NCES 11 SEMESTER 11 MODULAR TRAINING TEXT BOOK

ELECTRICAL MOTOR
INSTALLATION MAINTENANCE
AND REPAIR

PUBLISHED BY MWINE EDSON MATAARA [RTI] BEEE-MUST, DTTE-KYU, DEEE-UTC BUSHENYI, EI 111/11.
MICROSOFT [Company address]

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Contents
Workshop/Site Safety and Regulations –........................................................................................................................... 2
PRINCIPLES OF MOTORS OPERATION. ............................................................................................................................... 5
TYPES OF MOTORS: ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
DC MOTORS........................................................................................................................................................................ 7
METHORDS OF SPEED CONTROL IN DC MACHINES ......................................................................................................... 16
STARTING DC MOTORS .................................................................................................................................................... 22
DC Motor Starters ............................................................................................................................................................ 23
3 Point Starter ...................................................................................................................................................... 23
4 Point Starter ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
DC Series Motor Starter ..................................................................................................................................... 24
AC Motors ........................................................................................................................................................................ 25
Types of AC Motors .......................................................................................................................................................... 29
Poly phase AC Motors ...................................................................................................................................................... 41
Types of Motor Enclosures and Their Applications.......................................................................................................... 50
Types of Motor Enclosures............................................................................................................................................... 51
Motor mounting positions ............................................................................................................................................... 56
Types of three-phase AC motors...................................................................................................................................... 62
Production of rotating magnetic field .............................................................................................................................. 71
Parts of a starter............................................................................................................................................................... 88
SEQUENTIAL CONTROL .................................................................................................................................................. 104
How to Size a Cable for Industrial AC Motors? .............................................................................................................. 124
Motor installation systems and design .......................................................................................................................... 133
Maintenance of Electric Motors .................................................................................................................................... 134
ELECTRIC MOTOR TESTING ............................................................................................................................................ 143
Motor troubleshooting .................................................................................................................................................. 148
MOTOR REWINDING 1 ................................................................................................................................................... 159
MOTOR REWINDING 11 ................................................................................................................................................. 188

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 ELECTRICAL MOTORS INSTALLATION MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Workshop/Site Safety and Regulations –

Workshop hazards:
Fire - First aid on treating fire. - Safety wears like helmet, goggles, overalls, boots, gloves, - safety posters -
Basic Tools and Equipment - Identification and correct application of tools - Identification and correct
application of measuring instruments - Ground fault protection. Identify classes of fires - Select fire
extinguishers. - Operate fire extinguishers. - Fight fire - Switch the Isolator to the ‘OFF’ Position or Remove
the Plug - Prove the Test Instrument - Prove System Dead - Reprove the Test Instrument, if Possible - Secure
the Isolation- Ensure that motors are installed, protected and fused in accordance with IEE Regulations -
Use Eyebolts or lifting lugs for lifting the motor only. - Ensure that the eyebolt is fully threaded and tight in
its mounting hole. - Ensure that Frames and accessories of motors are grounded in accordance with IEE
Regulations - Ensure that Rotating parts such as pulleys, couplings, external fans, and shaft extensions are
permanently guarded. - Use the proper size of line current protection and motor controls as required by IEE
Regulations - Disconnect power before working on motor or driven equipment. - Do not use motors with
automatic thermal protectors in applications where automatic restart will be hazardous to personnel or
equipment. - Discharge all capacitors before servicing motor. - Always keep hands and clothing away from
moving parts. - Do not attempt to measure the temperature rise of a motor by touch but by thermometer,
resistance, imbedded detector, or thermocouple.

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 PRINCIPLES OF MOTORS OPERATION.
There are so many concepts behind motor operation that will be dealt with in the scope
An electrical motor is a device that has brought about one of the biggest advancements in the fields of
engineering and technology ever since the invention of electricity. A motor is nothing but an electro-
mechanical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The very basic principle of

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functioning of an electrical motor lies on the fact that force is experienced in the direction perpendicular to
the magnetic field and the current, when field and current are made to interact with each other.
A motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, the force experienced between current and
field causes the rotating part of the motor to move and hence provides a driving mechanism for other
machines.
What is the working principle of an AC motor?
 By the operations of the stator and the rotor, AC motors produce magnetic flux and induced current
inside the motor and gain rotational force. In an induction motor, the stator winding is fed with an
AC supply. This causes the stator winding to develop an alternating flux. We call this rotating flux
“Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF).”
 According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, the relative speed between the stator
RMF and the rotor RMF causes an induced emf in the rotor conductors. Rotor conductors are short-
circuited, and a rotor current is produced due to induced emf.
 This induced current produces alternating flux around it. It should be noted that the stator flux lags
behind the rotor flux.
 Due to the relative velocity between the rotating stator flux and the rotor, the rotor rotates in the
same direction as that of the stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. This is the basic working
principle of the induction motor.
 The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the actual speed (N) of the rotor is known
as the slip.

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DEMOSTRATION OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION

TYPES OF MOTORS:

DC MOTORS
A DC motor (direct current motor) has a lot of applications in today’s field of engineering and technology.
From electric shavers to automobiles – DC motors are everywhere. To cater to this wide range of
applications – different types of DC motors are used depending on the applicaition.
The types of DC motor include:
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)
 Separately Excited DC Motor
 Self-Excited DC Motor

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  Shunt Wound DC Motor
 Series Wound DC Motor
 Compound Wound DC Motor
 Short shunt DC Motor
 Long shunt DC Motor
 Differential Compound DC Motor
 Cumulative compound DC motor

We will now discuss in detail the various different types of DC Motors.

Separately Excited DC Motor

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As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to the field
and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that, the armature
current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized from a separate external
source of DC current as shown in the figure beside.
From the torque equation of DC motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can be varied by
varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.
Permanent Magnet DC Motor

The permanent magnet DC motor (also known as a PMDC motor) consists of an armature winding as in case
of an usual motor, but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The construction of these types of

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DC motor are such that, radially magnetized permanent magnets are mounted on the inner periphery of
the stator core to produce the field flux.
The rotor on the other hand has a conventional DC armature with commutator segments and brushes. The
diagrammatic representation of a permanent magnet DC motor is given the torque equation of DC motor

suggests
Here φ is always constant, as permanent magnets of required flux density are chosen at the time of
construction and can’t be changed thereafter.
For a permanent magnet DC motor
Where, Ka1 = Ka.φ which is another constant. In this case, the torque of DC Motor can only be changed by
controlling the armature supply.
Self-Excited DC Motor
In case of self-excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or partly in
series, partly in parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, self-excited DC Motors can be classified as:
1. Shunt wound DC motor
2. Series wound DC motor
3. Compound wound DC motor
Let’s now go into the details of these types of self-excited DC motor.
Shunt Wound DC Motor

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In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self-excited DC motor, the field
windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they are connected in parallel to the armature
winding as shown in the figure below.
To understand the characteristic of these types of DC motor, let’s consider the basic voltage equation given
by,

[Where, E, Eb, Ia, Ra are the supply voltage, back emf, armature current and armature resistance
respectively]

[Since back emf increases with flux φ and angular speed ωω]
Now substituting Eb from equation (2) to equation (1) we get,

The torque equation of a DC motor resembles,

This is similar to the equation of a straight line, and we can graphically representing the torque speed
characteristic of a shunt wound self-excited DC motor as

The shunt wound DC motor is a constant speed motor, as the speed does not vary here with the variation
of mechanical load on the output.

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Series Wound DC Motor
In case of a series wound self-excited DC motor or simply series wound DC motor, the entire armature
current flows through the field winding as it’s connected in series to the armature winding. The series
wound self-excited DC motor is diagrammatically represented below for clear understanding.

Now to determine the torque speed characteristic of these types of DC motor, lets get to the torque speed
equation.
From the circuit diagram we can see that the voltage equation gets modified to

Whereas back emf remains Eb = kaφω

Neglecting saturation we get,

[Since field current = armature current]

From equation (5) and (6)

From this equation we obtain the torque speed characteristic as

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In a series wound DC motor, the speed varies with load. And operation wise this is its main difference from
a shunt wound DC motor.
Compound Wound DC Motor
The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the operational
characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound self-excited DC motor
or simply compound wound DC motor essentially contains the field winding connected both in series and in
parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure below:

The excitation of compound wound DC motor can be of two types depending on the nature of
compounding.
Cumulative Compound DC Motor

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When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux, produced by the main field connected in series to the
armature winding then it’s called cumulative compound DC motor.

