
degree of scatter in the inferred power history in the equilibrium stage, so a linear fit for this stage was
D

proposed (Figure 11). Comparison with the experimental power (inferred from transverse force and
E

displacement data) shows a 20% discrepancy in the equilibrium stage, and a steeper predicted increase
in the initial stages of welding, but the general form of the power history is captured.
PT

Given the difficulties in measuring the input power, as discussed earlier, few authors have attempted
to validate their LFW models by comparing predicted and experimental power. McAndrew et al. [22]
CE

compared the two quantities averaged over the entire equilibrium phase, and identified potential
sources of the significant discrepancy observed, which were up to 50%. These included the heat lost
to flash expelled in the direction perpendicular to oscillation, which was neglected in their two-
AC

dimensional model, and uncertainty in the material constitutive data used to predict the heat
generation rate. In the current work, the step-wise technique of handling burn-off captures the heat
lost to flash in all directions, while our thermal model is calibrated to thermocouple data as an
intermediate step before developing a thermomechanical model of heat generation.

Inaccuracies exist in both the experimental power and the thermocouple data. Uncertainty in the
measured power is related to the assumption of sinusoidal displacement, windowing errors due to an
inadequate frequency of data acquisition, and possible contributions of forces other than the interface
force and inertia. Thermocouple errors are primarily associated with uncertainty in their locations, and
the large temperature gradients close to the interface. Furthermore, if the welded surfaces are not
perfectly aligned at the start of the process, the initial heating and temperature rise would be
concentrated towards one edge of the sample while the contact beds in, and this would not be
immediately captured by the centrally positioned thermocouples. This could explain the more gradual

12
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

initial rise in measured power than was inferred using the thermal model. So in spite of the
considerable experimental uncertainties, the two independent measures of the power history provide
sufficient confidence in the thermal model for it to be applied in the subsequent small-strain
deformation model [1].

PT
RI
SC
Figure 11 Power inferred using temperature data from thermocouples nearest the interface,
with a linear best fit superimposed in the equilibrium stage.
NU
Figure 12 shows the predicted temperature distributions at the end of the equilibrium stage. The
influence of the low thermal conductance is clear, as even at the end of the equilibrium stage the
MA

region of elevated temperature is limited to the vicinity of the interface.

E D
PT
CE

Figure 12 Temperature field (in oC) at the end of equilibrium stage, with the length of the model
workpieces indicated (dimensions in mm).
AC

5. Conclusions

A two-dimensional thermal model was developed for linear friction welding and applied to an
instrumented weld in Ti6Al4V, with multiple embedded thermocouples, and force and displacement
measurement in the transverse and axial directions. The cyclic force at the interface could be
estimated by accounting for the machine inertia, and combined with the velocity cycle to give an
independent estimate of the net plastic dissipation rate. The power history was reverse-engineered
from the thermocouple data, and the lateral distribution of heat input at the interface was estimated
with a simple analytical model. The expulsion of material to flash and associated change in geometry
were successfully accounted for in the thermal model with a sequential step-wise technique, deleting
layers of elements at the interface at discrete time intervals, matching the experimental burn-off rate.
The temperature predictions corresponded well with the thermocouple data. The region of elevated
temperature was found to be limited to a thin layer close to the interface, due to the low thermal

13
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

conductivity of Ti alloys. Comparison with experimental power showed a 20% discrepancy

throughout the equilibrium stage. This was attributed to uncertainty in the power inferred from force
and displacement data, and sensitivity to the precision of locating the thermocouples. The thermal
model is computationally efficient, and is sufficiently accurate for application to the proposed small-
strain thermomechanical modelling approach developed in a subsequent paper [1].

Acknowledgements

The work described in this paper was funded by EPSRC through the University of Cambridge
Doctoral Training Account, with additional CASE award funding provided by TWI, Granta Park,
Cambridge, UK. In addition, funding for the experiments was provided by the Boeing Corporation

PT
and EPSRC. The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical discussions and experimental
assistance from Dr Mike Russell, Dr Kathryn Beamish and Bertrand Flipo, TWI.

RI
Data availability

The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time due to

SC
technical or time limitations.

