Unit 5 Readings Notes

5.1-11/10,
20 MCQ+1 FRQ
-Task Switching: Task switching, or set-shifting, is an executive function that involves the ability
to unconsciously shift attention between one task and another. In contrast, cognitive shifting is a
very similar executive function, but it involves conscious (not unconscious) change in attention.
Together, these two functions are subcategories of the broader cognitive flexibility concept.
-Memory: p. 326-364
-Semantic Memory: Semantic memory refers to general world knowledge that humans have
accumulated throughout their lives. This general knowledge (word meanings, concepts, facts,
and ideas) is intertwined in experience and dependent on culture. New concepts are learned by
applying knowledge learned from things in the past.
-Episodic Memory: Episodic memories are what most people think of as memory and include
information about recent or past events and experiences, such as where you parked your car this
morning or the dinner you had with a friend last month.
-Recall: p. 344-345
-Recognition: p. 327-328
-Hermann Ebbinghaus: p. 327-328, p. 334, p. 336, p. 353
-Informative Processing Model: p. 329, p. 330-335
-Parallel Processing: p. 329
- The Atkinson–Shiffrin model (also known as the multi-store model or modal model) is a model
of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.[1] The model asserts
that human memory has three separate components:
-a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory,
-a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory, which receives
and holds input from both the sensory register and the long-term store, and
-a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed (explained below) in the
short-term store is held indefinitely.
- Maintenance rehearsal involves the repetition of information in its original, unaltered form.
Information rehearsed in this way is not reliably retained in long-term memory. An example of
maintenance rehearsal would be repeating a phone number, silently or out loud, until one can
get to a phone and dial that number.
-Sensory Memory: p. 329-331
-Working Memory: p. 329-330
-George Miller: p. 211, p. 332, p. 339, p. 830
-Encoding: p. 321-327, p. 329
-Explicit Memories: p. 330-337, p. 344
-Effortful Processing: Active processing of information that requires sustained effort. Shallow
processing: Processing information based on its surface characteristics. Deep processing:
Processing information with respect to its meaning. Attention: The brain's ability to focus on
stimuli.
-Implicit Memories: p. 331, p. 341, p. 344, p. 391
-Procedural Memories: p. 331
-Shallow/Deep Processing: p. 335-336
Elaborative Rehearsal: Elaborative rehearsal is the process of using active thinking about the
meaning of the term that needs to be remembered rather than just repeating the
word/information over and over again.
-Priming: p. 345
-Prospective Memory: Prospective memory is remembering to perform an action at a certain
time. An example would be remembering to take medicine after breakfast. From watering plants
once a week to turning off the stove after cooking, prospective memory is an important aspect of
routine daily life.
-Metacognition: Metacognition is the ability to control and be aware of your own thoughts. An
example of metacognition would be realizing you know the answer to a question on the quiz
even though you cannot think of the answer at that moment, which prompts you to decide you
should return to it later with a fresh perspective.
5.2, 11/14
3 MCQ+2 FRQ
-Encoding: p. 321-329
-Visual encoding: Visual encoding is the process of remembering visual images. Visually
encoded information is forgotten easily, therefore, it's the most shallow type of processing. An
example of visual encoding would be trying to remember a list of words with each word only
being shown for a second.
-Acoustic Encoding: Acoustic encoding is the processing and encoding of sound. It's deeper than
visual encoding, but not as deep as semantic encoding. You could think of it as intermediate
processing.
-Tactile Encoding: Tactile encoding is the processing and encoding of how something feels,
normally through touch.
-Organizational Encoding: Making lists to help you encode things you want to remember.
-Elaborative Encoding: Elaborative encoding: the process of actively relating new information or
knowledge to something already in memory. Most memories are a combination of old and new
information, and our interpretation of them depends on both.
-Semantic Encoding: Semantic encoding is a specific type of encoding in which the meaning of
something (a word, phrase, picture, event, whatever) is encoded as opposed to the sound or
vision of it. Research suggests that we have better memory for things we associate meaning to
and store using semantic encoding.
-Mass Practice Encoding: Cram style studying.
-Spacing Effect: p. 334
-Distributed Practice: p. 21, p. 334-335
-Testing Effect: The testing effect is a psychological phenomenon that refers to an enhancement
in the long-term retention of information as a result of taking a memory test. shallow
processing. leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay.