Differential Compound DC Motor

In case of a differentially compounded self-excited DC motor i.e. differential compound DC motor, the
arrangement of shunt and series winding is such that the field flux produced by the shunt field winding
diminishes the effect of flux by the main series field winding.

The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and hence does not find much of a practical
application.
The compounding characteristic of the self-excited DC motor is shown in the figure below.

Both the cumulative compound and differential compound DC motor can either be of short shunt or long
shunt type depending on the nature of arrangement.
Short Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field winding then its
known as short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt type compound wound DC motor.
The circuit diagram of a short shunt DC motor is shown in the diagram below.

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Long Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field winding then it’s
known as long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply long shunt DC motor.
The circuit diagram of a long shunt DC motor is shown in the diagram below.

Application of DC motors:

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 METHORDS OF SPEED CONTROL IN DC MACHINES

Often we want to control the speed of a DC motor on demand. This intentional change of drive speed is
known as speed control of a DC motor.

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Speed control of a DC motor is either done manually by the operator or by means of an automatic control
device. This is different to speed regulation – where the speed is trying to be maintained (or ‘regulated’)
against the natural change in speed due to a change in the load on the shaft.
The speed of a DC motor (N) is equal to:
Therefore speed of the 3 types of DC motors – shunt, series and compound – can be controlled by changing
the quantities on the right-hand side of the equation above.
Hence the speed can be varied by changing:
1. The terminal voltage of the armature, V.
2. The external resistance in armature circuit, Ra.
3. The flux per pole, φ.
Terminal voltage and external resistance involve a change that affects the armature circuit, while flux
involves a change in the magnetic field. Therefore speed control of DC motor can be classified into:
1. Armature Control Methods
2. Field Control Methods
We will discuss how both of these methods control the speed of DC series motors and DC shunt motors.
Speed Control of DC Series Motor
Speed control methods for a DC series motor can be classified as:
1. Armature Control Methods
2. Field Control Methods
Armature Controlled DC Series Motor
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by:
1. Armature Resistance Control Method
2. Shunted Armature Control Method
3. Armature Terminal Voltage Control
Armature Resistance Control Method
This is the most common method employed. Here the controlling resistance is connected directly in series
with the supply of the motor as shown in the fig.

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The power loss in the control resistance of DC series motor can be neglected because this control method is
utilized for a large portion of time for reducing the speed under light load condition. This method of speed
control is most economical for constant torque. This method of speed control is employed for DC series
motor driving cranes, hoists, trains etc.
Shunted Armature Control
The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with the armature is involved
in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the armature is varies by varying series rheostat R 1.
The exciting current can be varied by varying the armature shunting resistance R2. This method of speed
control is not economical due to considerable power losses in speed controlling resistances. Here speed
control is obtained over wide range but below normal speed.

Armature Terminal Voltage Control

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The speed control of DC series motor can be accomplished by supplying the power to the motor from a
separate variable voltage supply. This method involves high cost so it rarely used.
Field Controlled DC Series Motor
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by field control may be done by:
1. Field Diverter Method
2. Tapped Field Control
Field Diverter Method
This method uses a diverter. Here the field flux can be reduced by shunting a portion of motor current
around the series field. Lesser the diverter resistance less is the field current, less flux therefore more
speed. This method gives speed above normal and the method is used in electric drives in which speed
should rise sharply as soon as load is decreased.

Tapped Field Control

This is another method of increasing the speed by reducing the flux and it is done by lowering number of
turns of field winding through which current flows. In this method a number of tapping from field winding
are brought outside. This method is employed in electric traction.

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Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor
The classification of speed control methods for a DC shunt motor are similar to those of a DC series motor.
These two methods are:
1. Armature Control Methods
2. Field Control Methods
Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
Armature controlled DC shunt motor can be performed in two ways:
1. Armature Resistance Control
2. Armature Voltage Control
Armature Resistance Control
In armature resistance control a variable resistance is added to the armature circuit. Field is directly
connected across the supply so flux is not changed due to variation of series resistance. This is applied for
DC shunt motor. This method is used in printing press, cranes, hoists where speeds lower than rated is used
for a short period only.
Armature Voltage Control
This method of speed control needs a variable source of voltage separated from the source supplying the
field current. This method avoids disadvantages of poor speed regulation and low efficiency of armature-
resistance control methods.
The basic adjustable armature voltage control method of speed d control is accomplished by means of an
adjustable voltage generator is called Ward Leonard System.

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This method involves using a motor-generator (M-G) set. This method is best suited for steel rolling mills,
paper machines, elevators, mine hoists, etc. This method is known as Ward Leonard System.
Advantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
1. Very fine speed control over whole range in both directions
2. Uniform acceleration is obtained
3. Good speed regulation
4. It has regenerative braking capacity
Disadvantages of Armature Controlled DC Shunt Motor
1. Costly arrangement is needed, floor space required is more
2. Low efficiency at light loads
3. Drive produced more noise.
Field Controlled DC Shunt Motor
By this method a DC Shunt motor’s speed is controlled through a field rheostat.
Field Rheostat Controlled DC Shunt Motor
In this method, speed variation is accomplished by means of a variable resistance inserted in series with the
shunt field. An increase in controlling resistances reduces the field current with a reduction in flux and an
increase in speed. This method of speed control is independent of load on the motor. Power wasted in
controlling resistance is very less as field current is a small value. This method of speed control is also used
in DC compound motor.
Disadvantages of Field Rheostat Controlled DC Shunt Motor
 Creeping speeds cannot be obtained.
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  Top speeds only obtained at reduced torque.
 The speed is maximum at minimum value of flux, which is governed by the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction on the field.
Solid State Speed Control
Static Ward Leonard drives are being used these days because of the drawbacks of the classical method.
Rotating M-G sets are replaced by solid state converters to control DC motor speed. The converters used
are choppers (in case of DC supply) or controlled rectifiers (in case of AC supply). This method is not
suitable for intermittent loads.
DC Motor Speed Control Theory
To derive the speed of a DC motor, we start with the equation for the DC motor’s EMF (Electromagnetic
Force). We know that the EMF equation of DC motor is equal to:

Hence rearranging the equation:

 N = 60A E / PZØ
With k = PZ/60A, then:
 N = E / kØ
Hence with E = V – IaRa, we derive the speed of the DC motor (N):

STARTING DC MOTORS
Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as
E = Eb + IaRa and hence, Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra
Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back emf Eb = 0. Hence, armature current at the
moment of starting can be given as Ia = E / Ra. In practical DC machines, armature resistance is
basically very low, generally about 0.5 Ω. Therefore, a large current flows through the armature
during starting. This current is large enough to damage the armature circuit.
Due to this excessive starting current -

1. The fuses may blow out and the armature winding and/or commutator brush arrangement may
get damaged.
2. Very high starting torque will be produced (as torque is directly proportional to the armature
current), and this high starting torque may cause huge centrifugal force which may throw off the
armature winding.
3. Other loads connected to the same source may experience a dip in the terminal voltage.
A large DC motor will pick up speed rather slowly due to its large rotor inertia. Hence, building up
the back emf slowly causing the level of high starting current maintained for quite some time. This

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may cause severe damage. To avoid this, a suitable DC motor starter must be used. Very small dc
motors, however, may be started directly by connecting them to the supply with the help of a
contactor or a switch. It does not result in any harm because they gather speed quickly due to
small rotor inertia. In this case, the large starting current will die down quickly because of the fast
rise in the back emf.

DC Motor Starters
To avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit the starting current.
So, a DC motor is started by using a starter. There are various types of dc motor starters, such as
3 point starter, 4 point starter, no-load release coil starter, thyristor controller starter etc.
The basic concept behind every DC motor starter is adding external resistance to the armature
winding during starting.
From the followings, 3 point starters and 4 point starters are used for starting shunt wound motors
and compound wound motors.

3 Point Starter

The internal wiring of a 3 point starter is as shown in the

figure.
When the connected dc motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When the
lever touches point 1, the field winding gets directly connected across the supply, and the armature
winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. During starting, full resistance is added
in series with the armature winding. Then, as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually
is cut out from the armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to position 6, all the resistance is cut
out from the armature circuit and armature gets directly connected across the supply. The
electromagnet 'E' (no voltage coil) holds the lever at this position. This electromagnet releases the
lever when there is no (or low) supply voltage.

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It can be seen that, when the arm is moved from the position 1 to the last position, the starter
resistance gets added in series with the field winding. But, as the value of starter resistance is very
small as compared to the shunt resistance, the decrease in shunt field current may be negligible.
However, to overcome this drawback a brass or copper arc may be employed within a 3 point
starter which makes a connection between the moving arm and the field winding, as shown in the
figure of 4 point starter below.
When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, 'overcurrent release electromagnet' D
gets activated, which short-circuits electromagnet E and, hence, releases the lever and the motor
is turned off.