References
NU
[1] P. Jedrasiak, H.R. Shercliff, "Modelling of heat generation in linear friction welding using a
small strain finite element method," (unpublished work).
MA

[2] A. Vairis, M. Frost, "High frequency linear friction welding of a titanium alloy," Wear, vol. 217,
pp. 117-131, 1998.
[3] Mishra, R.S., Ma., Z.Y., "Friction Stir Welding and Processing," Mater. Sci. Eng. R. Rep., vol.
50, no. 1-2, pp. 1-78, 2005.
D

[4] Threadgill, P.L., Leonard, A.J., Shercliff, H.R., Withers, P.J., "Friction Stir Welding of
E

Aluminium Alloys," Int. Mater. Rev., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 49-93, 2009.
PT

[5] I. Bhamji, M. Preuss, P.L. Threadgill, A.C. Addison, "Solid state joining of metals by linear
friction welding: A literature review," Materials Science & Technology, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 2-12,
2010.
CE

[6] W.F. Smith , Structure and Properties of Engineering Alloys, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
[7] A. Vairis, M. Frost , "On the extrusion stage of linear friction welding of Ti6Al4V," Materials
Science and Engineering A - Structural Materials Properties Microstructure and Processing,
AC

vol. 271, no. 1-2, pp. 477-484, 1999.

[8] W.Y. Li; T.J. Ma; S.Q. Yang; Q.Z. Xu; Y. Zhang; J.L. Li; H.L. Liao, "Effect of friction time on
flash shape and axial shortening of linear friction welded 45 stee," Materials Letters, vol. 62, no.
2, pp. 293-296, 2008.
[9] H.Y. Li; Z.W. Huang; S. Bray; G. Baxter; P. Bowen, "High temperature fatigue of friction
welded joints in dissimilar nickel based superalloys," Materials Science and Technology , vol.
23, no. 12, pp. 1408-1418, 2007.
[10] W.Y. Li, T.J. Ma, J.L. Li, "Numerical simulation of linear friction welding of titanium alloy:
Effects of processing parameters," Materials & Design, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 1497-1507, 2010.
[11] W.Y. Li, S.X. Shi, F.F. Wang, T.J. Ma, J.L. Li, D.L. Gao, A. Vairis, "Heat reflux in flash and its
effect on joint temperature history during linear friction welding of steel," International Journal

14
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

of Thermal Sciences, vol. 67, pp. 192-199, 2013.

[12] W.Y. Li, F.F. Wang, S.X. Shi, T.J. Ma, "Numerical Simulation of Linear Friction Welding Based
on ABAQUS Environment: Challenges and Perspectives," Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 384-390, 2014.
[13] W.Y. Li, F.F. Wang, S.X. Shi, T.J. Ma, J.L. Li, A. Vairis, "3D Finite Element Analysis of the
Effect of Process Parameters on Linear Friction Welding of Mild Steel," The Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance, vol. 23, no. 11, pp. 4010-4018, 2014.
[14] P. Wanjara, M. Jahazi, "Linear friction welding of Ti-6Al-4V: Processing, microstructure, and
mechanical-property inter-relationships," Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A - Physical
metallurgy and materials science, vol. 36A, no. 8, pp. 2149-2164, 2005.

PT
[15] M. Karadge, M. Preuss, C. Lovell, P.J. Withers, S. Bray, "Texture development in Ti-6Al-4V
linear friction welds," Materials Science and Engineering A - Structural Materials Properties

RI
Microstructure and Processing, vol. 459, no. 1-2, pp. 182-191, 2007.
[16] M. Karadgea, M. Preussa, P.J. Withersa, S. Bray, "Importance of crystal orientation in linear

SC
friction joining of single crystal to polycrystalline nickel-based superalloys," Materials Science
and Engineering A: Structural Materials: Properties, Microstructure and Processing, vol. 491,
no. 1-2, p. 446–453, 2008.
NU
[17] M. Grujicic, G. Arakere, B. Pandurangan, C.F. Yen, B.A. Cheeseman, "Process Modeling of Ti-
6Al-4V Linear Friction Welding (LFW)," The Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance, vol. 21, no. 10, pp. 2011-2023, 2012.
MA