-Rote Rehearsal: Rote rehearsal refers to practicing something over and over again, and it's
often the strategy of choice for students and athletes.
-Chunking: "Chunking" is the process of grouping different bits of information together into
more manageable or meaningful chunks. Do that and you make information clearer and easier
to remember for yourself and others.
-Mnemonic Device: p. 33-334
-Encoding Failure: p. 352
-Serial Positioning Effect: p. 347
-Self-reference Effect: p. 337
7.1 Incentive theory/6.1 Zone of proximal development
5.3, 11/16
3 MCQ+2 FRQ
-Flashbulb Memory: p. 432
-Effortful Processing: p. 330-337
-Iconic Memory: p. 332
-Echoic Memory: p. 332
7.6 Repression, Displaced aggression, Defense mechanism of regression
9.3 Conformity
6.1 Imprinting
9.6 Displaced aggression
5.6 Long-term potentiation
7.7 Self-efficacy
5.7 Convergent thinking
9.3 Informational social influence
5.4, 11/17
3 MCQ+2 FRQ
-Recognition: p. 327-328
-Recall: p. 344-345
-Relearning: p. 327-328
-Retrieval Cues: p. 344-347, p. 354-355
-Priming: p. 164, p. 345, p. 587
-Context Dependent Memory: p. 345-346
-Encoding Specificity Rule: p. 345-346
-State-Dependent Memories: p. 346-347
-Serial Position Effect: p. 347
-Recency Effect: p. 347
-Serial Learning: Serial Learning involves having subjects learn a list of items according to the
order in which the items appear in the list.
-Primacy Effect: The primacy effect is a cognitive bias and refers to an individual's tendency to
better remember the first piece of information they encounter than the information they receive
later on.
7.3 Arousal theory
9.4 Social facilitation
9.5 The mere exposure effect, In-group bias
9.7 The mere exposure effect
7.3 Schachter two-factor theory
7.7 Locus of control
5.5, 11/21 (Before Thanksgiving)
19 MCQ+1 FRQ
-Working Memory: p. 329-330
-Ebbinghaus: p. 327-328, p. 332-336, p. 353
-Storage and Decay: p. 352-353
-Retrieval Failure: 355-356
-Encoding Failure: p. 352
-Dual Processing: p. 351-352
-Tip of Your Tongue Effect: It is known as lethologica or the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
Psychologists define this phenomenon as a feeling that accompanies the temporary inability to
retrieve information from memory. Even though you know that you know the answer, the
elusive information seems to be just outside of your mental reach.
-Overlearning: p. 21-22
-Proactive Interference: p. 134, p. 354
-Retroactive Interference: p. 354
-Jenkins: p. 355
-Dallenbach: p. p. 354-355
-Amnesia/Memory Loss:
-Anterograde/Retrograde: p. 351
-Brain Lesions: p. 341
-Infantile: p. 341, p. 360, p. 495
-Source: p. 358-359
-Reconsolidation: p. 356
-Misinformation Effect: p. 357-358
-Framing: p. 376-377
-Primacy: p. 347
-Method of Loci: The method of loci is a strategy for memory enhancement, which uses
visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information.
5.6, 11/28
3 MCQ+2 FRQ
-Long Term Potentiation: p. 342-343
-Glutamate: p. 87
-Acetylcholine: p. 87
7.9 Big Five trait of conscientiousness
6.5 Erikson’s stage of integrity versus despair
5.7 Cognitive map
5.7, 11/30
22 MCQ+1 FRQ
-Cognition: p. 561-564
-Prototypes: p. 365-366
-Anchoring: Anchoring bias is when an individual relies heavily on the first piece of information
given when making a decision. The first piece of information acts as an anchor and compares it
to all subsequent information.
-Informal Reasoning: Informal reasoning refers to the use of logical thought, and the principles
of logic, outside of a formal setting. Basically, informal logic uses the application of everyday
knowledge, education and thinking skills to analyze and evaluate information.
-Formal Reasoning: Formal reasoning is concerned only with the forms of arguments. Certain
forms of arguments have been identified which are valid. In other words, if the original
statements (or premises) in those arguments are true, then the conclusions must necessarily be
true also.
-Heuristics: p. 370-374
-Mental Model: A mental model in psychology is an internal representation of external reality,
hypothesized to play a major role in cognition, reasoning and decision-making.