4 Point Starter

The main difference between a 3 point starter and a 4

point starter is that the no voltage coil (electromagnet E) is not connected in series with the field
coil. The field winding gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever moves touching the brass
arc (the arc below the resistance studs). The no voltage coil (or Hold-on coil) is connected with a
current limiting resistance Rh. This arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt
field does not affect the current through hold-on coil at all. This means, electromagnetic pull of the
hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does not unnecessarily restore the lever to
the off position. A 4 point starter is used where field current is to be adjusted by means of a field
rheostat for the purpose of operating the motor above rated speed by reducing the field current.

DC Series Motor Starter

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 Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic
as shown in the figure. The start arm is simply moved towards right to start the motor. Thus,
maximum resistance is connected in series with the armature during starting and then gradually
decreased as the start arm moves towards right. This starter is sometimes also called as a 2 point
starter.
The no load release coil holds the start arm to the run position and leaves it when the voltage is
lost.

AC Motors
The main components of an AC motor are the stator, stationary outer drum, and the rotor, the
rotating inner portion attached to the motor shaft. The stator and the rotor produce rotating
magnetic fields. The winding of the stator that creates the rotating field is created by alternating
current.
In an AC motor the winding serves as the armature and field winding. When the stator is connected
to an AC supply flux an air gap is formed rotating the flux at a fixed synchronous speed, which
produces voltages in the stator and rotor winding.
How AC Motors Work
The term AC motor describes several versions of the motor, which include single phase, three
phase, brake, synchronous, asynchronous, and customized, two speed, and three speed single
phase. The difference between the various versions relates to the type of work that is required
where some forms of AC motors are simple and used for small jobs while other versions are
designed for bigger more demanding work. A key difference is the phase of the electrical feed,
which is different for residential use compared to industrial use.
Residential electricity is single or double phased while electricity for industrial use is three phased.
This distinction is the reason for the difference between industrial AC motors and residential ones.
AC motors are referred to as induction motors since they use electric current to produce torque,
which is created by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator.
Start Up
An AC motor can be started by a simple on and off switch, which can be a contactor or manual
starter. A contactor allows the control of toggle power to an AC motor. Manual starters have a
manual switch that allows the operator to switch or change the power. This type of starter is known
as across the line meaning the motor is wired directly to the power source. It directly connects the

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contacts of the motor to the full supply of voltage, which is normally six to eight times the rated
current.
Star delta starters are common types of starters, which use a reduced supply of voltage in starting.
The stator is connected in a star configuration, which switches to a delta configuration once the
motor reaches a certain speed. By doing this, the line current drawn at starting is reduced.
An auto transformer starter uses a similar method as a delta starter. Again, the initial current is
limited to reduced voltage being applied to the stator. The advantage of an auto transformer starter
is that the torque and current can be adjusted by the correct tapping.
A rotor impedance starter is connected directly to the rotor through the slip rings and brushes. At
first, the rotor resistance is set to its maximum but gradually decreases as the motor speed
increases. A rotor impedance starter is very bulky and expensive.
Since single phase motors produce a pulsating magnetic field they are unable to be self-starting
since a pulsating magnetic field torque cannot produce.
Soft starters are a complex version, which allow for the control of acceleration and deceleration for
stopping and starting the motor smoothly and evenly, which is not possible with across the line
versions. The advantage of soft starters is the reduction of the wear on the motor and the devices
to which it is connected.
Stator
The stator produces a rotating magnetic field. It has a solid metal axle, a loop of wire, coils, squirrel
cage, and interconnections. Though a squirrel cage is not found in all AC motors, it is the most
common type. In AC motors, electricity is sent directly to the outer coils of the stator. The stator has
multiple plates that extend out from its center with copper magnetic wire.
For a three phase AC motor, it has three phase windings with a core and housing. The windings
are 120o apart, which can be six or twelve windings. The windings are placed on a laminated iron
core. The construction of the core can be seen in the diagram below.

Rotor
Unlike a DC motor, the rotor on an AC motor does not have any connection with the external power
source. It receives its power from the stator. In a three phase induction motor, the rotor can be a
squirrel cage or wound version.
In the squirrel cage version, the rotor consists of rotor bars with end rings at both ends. There are
several versions of the squirrel cage rotor, which include split phase, capacitor start, capacitor start
and run, permanent split phase capacitor run, and shaded pole with classifications of A, B, C, D,
and E. In the majority of cases, the squirrel cage is made of aluminum or copper.

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In the operation of a squirrel cage motor, the bars of the rotor interact with the stator‘s
electromagnetic field (EMF). As the current fluctuates, the EMF does the same causing the rotor to
rotate producing rotational motion. A key factor in the motion is that the rotor does not turn at the
same frequency as the AC current and is constantly trying to catch up, which is how the rotation is
produced. If it did have the same frequency, the rotor would freeze, and there would not be any
motion.

A wound or slip ring AC motor is a special type of AC motor. It contains the exact same parts as all
AC motors but is always three phase. The cylindrical laminated core of the rotor is wound exactly
like the windings on the stator with wire. The terminal ends of the wires are connected to slip rings
on the output shaft. The slip rings connect to brushes and a variable speed resistor. The slip rings
provide control of the speed and torque of the motor, which is the main positive feature of a wound
rotor.

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Wound motors are asynchronous where there is a difference between the stator speed and the
output speed. When generating current in the rotor, the motor will have slippage between the
rotating field and the rotor. As the motor is powered, the rotor lessens the strength of the stator,
which allows the control of the rotation and the ability to choose torque and running characteristics.

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Types of AC Motors
The AC motor, invented by Nikola Tesla, is used in dozens of applications in every place in the
world. The basics of the motor were discovered by Tesla when he identified the rotating magnetic
induction (RMF) field principle, which is used in alternators. He pioneered the use of the rotating
field and inducting electromagnetic field force to generate torque in rotating machines.
From its beginnings, over a hundred years ago, the AC motor has evolved into several forms that
are specially designed to fit multiple functions. One of the basic differences between AC motors
has to do with the rotor, which can be squirrel cage or wound. This primary difference expands into
AC motor types.
Types of AC Motors
Single-Phase Induction Motor – Construction, Operation & Types of 1-Phase Induction
Motors
The single-phase motors are more preferred over a three-phase induction motor for domestic,
commercial applications. Because form utility, only single-phase supply is available. So, in this type
of application, the three-phase induction motor cannot be used.

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in the following post, we will be showing the construction and different types of 1-phase induction
motors with working and applications

Table of Contents
 Construction of Single-Phase Induction Motor
o Stator
o Rotor
 Working of Single-phase Induction Motor
 Types of Single-phase Induction Motors
o Split Phase Induction Motor
o Shaded Pole Induction Motor
o Capacitor Start Induction Motor
o Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor
o Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor
 Applications of Single Phase Induction Motors
Construction of Single-Phase Induction Motor
A single phase induction motor is similar to the three phase squirrel cage induction motor except
there is single phase two windings (instead of one three phase winding in 3-phase motors)
mounted on the stator and the cage winding rotor is placed inside the stator which freely rotates
with the help of mounted bearings on the motor shaft.
The construction of a single-phase induction motor is similar to the construction of a three-phase
induction motor.

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Similar to a three-phase induction motor, single-phase induction motor also has two main parts;
 Stator
 Rotor

Stator
In stator, the only difference is in the stator winding. The stator winding is single-phase winding
instead of three-phase winding. The stator core is the same as the core of the three-phase
induction motor.
In a single-phase induction motor, there are two winding are used in stator except in shaded-pole
induction motor. Out of these two windings, one winding is the main winding and the second is
auxiliary winding.
The stator core is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. The single-phase supply is given to
the stator winding (main winding)
Rotor
Rotor of single-phase induction motor is the same as a rotor of squirrel cage induction motor.
Instead of rotor winding, rotor bars are used and it is short-circuited at the end by end-rings.
Hence, it makes a complete path in the rotor circuit. The rotor bars are braced to the end-rings to
increase the mechanical strength of the motor.
The rotor slots are skewed at some angle to avoid magnetic coupling. And it also used to make a
motor run smooth and quiet.
The following fig shows the stator and rotor of a 1-phase induction motor.