[18] A. Vairis, M. Frost, "Modelling the linear friction welding of titanium blocks," Materials Science
and Engineering: A, vol. 292, no. 1, p. 8–17, 2000.
[19] R. Turner, R.M. Ward, R. March, R.C. Reed, "The Magnitude and Origin of Residual Stress in
Ti-6Al-4V Linear Friction Welds: An Investigation by Validated Numerical Modeling,"
D

Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B - Process metallurgy and materials processing

science, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 186-197, 2012.
E

[20] R. Turner, J.C. Gebelin, R.M. Ward, R.C. Reed, "Linear friction welding of Ti-6Al-4V:
PT

Modelling and validation," Acta Materialia, vol. 59, no. 10, pp. 3792-3803, 2011.
[21] R. Turner; F. Schroeder; R.M. Ward; J.W. Brooks, "The Importance of Materials Data and
Modelling Parameters in an FE Simulation of Linear Friction Welding," Advances in Materials
CE

Science and Engineering, vol. 2014, no. Article ID 521937, pp. 1-8, 2014.
[22] A.R. McAndrew, P.A. Colegrove, A.C. Addison, B.C.D. Flipo, M.J. Russell, "Modelling the
influence of the process inputs on the removal of surface contaminants from Ti–6Al–4V linear
AC

friction welds," Materials & Design, vol. 66A, p. 183–195, 2015.

[23] A.R. McAndrew, P.A. Colegrove, A.C. Addison, B.C.D. Flipo, M.J. Russell, "Energy and Force
Analysis of Ti-6Al-4V Linear Friction Welds for Computational Modeling Input and Validation
Data," Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A - Physical metallurgy and materials science,
vol. 45A, no. 13, pp. 6118-6128, 2014.
[24] F. Schröder; R.M. Ward; A.R. Walpole; R.P. Turner; M.M. Attallah; J.C. Gebelin; R.C. Reed,
"Linear friction welding of Ti6Al4V: experiments and modelling," Materials Science and
Technology, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 372-384, 2015.
[25] F. Schroeder; R.M. Ward; R.P. Turner; A.R. Walpole; M.M. Attallah; J.C. Gebelin; R.C. Reed,
"Validation of a Model of Linear Friction Welding of Ti6Al4V by Considering Welds of
Different Sizes," Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B: Process Metallurgy and Materials

15
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Processing Science, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 2326-2331, 2015.

[26] Y. Ji, Z. Chai, D. Zhao, S. Wu, "Linear friction welding of Ti–5Al–2Sn–2Zr–4Mo–4Cr alloy
with dissimilar microstructure," Journal of Materials Processing Technology, vol. 214, p. 979–
987, 2014.
[27] P.K. Zhao, L. Fu, D.C. Zhong, "Numerical simulation of transient temperature and axial
deformation during linear friction welding between TC11 and TC17 titanium alloys,"
Computational Materials Science, vol. 92, pp. 325-333, 2014.
[28] X. Song, M. Xie, F. Hofmann, T.S. Jun, T. Connolley, C. Reinhard, R.C. Atwood, L. Connor, M.
Drakopoulos, S. Harding, A.M. Korsunsky, "Residual stresses in Linear Friction Welding of
aluminium alloys," Materials & Design, vol. 50, pp. 360-369, 2013.

PT
[29] A.R. McAndrew, P.A. Colegrove, B.C.D. Flipo, C. Buhr, "3D modelling of Ti-6Al-4V linear
friction welds," Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 496-504,

RI
2017.
[30] C. Bühr, P.A. Colegrove, A.R. McAndrew, "A computationally efficient thermal modelling

SC
approach of the linear friction welding process," Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
vol. 252, p. 849–858, 2018.
[31] C. Bühr, B. Ahmad, P.A. Colegrove, A.R. McAndrew, H. Guo, X. Zhang, "Prediction of residual
NU
stress within linear friction welds using a computationally efficient modelling approach,"
Materials and Design , vol. 139, p. 222–233, 2018.
[32] G. Buffa, M. Cammalleri, D. Campanella, L. Fratini, "Shear coefficient determination in linear
MA

friction welding of aluminum alloys," Materials & Design, vol. 82, p. 238–246, 2015.
[33] M. Grujicic, R. Yavari, J.S. Snipes, S. Ramaswami, C.F. Yen, B.A. Cheeseman, "Linear Friction
Welding Process Model for Carpenter Custom 465 Precipitation-Hardened Martensitic Stainless
Steel," The Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 2182-2198,
D