-Algorithm: p. 370
-Syllogism: an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or
assumed propositions (premises); a common or middle term is present in the two premises but
not in the conclusion, which may be invalid (e.g. all dogs are animals; all animals have four legs;
therefore all dogs have four legs ).
-Equivocation: His message was therefore equivocal, 'having two or more significations equally
appropriate; capable of double interpretation; ambiguous; of uncertain nature; undecided'.
-Diagnosis: Problem solving by eliminating the wrong answers first.
-Convergent/Divergent Thinking: p. 366
-Sternberg: p. 366, p. 626, p. 814
-Mental Set: p. 371-372
-Inductive/Deductive Reasoning: The main difference between inductive and deductive
reasoning is that while inductive reasoning begins with an observation, supports it with patterns
and then arrives at a hypothesis or theory, deductive reasoning begins with a theory, supports it
with observation and eventually arrives at a confirmation.
-Linguistic Intelligence: People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use
words well, both when writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing
stories, memorizing information, and reading.
Spatial Intelligence: People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing
things. These individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and
pictures.
Functional Fixedness: Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an
object only in the way it is traditionally used.

5.8, 12/1
16 MCQ+1 FRQ
-Cognitive bias: a systematic thought process caused by the tendency of the human brain to
simplify information processing through a filter of personal experience and preferences. The
filtering process is a coping mechanism that enables the brain to prioritize and process large
amounts of information quickly.
-Heuristics:
-Representativeness: p. 372-373
Availability: p. 373-375, p. 798
-Hindsight Bias: p. 39-40, p. 359, p. 798
-Confirmation Bias: p. 371
-Anchoring Bias: The anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us to rely heavily on the first
piece of information we are given about a topic.
-Belief Perseverance: p. p. 376
-Illusory Correlation: p. 53
- Gambler's fallacy: also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy, occurs when an individual
erroneously believes that a certain random event is less likely or more likely to happen based on
the outcome of a previous event or series of events.
9.5 Ethnocentrism
9.4 Groupthink
6.3 Lack of object permanence
8.4 Optimistic explanatory style
5.9, 12/5
25 MCQ+1 FRQ
-Intelligence: p. 625-663
-Spearman, Charles: p. 626
-Gardner, Howard: p. 627-632
-Sternberg, Robert: p. 366, p. 626, p. 814
-Analytical Intelligence: p. 628
-Creative Intelligence: p. 628
-Practical Intelligence: p. 628
-Triarchic Theory: The triarchic theory of intelligence proposes that there are three distinct
types of intelligence: practical, distinct, and analytical. It was formulated by Robert J. Sternberg,
a well-known psychologist whose research often focuses on human intelligence and creativity.
-Emotional Intelligence: p. 629-630
-Thorndike, Edward: p. 283-284, p. 629
-Achievement Test: p. 633
-Aptitude Test: p. 633
-Galton, Francis: p. 633
-Binet, Albert: p. 598-599, p. 633
-Simon, Theodore: p. 633
-Terman, Lewis: p. 633-634, p. 644
-Stanford Binet Intelligence: p. 633-634
-Stern, William: William Stern (born Ludwig Wilhelm Stern, April 29, 1871 – March 27, 1938)
was a German psychologist and philosopher. He is known for the development of personalistic
psychology, which placed emphasis on the individual by examining measurable personality
traits as well as the interaction of those traits within each person to create the self.
-Flynn Effect: p. 636, p. 644
-Wechsler, David: p. 635, p. 640-641
-Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale: p. 635
-Crystalized Intelligence: p. 640
-Fluid Intelligence: p. 640-641
-Savant Syndrome: p. 627-628
-Stereotype Thread: p. 657-658
-Elliot, Jane: Jane Elliott (née Jennison;[2][3] born on November 30, 1933) is an American
diversity educator. As a schoolteacher, she became known for her "Blue eyes/Brown eyes"
exercise, which she first conducted with her third-grade class[a] on April 5, 1968, the day after
the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
-Intrapersonal Intelligence: The ability to apprehend the feelings and intentions of others.
Intrapersonal intelligence. The ability to understand one's own feelings and motivations.
-Factor Analysis: p. 597, p. 626
7.1 Overjustification effect, Yerkes-Dodson law
7.6 Defense mechanism of reaction formation

5.10, 12/7
25 MCQ+1 FRQ
-Psychometric: p. 24, p. 28
-Split-in Half Method: The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as
psychometric tests and questionnaires. There, it measures the extent to which all parts of the
test contribute equally to what is being measured.