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Working of Single-phase Induction Motor
Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The alternating current
flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This flux is known as the main flux.
Now we assume that the rotor is rotating and it is placed in a magnetic field produced by the stator
winding. According to Faraday’s law, the current start flowing in the rotor circuit it is a close path.
This current is known as rotor current.
Due to the rotor current, the flux produced around the rotor winding. This flux is known as rotor flux.
There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is the rotor flux which
is produced by the rotor.
Interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the rotor and it starts rotating.
The stator field is alternating in nature. The speed of the stator field is the same as synchronous
speed. The synchronous speed of the motor depends on the number of pole and supply frequency.
It can represent by two revolving fields. These fields are equal in magnitude and rotating in the
opposite direction.

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Let say Φm is a maximum field induced in the main winding. So, this field is divided into two equal
parts and that is Φm/2 and Φm/2.
Out of these two fields, one field Φf is rotating in an anticlockwise direction and the second field
Φb is rotating in a clockwise direction. Therefore, the resultant field is zero.
Φr = Φ f – Φb

Φr = 0
Now consider the resultant field at different instants.

When a motor starts, two fields are induced as shown in the above figure. These two fields are the
same magnitude and opposite direction. So, resultant flux is zero.
In this condition, the stator field cannot cut by rotor field and resultant torque is zero. So, the rotor
cannot rotate but it produces humming.

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Now consider after the rotation of 90˚, both filed are rotated and pointing in the same direction.
Therefore, the resultant flux is a summation of both fields.
Φr = Φ f + Φ b

Φr = 0
In this condition, the resultant filed is equal to the maximum field induced by the stator. Now, both
fields rotate separately and it is alternative in nature.
So, both fields cut by the rotor circuit and EMF induced in the rotor conductor. Due to this EMF, the
current starts flowing in the rotor circuit and it induces a rotor flux.
Due to the interaction between stator flux and rotor flux motor continues to rotate. This theory is
known as Double Revolving Theory or double field revolving theory.
Now, from the above explanation, we can conclude that the single-phase induction motor is not
self-starting.
To make this motor self-starting motor, we need stator flux rotating in nature instead of alternating
nature. This can be done by various methods.

Single-phase induction motor can be classified according to starting methods.

Types of Single-phase Induction Motors
The single-phase induction motors are classified as;
 Split Phase Induction Motor

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  Shaded Pole Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor
 Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor
Split Phase Induction Motor
In this type of motor, an extra winding is wounded on the same core of the stator. So, there are two
windings in the stator.
One winding is known as the main winding or running winding and second winding is known as
starting winding or auxiliary winding. A centrifugal switch is connected in series with the auxiliary
winding.
The auxiliary winding is highly resistive winding and the main winding is highly inductive winding.
The auxiliary winding has few turns with a small diameter.
The aim of auxiliary winding is to create a phase difference between both fluxes produced by the
main winding and rotor winding.

The connection diagram is as shown in the above figure. The current flowing through the main
winding is IM and current flowing through the auxiliary winding is IA. Both windings are parallel and
supplied by voltage V.
The auxiliary winding is highly resistive in nature. So, the current IA is almost in phase with supply
voltage V.
The main winding is highly inductive in nature. So, the current I M lags behind the supply voltage
with a large angle.

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The total stator flux is induced by the resultant current of these two winding. As shown in the
phasor diagram, the resultant current is represented as (I). It will create a phase difference
between fluxes and resultant flux produces a rotating magnetic field. And the motor starts rotating.
Auxiliary winding only uses to start the motor. This winding is not useful in running condition. When
the motor reaches 75 to 80 % of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens. So, the auxiliary
winding is out from the circuit. And motor runs on only main winding.
The phase difference creates by this method is very small. Hence, the starting torque of this motor
is poor. So, this motor is used in low starting torque applications like a fan, blower, grinder, pumps,
etc.

Shaded Pole Induction Motor

As compared to other types of single-phase induction motor, this motor has a different construction
and working principle. This type of motor does not require auxiliary winding.
This motor has stator salient pole or projecting pole and the rotor is the same as squirrel cage
induction motor. The stator poles are constructed specially to create a rotating magnetic field.
A pole of this motor is divided into two parts; shaded part and un-shaded part. It can be created by
cutting pole into unequal distances.
A copper ring is placed in the small part of the pole. This ring is a highly inductive ring and it is
known as a shaded ring or shaded band. The part at which shaded ring is paced is known as
shaded part of the pole and the remaining part is an unshaded part.
The construction of this motor is as shown in the below figure.

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When an alternating supply passing through the stator winding, an alternating flux induced in the
stator coil. Due to this flux, some amount of flux will link with shaded ring and current will flow
through a shaded ring.
According to Lenz’s law, the current passing through coil is opposite in nature, and flux produced
due to this coil will oppose the main flux.
The shaded ring is a highly inductive coil. So, it will oppose the main flux when both fluxes are in
the same direction and it will increase the main flux when both fluxes are in the opposite direction.
So, it will create a phase difference between the main flux (stator flux) and rotor flux. By this
method, a phase difference is very less. Hence, the starting torque is very less. It is used in
applications like toy motor, fan, blower, record player, etc.

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

This type of motor is an advanced version of the Split phase induction motor. The disadvantage of
split-phase induction is low torque production. Because in this motor, the phase difference created
is very less.
This disadvantage compensates in this motor with the help of a capacitor connected in series with
auxiliary winding. The circuit diagram of this motor is as shown in the below figure.

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The capacitor used in this motor is a dry-type capacitor. This is designed to use with alternating
current. But this capacitor is not used for continuous operation.
In this method also, a centrifugal switch is used which disconnects the capacitor and auxiliary
winding when the motor runs 75-80% of synchronous speed.
The current through auxiliary will lead the supply voltage by some angle. This angle is more than
the angle increased in a split-phase induction motor.
So, the starting torque of this motor is very high compared to the split-phase induction motor. The
starting torque of this motor is 300% more than the full load torque.
Due to high starting torque, this motor is used in the applications where high starting torque is
required like, a Lath machine, compressor, drilling machines, etc.

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

In this type of motor, two capacitors are connected in parallel with series in auxiliary winding. Out of
these two capacitors, one capacitor is used only for starting (starting capacitor) and another
capacitor is connected permanently with the motor (running capacitor).
The circuit diagram of this figure is as shown in the below figure.

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The starting capacitor has high capacitance value and a running capacitor has low capacitance
value. The starting capacitor is connected in series with a centrifugal switch that will open when the
speed of the motor is 70% of synchronous speed.
During running conditions, both running winding and auxiliary winding connected with motor. The
starting torque and efficiency of this motor are very high.
Therefore, this can be used in the application where high starting torque is required like a
refrigerator, air conditioner, ceiling fan, compressor, etc.

Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor

The low-value capacitor is connected constantly with the auxiliary winding. Here, the capacitor has
low capacitance.
The capacitor is used to increase the starting torque but it is low compared to the capacitor start
induction motor.
The circuit diagram and phasor diagram of this motor is as shown in the below figure.

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The power factor and efficiency of this motor are very high and also it has a high starting torque
that is 80% of full load torque.
This type of motor is used in the application like an exhaust fan, blower, heater, etc.

Applications of Single Phase Induction Motors

Single phase motors are not self-starting and less efficient than three phase induction motor and
available in 0.5HP to 15HP and still they are widely used for multiple purposes such as:
 Clocks
 Refrigerators, freezers and heaters
 Fans, table fans, ceiling fan, exhaust fans, air coolers and water coolers.
 Blowers
 Washing machines
 machine tools
 Dryers
 Type writers, Photostats and printers
 Water pumps and submersible
 Computers
 Grinders
 Drilling machines
 Other Home instrument, equipment and devices etc.

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 Single phase AC motors are used where there is a single phase supply. This type of AC
motor is smaller and less expensive. They are constructed using fractional kilowatt capacity. The
stator is activated by a single phase AC electrical supply. Unlike a three phase AC motor, a single
phase motor has one main winding and one auxiliary winding, which is perpendicular to the main
winding.
The rotor rotates according to the sum of two oppositely rotating fields, which is the double
revolving field theory. The torque that is produced is equal and opposite.

Poly phase AC Motors

Poly phase Motors, or many phase motors, are a type of AC motor that can be two or three phase
and are similar to single phase motors in how they operate. The stator poles in a poly phase motor
are not aligned with each other, which means that the rotor passes by the stator poles at different
times. A poly phase system has a group of equal voltages at the same frequency that are placed to
have an equal phase difference between the adjacent electromagnetic fields (EMF). A poly phase
system can be two, three, or six phase with the majority being three phase.
A poly phase system is commonly referred to as a three phase system and produces 1.5 times
more output than a single phase system. The current from a poly phase system is constant, which
is unlike the single phase system that is pulsating.
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Synchronous AC Motor
A synchronous AC motor is where the rotation of the shaft is at the same frequency as the current
supply with the rotation period being equal to the integral number of AC cycles. The synchronous
speed is constant and at which the motor generates electromotive force.
The speed of a synchronous motor is independent of the load where variations in the load does not
affect the speed of the motor. Synchronous motors are not self-starting, which is unlike self-starting
motors where the power supply is connected directly to the stator.