2014.
[34] L. Fratini, G. Buffa, D. Campanella, D. La Spisa, "Investigations on the linear friction welding
E

process through numerical simulations and experiments," Materials & Design, vol. 40, pp. 285-
PT

291, 2012.
[35] E. Ceretti, L. Fratini, C. Giardini, D. La Spisa, "Numerical modelling of the linear friction
welding process," The International Journal of Material Forming, vol. 3, pp. 1015-1018, 2010.
CE

[36] A. Reilly, H.R. Shercliff, G.J. McShane, Y.Chen, P. Prangnell, "Novel approaches to modelling
metal flow in friction stir spot welding," in Mathematical Modelling of Weld Phenomena 10 (eds.
Sommitsch C. and Enzinger N.), Verlag der Technischen Universität Graz, Austria, 2013.
AC

[37] P. Jedrasiak, H.R. Shercliff, "Modelling of heat generation in friction stir spot welding using a
small strain finite element method," (submitted to The Journal of Materials Processing
Technology).
[38] P. Jedrasiak, H.R. Shercliff, "Finite element analysis of heat generation in dissimilar alloy
ultrasonic welding," (submitted to Materials and Design).
[39] P. Jedrasiak, H.R. Shercliff, A. Reilly, G.J. McShane, Y.C. Chen, L. Wang, J. Robson, P.
Prangnell, "Thermal Modeling of Al-Al and Al-Steel Friction Stir Spot Welding," Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance, vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 4089-4098, 2016.
[40] P. Jedrasiak, H.R. Shercliff, Y.C. Chen, L. Wang, P. Prangnell, J. Robson, "Modelling of the
Thermal Field in Dissimilar Alloy Ultrasonic Welding," Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance, vol. 24, p. 799–807, 2015.

16
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

[41] U. U. Ofem, P. A. Colegrove, A. Addison, M. J. Russell, "Energy and force analysis of linear
friction welds in a medium carbon steel," Science and Technology of Welding & Joining, vol. 15,
no. 6, pp. 479-485, 2010.
[42] M. Boivineau, C. Cagran, D. Doytier, V. Eyraud, M.H. Nadal, B. Wilthan, G. Pottlacher,
"Thermophysical Properties of Solid and Liquid Ti-6Al-4V (TA6V) Alloy," International
Journal of Thermophysics, vol. 27, no. 2, p. 507–529, 2006.
[43] D. Basak, R.A. Overfelt, D. Wang, "Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity and Electrical
Resistivity of Industrial Alloys Using Pulse Heating Techniques," International Journal of
Thermophysics, vol. 24, no. 6, p. 1721–1733, 2003.
[44] H.H. Tong, O.R. Monteiro, I.G Brown, "Effects of carbon ion pre-implantation on the

PT
mechanical properties of ta-C coatings on Ti-6Al-4V," Surface and Coatings Technology, vol.
136, no. 1-3, p. 211–216, 2001.

RI
[45] J.J.Z. Li, W.L. Johnson, W.K. Rhim, "Thermal expansion of liquid Ti–6Al–4V measured by
electrostatic levitation," Applied Physics Letters, vol. 89, no. 6, pp. 111913-1:2, 2006.

SC
[46] M. Peters, J. Hemptenmacher, J. Kumpfert, C. Leyens, "Structure and Properties of Titanium and
Titanium Alloys," in Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Fundamentals and Applications, Weinheim,
Wiley-VCH, 2003, pp. 1-36.
NU
MA
E D
PT
CE
AC

17
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

PT
RI
SC
NU
MA

Graphical abstract
ED
PT
CE
AC

18
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights

A finite element thermal model for linear friction welding (LFW) was applied to an instrumented
weld in Ti6Al4V.

Expulsion of flash and associated changes in joint geometry were included using a sequential step-
wise technique, removing interface elements at discrete intervals.

PT
Predicted power history was reasonably consistent with an estimate of the experimental power,
inferred from the measured transverse load and displacement data, allowing for machine inertia.

RI
The thermal model is computationally efficient, and is sufficiently accurate for application to a new
thermomechanical modelling approach for LFW.

SC
NU
MA
E D
PT
CE
AC

19
Graphics Abstract
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12