-Validity:
-Content: p. 637
-Construct: Construct validity is how well a test measures the theory it is meant to
measure. This concept has two related parts: A construct is an idea that has related parts based
on a theory but is not a physical thing. Depression, anxiety and stress are all psychological
constructs.
-Criterion: While construct validity is the degree to which a test or other measurement
method measures what it claims to measure, criterion validity is the degree to which a test can
predictively (in the future) or concurrently (in the present) measure something.
-Predictive: p. 637, p. 657
-Projection: p. 582, p. 587-588
-Reliability: p. 585, p. 637
5.11, 12/12
20 MCQ+1 FRQ
-Phonemes: p. 381-382
-Morphemes: p. 382
-Surface Structure Semantics: in the transformational generative grammar developed by Noam
Chomsky , the structure of a grammatical sentence as it actually occurs in speech or writing, as
opposed to its underlying deep structure or abstract logical form.
-Deep Structure Semantics: The terms deep structure and surface structure were introduced by
Noam Chomsky as a part of his work on transformational grammar. As per Chomsky deep
structure refers to concepts, thoughts, ideas & feelings whereas surface structure refers to the
words / language we use to represent the deep structure.
-Chomsky, Noam: p. 383, p. 849
-Nativist Approach: Nativism in psychology is a belief system that suggests that a person's
origins or "prewiring" determine their future abilities. People who ascribe to this belief system
naturally feel anxious about their prospects, feeling that their beginnings limit their ability to
learn or to advance
-Language Acquisition Device: A Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a hypothetical tool in
the brain proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky that allows human beings to learn a language.
According to Chomsky, the LAD is an inherent aspect of the human brain that is
preprogrammed with specific grammatical structures common to all languages. It's this device,
Chomsky argued, that explains why children are able to learn a language so quickly and with
little formal instruction.
-Skinner, BF: Skinner suggested that a child imitates the language of its parents or carers.
Successful attempts are rewarded because an adult who recognises a word spoken by a child will
praise the child and/or give it what it is asking for. Successful utterances are therefore
reinforced while unsuccessful ones are forgotten.
-Sapir, Edward: Edward Sapir and his pupil Benjamin Lee Whorf developed the hypothesis that
language influences thought rather than the reverse. The strong form of the Sapir–Whorf
hypothesis claims that people from different cultures think differently because of differences in
their languages.
-Linguistic Determinism: Linguistic determinism is the concept that language and its structures
limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as
categorization, memory, and perception. The term implies that people's native languages will
affect their thought process and therefore people will have different thought processes based on
their mother tongues.
-Linguistic Relativism: The idea of linguistic relativity, also known as the Sapir–Whorf
hypothesis, the Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, is a principle suggesting that the structure of
a language influences its speakers' worldview or cognition, and thus individuals' languages
determine or shape their perceptions of the world
-Babbling Stage: p. 384
-Cooing: Cooing is a stage of infants' prelinguistic speech development and consists of the
production of single syllable, vowel-like sounds.
-Holophrase: A holophrase is a single-word phrase such as Okay that expresses a complete,
meaningful thought. In studies of language acquisition, the term holophrase refers more
specifically to an utterance produced by a child in which a single word expresses the type of
meaning typically conveyed in adult speech by an entire sentence.
-One Word Stage: p. 384
-Telegraphic Speech: p. 384
-Fast Mapping: Fast mapping is a theory of language acquisition by which children learn new
words. During the process of fast mapping, a child can infer the meaning of a new word by
creating the context for that word using their own instincts of the process of elimination.
-Overgeneralization: Use of a sound in a wider range than permitted by the adult language. For
example, a child might refer to a 'tiger' as a 'kitty' or 'mouses' for 'mice', in the latter case
overgeneralization the morphological rule for plural nouns.
-Critical Periods: p. 530
-Sensitive Periods: p. 510
-Syntax: Syntax is the cognitive capacity of human beings that allows us to connect linguistic
meaning with linguistic form. The study of syntax has generated a great deal of empirical and
theoretical knowledge over the decades.
-Whorf, Benjamin: p. 389
7.7 Self-efficacy
The Unit 5, 12/14
44 MCQ+1 FRQ