Reluctance Motors
Reluctance motors are a single phase motor, which operate with an accurate value of rotating
magnetic field without any synchronous speed. The motor uses reluctance of torque to operate, a
type of torque in iron devices. The torque for the motor is created by the exterior field generating an

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inner field on the iron device. For the reluctance torque to be generated, it has to be stretched
around the axes at angles to the angle of the contingent poles of the outer field.
Hysteresis AC Motor
The unique nature of the rotor of a hysteresis motor is what makes it different from other AC
motors. The rotor contains semi-permanent magnetic material. Torque is created by the magnetic
flux lagging behind the external magnetizing force. The eddy of the current produces the motor‘s
torque. Hysteresis motors provide exact speed with low flutter and operate with little noise.
A hysteresis motor has a core of non-magnetic material with a layer of special magnetic material.
The rotor is a smooth cylinder without any windings. The hysteresis ring is made of chrome or steel
with a hysteresis loop.

Repulsion Motor
A repulsion motor is a type of single phase motor that works by the repulsion of similar poles. Aside
from the rotor and stator, a repulsion motor has a commutator brush assembly. The rotor has a
distributed DC winding that is connected to the commutator like a DC motor with the carbon
brushes short circuited on themselves.
As the rotor circuit shortens, the rotor receives power from the stator by transformer action. The
working principle and function of a repulsion motor is the repelling of the similar poles where the
north poles repel each other as do the south poles.

Asynchronous Motor
An asynchronous motor uses an induced current in its rotor to produce rotatory motion. This is the
most common of the AC motors since it relies on AC current that is connected to the stator for its
power supply. All of the power for an asynchronous motor is connected to the stator, none of which
is connected to the rotor. The power for the rotor comes from induction.
The induction for the rotor is due to its close proximity to the stators electromagnetic field, which
causes the rotor to generate its own electromagnetic field that causes it to spin. Since there aren‘t
any brushes or slip rings, an asynchronous motor is the most efficient and reliable of all of the AC
motors. It is used for heavy duty applications because of its simplicity of design and ruggedness.

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Classification

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) dictates the standards for motors, which
are found in NEMA Standard Publication No. MG 1. The standards are based on electrical
equipment manufacturing and best practices. AC motors designed for specialty applications are not
classified by the NEMA and are referred to as above NEMA motors.

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Induction motors are classified by their electrical design. The NEMA has five classifications for AC
motors, which are A, B, C, D, and E. A description of the characteristics of each of the
classifications is:
 Classification A:
 high breakdown torque
 designed for specific use
 slip characteristic less than 5%
 Classification B:
 general-purpose motor
 slip is 3-5% or less
 Classification C:
 high starting torque
 normal starting current
 low slip
 little demand for overload
 Classification D:
 high starting torque
 high slip of 5 to 13%
 low full load speed
 speed fluctuations due to changes in load
 Classification E:
 high efficiency
 low starting torque
 requirements are low
The table below is a general description of the uses for the difference NEMA classifications.

NEMA Classifications

Motor A motors are commonly used for fans, pumps, and blowers where large starting torques aren't
A necessary and the motor doesn't need to support a large load.

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 Motor B motors are commonly used for fans, pumps, and blowers where large starting torques aren't
B necessary and the motor doesn't need to support a large load.

Motor C motors are best used in machines that require the motor start under a load such as conveyors,
C compressors, crushers, stirring motors, agitators, and reciprocating pumps.

Motor D motors are used for machinery with high peak loads such as elevators, hoists, oil-well pumping, w
D drawing motors, and punch presses.

Motor E motors can be used in similar applications to A and B motors like fans, pumps, motor-generator se
E and blowers with low starting torque.

Chapter Four – Why Use an AC Motor?

There are any number of uses for AC motors from running appliances to supplying power to large
pieces of machinery. Their low cost with high efficiency makes them applicable to a variety of
applications. Wherever electrical motors are needed, AC motors are generally at the heart of the
application.
AC motors are more powerful than other types of motors because they can generate more torque
using powerful current. They come in a wide variety of sizes, configurations, and strengths to meet
the power needs of any industry.
Reasons to Use AC Motors
AC motors are flexible and adaptable to meet the needs of a variety of functions due to their
efficiency and low noise. Uses for AC motors include pumps, water heaters, lawn and garden
equipment, ovens, and off-road motorized equipment.
AC induction motors are the most common type and the most widely used.
Why use an AC motor?
 Efficiency – AC motors have a high speed to torque characteristic, which offers excellent
performance without overheating, braking, or degeneration. The performance of AC motors
is why they are used in high demand applications. About 85% of the incoming energy is
used to create the outgoing mechanical energy.
 Lifespan – AC motors last in the most demanding of conditions. The only component that
may need to be replaced are bearings, which is a simple, easy, and affordable repair. AC
motors have two bearings that have to be periodically lubricated. The durability of AC
motors is one of the reasons that they are chosen for off road applications or use in rigorous
conditions.

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  Quiet – Since AC motors have a very low sound output, they are chosen for commercial
environments where food is being served or customer service is essential. The sound that
AC motors produce is a low hum.
 Adaptability – There are several factors that make AC motors adaptable and flexible. They
are powered on using a simple on and off switch, which can be reversed. An additional
factor is their variable speed and power output that makes them adaptable to conditions
where there are multiple users.
 Accessibility – Every industrial operation has a variety of conditions that require multiple
sources of power and energy. Since AC motors come in several shapes, sizes, and different
power outputs, they can easily be fitted to any possible situation or be customized and
designed to fit specialized and unique conditions.
 Simplicity – The fact that an AC motor has only one moving part is a major benefit to their
use. The stator of an AC motor is the same for asynchronous and synchronous motors. This
simplicity of design is the reason that they are quiet running, low cost, and long lasting.
 Brushless – A brush motor uses brushes and a commutator to supply electricity to magnetic
coils on the armature. This process creates friction, heat, and a loss of energy. A brushless
motor, AC motor, eliminates the brushes and commutator, which creates a cooler and more
efficient motor that has less wear.
 Self-Starting – Only AC excitation is necessary to operate an AC motor. The simplicity of the
starting mechanism does not require any additional component for an AC motor to start.
 Speed Regulation – The speed of an AC motor can be controlled by changing the frequency
that is sent to the motor, which causes it to speed up or slow down.
 Single Phase Input – Part of the adaptability of an AC motor is how it can run using a single
phase input for a three phase motor even though the location may not have a three phase
input.
Chapter Five – How AC Motors Are Made
Three phase AC motors are used for most industrial applications. The three main parts of an AC
motor are the rotor, stator, and enclosure with working parts being the stator and rotor, while the
enclosure protects the motor and serves as its housing.
AC motors are used for a wide variety of industrial applications because of their strength,
adaptability, endurance, and simplicity of design, which makes for easy maintenance. They can
operate an industrial pump or a home mixer and adapt to each function with ease.

Stator Core

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The stator is the stationary part of an AC motor and the motor‘s electromagnetic circuit. It is made
from laminations, which are thin metal sheets, that are stacked on each other to form a hollow
cylinder. The use of laminations reduces the loss of energy.

Stator Windings

Stator windings refer to the copper wire that is wound around the stator in its slots. The number of
slots in the stator depends on the phases of power that is provided to the coils. A three phase
motor has six slots with three pairs of coil windings that are offset by 120o. The term winding is

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used to describe an entire electromagnetic circuit composed of multiple coils. The coils are of the
same shape and size. The more coils a motor has, the more smoothly it will run.
The number of electric currents energizing the coils is known as the phase of the motor. A three
phase motor can have three, six, or twelve coils.
When the motor is activated, the stator is connected directly to the power source, which transforms
the coils and stator into an electromagnet.

Rotor
The rotor is the part of an AC motor that moves or rotates. The squirrel cage type of rotor
construction is the most common type. Much like the stator, a squirrel cage rotor is made by
stacking laminations to form a cylinder. The squirrel cage is formed by conductor bars that are
evenly spaced inserted into the rotor‘s slots. The bars for the squirrel cage are made of aluminum
or copper.
Once the laminations have been stacked and the conductor bars inserted, a steel shaft is pressed
into the middle of the assembly.

Bearings

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The function of bearings on an AC motor are to support and locate the rotor, to keep the air gap
small, and transfer loads to the motor. They are able to operate at a variety of speeds while
minimizing friction.
There are several types of bearings that are used in AC motors, which include ball and roller
bearings. The life of a bearing in an AC motor is determined by the number of revolutions or
operating hours a bearing can endure. Other factors include operating conditions and lubrication.

Air Gap

The air gap is the gap between the rotor and stator, which is a necessary part of the motor and a
key to its design. The gap has to be large enough to prevent contact between the surfaces of the
rotor and stator accounting for tolerances related to their dimensions, loose bearings, and
movement. The air gap has to be as small as possible to enhance the efficiency of the motor since
larger air gaps require more power to achieve sufficient magnetization.

Fan

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In AC motors, heat builds up in the windings. For this reason, AC motors have a built in cooling
system. Inside the enclosure, a fan is attached to the shaft of the rotor at the opposite end of the
axle that drives the machine that the AC motor is attached to. The fan pulls in cool air and forces it
across the windings. Hot air is blown out the rear of the enclosure

Types of Motor Enclosures and Their Applications

The part of an electric motor that protects the motor from the contaminants in the environment in which it
is operating and persons being from touch is called the motor enclosure.
The motor enclosures are necessary for the following reasons −
 It protects the motor against foreign body and severe conditions.
 It protects the inner parts of the motor.
 It protects the operating personal from live parts of the motor such as winding terminals, slip rings,
brushes, etc.

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Types of Motor Enclosures
Indian Standards (IS) 4691 have described codes for different types of enclosures. The most common types
of electric motor enclosures are given as follows −
 Open Protected Type − this enclosure provides free access to air and sufficient mechanical
protection to the motor.

Scree Protected Type − this type of enclosure provides addition protection to the motor. It has metal grids
or perforated covers.

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 Drip Proof Type − this type of enclosure has openings for ventilation which are so provided that it
prevents vertically falling water or dirt from entering inside the motor.

 Splash Proof Type − With this type of enclosure, liquid or solid particles falling on the motor at any
angle between the vertically downward direction and 100° from that direction cannot enter the
motor.

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 Totally Enclosed Type − in this type of enclosure, there will be no free circulation of air between the
inside and outside of the motor.

 Pipe Ventilated Type − in this type of motor enclosure, pipes or ducts are provided for the
continuous supply of fresh ventilating air.

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 Explosion/frame Proof Type − these enclosures are manufactured in such a way to withstand an
internal explosion and the motor frame will not rupture or burst.

Weather Proof Type − In these enclosures, additional screens are installed to prevent entrance of large
particles of debris and rain into the motor.

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Applications of Various Types of Motor Enclosures
The following table shows the details about the enclosures used for motors −

Industrial Location Type of Contamination Type of Motor Enclosure

Recommended

 No contamination  Open protected

type
 Clean & dry air
 Screen protected
 High humidity
type
General industrial installations  Water jets splashing
 Drip proof type
(non-explosive atmosphere)  Conducting or oily
 Splash proof type
textile dust
 Totally enclosed
type
 Pipe ventilated type

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 Industrial Location Type of Contamination Type of Motor Enclosure
Recommended

 Rain  Weather proof type

 Snow  Totally enclosed
Outdoor installation
 Dusty storms  Open drip proof
type
 Nearly clean

Metal working machinery (non-  Oily metallic dust Totally enclosed type
explosive atmosphere)

 Dust Totally enclosed type

Chemical plant (Non-explosive
atmosphere)  Corrosive acid vapors
& gases, etc.

Mines and other hazardous  Explosive gases or Explosive proof type

locations vapors
 Dust

Motor mounting positions

Electric motors can be ordered according to several different mounting methods, depending on the
design and frame size. The below list shows examples of the most common mounting positions.
Mounting positions for rotary electric machines, including electric motors, are specified in accordance
with the standard IEC 60034-7, code I (code II in brackets).
Foot mounted motors
B3 (IM 1001)

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V5 (IM 1011)

V6 (IM 1031)

B6 (IM 1051)

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B7 (IM 1061)

B8 (IM 1071)

Flange mounted motors (large flange)

B5 (IM 3001)

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V1 (IM 3011)

V3 (IM 3031)

Flange mounted motors (small flange)

B14 (IM 3601)

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V18 (IM 3611)

V19 (IM 3631)

Foot and flange mounted motors (large flange)

B3/B5 (IM 2001)

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V15 (IM 2011)

V36 (IM 2031)

Foot and flange mounted motors (small flange)

B3/B14 (IM 2101)

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(IM 2111)

(IM 3131)

Types of three-phase AC motors

Three-phase AC motors can be divided into three general types: squirrel-cage, wound-rotor and
synchronous. Only the squirrel-cage rotor motors and the wound-rotor motors are induction motors. The
rotor circuit in an induction motor does not have an external power supply. Voltage is induced in the

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rotor windings by the revolving electromagnetic field created around the inner surface of the stator
assembly when power is applied to the stator windings.
A squirrel-cage motor is an asynchronous AC induction motor in which power from the branch-circuit
supply is applied only to the stator windings. The power in the squirrel-cage rotor circuit is induced by
the rotating electromagnetic field created in the stator circuit (Figure 1). Most AC motors listed as
"induction" will be the squirrel-cage type: The rotor bars, molded in a cast of aluminum, have the
appearance of a squirrel-cage or the paddle wheel on a steamboat on the squirrel-cage rotor.

Figure 1: A squirrel-cage rotor induction

motor.
As compared to a squirrel-cage rotor in which aluminum is cast over a steel rotor frame (the squirrel-
cage) in a mold, the armature circuit of a wound-rotor motor consists of preformed wraps of insulated
wire (windings) similar to the field windings in the stator assembly of a three-phase AC induction motor.
The ends of the windings in the wire-wound rotor are brought out of the motor assembly through slip
rings (Figure 2) for connection to variable external resistances (resistive load bank).
Interconnected in a wye configuration on one common end on the rotor assembly, the other ends of the
three single-phase windings on the wound-rotor are connected one each to the three slip rings. Through
brushes riding on the slip rings, the magnitude of the rotor current can be controlled by a three-phase or
"three-leg" wye-connected resistive load bank. Controlling the magnitude of the rotor current with the
amount of resistance in series with the respective single-phase rotor windings allows some speed control
of the wound-rotor motor, although it is usually used to lower the impact of the starting torque of the
induction motor — the individual resistors in the load bank are bypassed or shorted in three or four
successive steps until all the resistance is removed from the rotor circuit.

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 Figure 2: A wound-rotor induction motor.
A synchronous motor is a special type of AC motor that contains a wire-wound armature rotor assembly
in the form of an electromagnet, which can be separately excited by an external DC supply through slip
rings on the rotor shaft. The motor is started as a three-phase AC induction motor, and once running, DC
is applied to the electromagnet on the rotor assembly. The fixed electromagnetic field of the rotor
assembly locks in and rotates in unison or in step (synchronized) with the phase of the alternating current
which operates it.
Synchronous motors (Figure 3) are easily recognized by the two slip rings on the rotor shaft. Although
started as an induction motor using an amortisseur winding on the rotor assembly, synchronous motors
are not induction-type AC motors. The rotor assembly of a synchronous motor consists of an
electromagnet. Once started, DC power is applied to the winding of the electromagnet through the two
slip ring/brush assemblies. The magnetic poles of the rotor's electromagnet lock-in or with the opposite
poles of the stator assembly's rotating magnetic field. The rotor assembly now turns at synchronous
speed — at zero slip.

Figure 3: A three-phase AC synchronous

motor.

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Three-phase AC motor lead identification and connections
The voltage rating of an electric motor for rotary-driven utilization equipment or for a given process
usually depends on the voltage rating of the electrical power distribution within the building or other
structure where the equipment or process will be located.
The more common three-phase AC building or other-structure electrical-power distribution systems
operate at 600 V or less, although large horsepower requirements may warrant electrical-power
distribution systems of 2,300 or 4,160 V.
The stator assembly of a three-phase AC induction motor may be wound as either a single-voltage motor
or as a dual-voltage motor, in either a delta or wye configuration. The windings in the stator circuit
appear as the primary circuit of a transformer to the building electrical-power distribution system. As
such, the field leads (the in and out leads of the coil windings within the motor that must be wired in the
field) are identified with the capital letter T suffixed with a number. If the motor is rated single voltage,
only three field leads will be found in the motor terminal housing: T1, T2 and T3.

Figure 4: The line supply connections of a delta-configured, single-voltage, three-phase AC induction

motor.
Each individual three-phase AC induction motor will usually be furnished with a wiring diagram either on
the nameplate, on a gummed label found on the underside of the terminal housing cover plate, or in a
conspicuous place on the outer surface of the motor housing. As shown in Figures 4 and 5, whether the
single-voltage AC motor is wound in the delta or wye configuration will not affect the field wiring
connections. Supply lines L1, L2 and L3 extended to the motor controller are merely connected to motor
terminal leads T1, T2, and T3, respectively, at or by the controller.
Dual-voltage three-phase AC motor lead identification and delta connections

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Figure 5: The line supply connections of a wye-configured, single-voltage, 3-phase AC induction motor.
If the stator assembly of the three-phase AC induction motor is wound as dual voltage (the more
common is a 230 V rated motor that can operate at either 230 V or 460 V), the electric motor will have a
minimum of nine winding leads in the terminal housing. Because the motor windings have some internal
connections, how to wire the motor-terminal leads in either a series (for high voltage) or parallel (for low
voltage) configuration depends on whether the motor is internally-connected in a delta or wye
configuration. For dual-voltage electric motors, the wiring diagram furnished with the motor is very
important.
The motor-lead connection diagram in Figure 6 is for a dual-voltage 230/460 V three-phase AC induction
motor that is internally wired in a delta configuration. Each phase (or pole pair for each phase) is wired
with two 230 V windings: Motor-terminal T1 is the common in-lead [to the internal connection —
represented by a bullet (•)] for the two stator windings out-leads motor-terminals T4 and T9. Motor-
terminal T2 is the common in-lead for out-leads motor-terminals T5 and T7. Motor-terminal T3 is the
common in-lead for out-leads motor-terminals T6 and T8. As with a single-voltage delta-configured 3-
phase AC induction motor, common in-lead motor-terminal T1 should be connected to supply line L1,
common in-lead motor-terminal T2 should be connected to supply line L2, and common in-lead motor-
terminal T3 should be connected to supply line L3. How to interconnect the other six out-leads depends
on the operating voltage of the building or other-structure electrical-power distribution supply.

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Figure 6: The motor-terminal leads of a dual-voltage delta-configured 3-phase ac induction motor.
In a three-phase delta electrical-power distribution system, the three-phase line-to-line voltage and the
single-phase motor (alternator or transformer) winding voltages are equal. For 230 V operation, the two
230 V windings drawn in parallel between any two of the three supply line / motor-lead terminals
(between L1/T1 and L2/T2, between L1/T1 and L3/T3, and between L2/T2 and L3/T3) in Figure 7 must be
connected.
As shown in Figure 7, supply line L1 must be connected common with motor-terminal leads T1, T6 and T7.
Supply line L2 must be connected common with motor-terminal leads T2, T4 and T8. Supply line L3 must
be connected common with motor-terminal leads T3, T5 and T9. This completes the delta configuration
within the 3-phase ac induction motor for 230 V operation. As a memory aid, the three common lines and
motor terminal connections create the numbers: 1167, 2248 and 3359.

Figure 7: 230-volt operation of a delta-configured dual-voltage 230/460 VAC three-phase AC induction

motor.

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Because each winding is rated at 230 volts, wiring the two windings, which are drawn in parallel between
any two of the three supply line / motor-lead terminals (between L1/T1 and L2/T2, between L1/T1 and
L3/T3, and between L2/T2 and L3/T3) in a series, causes their voltage ratings to add for 460 V operation.
As shown in Figure 8, motor-terminal lead T4 is connected to motor-terminal lead T7 to bridge
(interconnect or series-connect) the two 230 V windings drawn in parallel between common motor-
terminal leads T1 and T2. Motor-terminal lead T5 is connected to motor-terminal lead T8 to bridge the
two 230 V windings drawn in parallel between common motor-terminal leads T2 and T3.
Motor-terminal lead T6 is connected to motor-terminal lead T9 to bridge the two 230 V windings drawn
in parallel between common motor-terminal leads T3 and T1. To complete the delta configuration within
the motor for 460 V operation, supply line L1 from the motor controller is connected to T1, L2 is
connected to T2, and L3 is connected to T3. As a memory aid, the line and common in-lead motor-
terminal connections are paired to create the numbers 11, 22 and 33. The out-lead motor-terminal
connections are paired to create the numbers 47, 58 and 69.
Dual-voltage three-phase AC motor lead identification/wye connections

Figure 8: 460-volt operation of a delta-configured dual-voltage 230/460 VAC 3-phase AC induction motor.
When a dual-voltage, three-phase AC induction motor is internally wired in a wye configuration, the nine
motor leads are identified the same as in the delta configuration: T1 through T9. The internal winding-
lead connections are different compared to the delta configuration internal winding-lead connections
shown in Figure 6. The winding in-leads of motor-terminals T7, T8 and T9 form a wye of this set of
windings with an internal wye connection. The winding identified as motor-terminal lead T1 (in) and
motor-terminal lead T4 (out) is wound on the same pole pair as the winding identified as motor-terminal
lead T7 (in). The winding identified as motor-terminal lead T2 (in) and motor-terminal lead T5 (out) is

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wound on the same pole pair as the winding identified as motor-terminal lead T8 (in). The winding
identified as motor-terminal lead T3 (in) and motor-terminal lead T6 (out) is wound on the same pole pair
as the winding identified as motor-terminal lead T9 (in).

Figure 10: The motor-terminal leads of a dual-voltage wye-configured 3-phase AC induction motor.
As with a single-voltage wye-configured 3-phase AC induction motor, motor-terminal in-lead T1 should
be connected to supply line L1, motor-terminal in-lead T2 should be connected to supply line L2, and
motor-terminal in-lead T3 should be connected to supply line L3. How to interconnect the other six out-
leads depends on the operating voltage of the building or other-structure electrical-power distribution
supply.
The more common wye-configured, dual-voltage, 3-phase AC induction motor is also rated to operate at
either 230 or 460 V. The windings, however, are only rated at 133 volts. In a wye configuration, the 3-
phase line-to-line voltage is 173% greater (square root of 3 larger) than the single-phase winding voltage:
230 volts ¸ 1.73 = 133 volts.
As with the delta-configured, dual-voltage, 3-phase AC induction motor, when the wye-configured, dual-
voltage, 3-phase AC induction motor operates at the higher 460 V rating, the two respective windings on
a given phase must be wired in series. The two 133 V winding voltages will add for 266 V operation. In
the higher-voltage wye: 460 V ¸ 1.73 = 266 V. As shown in Figure 10, supply line L1 extended to the motor
controller must be connected to motor-terminal in-lead T1; supply line L2 must be connected to motor-
terminal in-lead T2, and supply line L3 must be connected to motor-terminal in-lead T3. To complete the
460-volt wye, motor-terminal out-lead T4 must be bridged (interconnected or series-connected) to
motor-terminal in-lead T7. Motor-terminal out-lead T5 must be bridged to motor-terminal in-lead T8, and
motor-terminal out-lead T6 must be bridged to motor-terminal in-lead T9.

Figure 11: 230-volt operation of a wye-configured dual-voltage 230/460 VAC 3-phase AC induction motor.

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Looking at the wiring connections in the figures for both the wye (Figure 10) and the delta (Figure 8) high-
voltage connections, the wiring connections are the same: L1-T1; L2-T2; L3-T3; T4-T7; T5-T8; T6-T9. These
generate the same high-voltage memory aid of 11, 22, 33, 47, 58 and 69.
For low-voltage operation, the wye and delta wiring configurations are different (in terms of wiring
connections), although the respective phase windings must be wired in parallel in both wiring
configurations.
As shown in Figure 11, out-leads T4, T5, and T6 must be connected common to form the second wye
connection. (The common wye out-leads connection for in-leads T7, T8 and T9 was formed at the point of
manufacture.) To place the two windings per phase in parallel: Supply line L1 must be connected
common with in-leads T1 and T7. Supply line L2 must be connected common with in-leads T2 and T8.
Supply line L3 must be connected common with in-leads T3 and T9.
Looking at the wiring connections in the figures for both the wye and the delta (Figure 7) low-voltage
connections, and removing the common 4-5-6 connection required of the wye, the wiring connections
are similar: L1-T1-T6-T7 in the delta becomes L1-T1-T7 in the wye; L2-T2-T4-T8 in the delta becomes L2-
T2-T8 in the wye; L3-T3-T5-T9 in the delta becomes L3-T3-T9 in the wye. These wiring connections
generate the low-voltage memory aid of 117, 228, 339, and 456 in the wye configuration.
Some dual-voltage, three-phase AC induction motors are available with twelve leads instead of nine.
Usually, a 12-lead motor is required for reduced-torque wye-to-delta starting methods. The motor is
started in a wye configuration. By multiple-contact switching, it is transferred into a delta run
configuration. Because the run condition is in a delta configuration, the voltage rating of the single-phase
windings must be the same as the system line voltage for this type of starting.
The additional three leads, identified as T10, T11, and T12, are the out leads of the internal connections
in either the 9-lead wye or delta configuration: In on T7 ― out on T10; in on T8 ― out on T11; and in on
T9 ― out on T12. Wiring configurations are the same as presented for the nine lead wiring diagrams; be
sure to connect the out leads T10, T11 and T12 as indicated with "internal connections" in these
diagrams.
Reversing three-phase AC induction motors
Because an energized three-phase AC induction motor contains a rotating electromagnetic field within its
stator housing, and the direction of rotor-assembly rotation depends on the direction of phase rotation
of the three single-phase AC sources in the branch-circuit supply to the electric motor, phase reversal of
the supply power (interchange of any two of the supply lines) will cause a directional reversal of the
rotating electromagnetic field.
Once the motor is wired in either a wye or delta configuration at the correct operating voltage,
directional reversing of the rotor assembly occurs with the interchange of any two of the three supply
leads, either L1, L2 or L3, with any two of the three field lead connections T1, T2 and T3.

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Because the motor supply circuit may be configured as a three-phase AC, three-wire, corner-ground delta
electrical-power distribution, supply leads L1 and L3 are typically interchanged with field leads T1 and T3.
Supply line L2, because it might be a grounded circuit conductor in the electrical power distribution
system of the building or other structure, is left connected to T2 in the reversing of the rotor's direction
of rotation.
Because the phase rotation of the three-phase AC supply controls the direction of rotation for the
rotating electromagnetic field, a three-phase AC induction motor does not have to be stopped to
interchange the reversing connections. Instead, the motor can be reversed "on the fly." In other words, a
three-phase AC induction motor is running in a clockwise direction at 1,750 rpm, and with a reversing
contactor, L1 is simultaneously disconnected from T1 as L3 is disconnected from T3. An instant later (to
avoid short-circuiting the two affected phases, the three-phase AC supply circuit has to be momentarily
opened to effect the change); L1 is reconnected to T3 simultaneously as L3 is reconnected to T1. The
rotor will be forced to an immediate stop and then started in the opposite counterclockwise direction.
The motor will draw a locked-rotor current (electric-motor locked rotor current is typically six to eight
times the motor's full-load current rating) when the rotor stops and commands a reverse run direction.
The high-value of lock-rotor/reverse-starting current will subside as the rotor attains 1,750 rpm in the
counterclockwise direction

Production of rotating magnetic field

The stator of an induction motor consists of a number of overlapping windings offset by an electrical
angle of 120°. When the primary winding or stator is connected to a three-phase alternating current
supply, it establishes a rotating magnetic field which rotates at a synchronous speed.
The waveform of the three fluxes is as given below.

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The three phase winding carry the balance current if the applied sinusoidal voltage is balanced and the
impedance of each winding is also balanced. The stator winding is physically placed 120 electrical degree
apart as shown in below given figure.

If the phase sequence is R,Y,B, the Y phase current lags the R phase current by 120 degree and B phase
current lags the Y phase current by 120 degree or leads the R phase current by 120 degree.The phase
current Ir,Iy and Ib set up flux in the core. The resultant magnitude of the average flux can be calculated
by adding the magnetic flux produced by individual current.

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Let us first take the case when the R phase current at zero position of the waveform. The flux produced
by the R phase current is Фr.
Фr = Фm sin(o) = 0
Фy = Фm sin(0-120) =Фm sin(-120) = – 0.866 Фm
Фb = Фm sin(0-240) =Фm sin(-240) = 0.866 Фm
If we add the instantaneous value of the fluxes produced by phase voltages, the resultant flux in the
motor
Average flux= 1.5 * Maximum Flux
The average flux of constant magnitude rotates in the same way as the input three supply phases rotate

Losses in induction motor

The following losses occur in an induction motor.
1. Constant or Fixed loss
2. Variable Loss
Constant or Fixed Losses in Induction Motor
Constant losses are the losses that remain constant when the motor operates as per its rated
parameters. The constant losses can be divided into the following categories.
1. Iron or core losses
2. Mechanical losses
3. Brush friction losses
Iron or Core Losses
Iron losses in an induction motor are the heat loss that gets dissipated in the core of the motor due to the
alternating magnetic field created by the stator winding. These losses are also known as core losses or
hysteresis losses.
Two types of iron losses occur in an induction motor:
 Hysteresis loss
 Eddy current loss
The magnetic core of an induction motor opposes changes in magnetic field direction and because of
hysteresis lag the Hysteresis losses occur in the magnetic core. On the other hand, Eddy current losses
occur because the alternating magnetic field induces a voltage in the core, and the induced voltage cause
the setting up of circulating current(Eddy current), and this circulating current causes heat loss I 2R in the
core.

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The iron loss does not vary with load, therefore these are the fixed losses. The iron losses remain
constant whether the motor is operating at no load or at full load. These losses happen because of
magnetic flux and we know, the average magnetic flux remains constant, provided the voltage and
frequency are maintained as per the motor’s rated voltage & frequency. The iron losses can be reduced
by the use of a high-quality laminated iron core.
Other factors like the shape and size of the core, the design of the rotor and stator slots, and operating
temperature also affect the iron losses in the motor. A higher temperature leads to an increase in the
core resistance, and consequently, it contributes to higher losses. Therefore, the motor should be
adequately cooled to reduce the iron losses as well as the copper losses.
The iron loss can be mathematically calculated by the Steinmetz equation.

Mechanical Losses
The mechanical losses in an induction motor occur because of two reasons. They are-
 Friction Loss
 Windage Loss
Friction and windage loss are the two types of mechanical losses that occur in an induction motor. The
main reason for these losses is the rotation of the motor. The rotating parts like the rotor shaft, fans, and
bearing cause mechanical losses in the rotating machine. All the rotating equipment has these types of
losses.

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The friction and windage losses depend on the speed of the motor, the quality of the bearings, and the
design of the motor.
The friction loss occurs because of the rubbing of moving parts of the motor with each other, such as the
friction between the rotor shaft and the bearings, friction between the balls and outer cage of the
bearing, and friction between the inner and outer cage of the bearing. The motor takes extra power from
the mains to overcome this friction loss.
When the motor rotates, it has to cut the surrounding air for its rotation. The air exerts a force on the
motor’s components, like the rotor fans. The resistance offered by surrounding air cause windage loss.
The windage loss depends on the speed of the motor and the density of the surrounding air.
Mechanical losses are constant losses and they do not vary with load. The mechanical losses can be
minimized by the proper design of the rotor and the use of high-quality bearings.
Brush Friction Loss
Squirrel cage induction motors do not have carbon brushes, it’s rotor is internally short-circuited.
Therefore, no brush friction loss occurs in this type of motor. However, the slip ring or wound rotor
induction motors have slip rings and carbon brushes and the power loss on account of brush friction
happens in these types of motors.
Carbon brushes collect the current from the slip ring. The slip ring is a rotating part and the carbon
brushes are fixed parts, and there exists friction between the contact surfaces of the carbon brushes and
the slip ring. Thus, the brush friction loss occurs in the slip ring induction motor.
Variable Losses in Induction Motor
The losses that vary with load are called variable losses. The major variable loss in an induction motor
is copper loss. The followings are the variable losses in an induction motor.
 Copper loss
 Stray loss
Copper Loss
The winding of the induction motor is made of copper that has finite resistance R. When current flow
through the stator and rotor winding, the power loss ( I2R loss) in the form of heat occurs in the winding
is called copper loss.
The copper loss occurs in the stator and rotor of an induction motor. The copper loss in the stator is
called stator copper loss, and copper loss in the rotor is called the rotor copper loss. The copper losses
depend on the magnitude of the current passing through the stator and rotor, and it is proportional to
the square of the magnitude of the current. The copper loss in the induction motor can be calculated
using the following formula.

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The total copper loss in a 3-phase induction motor is;

The current of the motor increase with an increase in load, therefore these losses are not constant and
vary with load. The copper loss is also called a variable loss. The slip of the induction motor varies with
load and losses also vary accordingly. Therefore, the copper loss in the rotor is also called slip power loss.
The copper loss can be minimized by selecting a high-quality copper wire for stator and rotor winding.
The resistance of the winding also depends on the temperature. The resistance of the conductor
increases with an increase in the temperature. Thus, the operating temperature also contributes to
copper loss because copper loss is proportional to the resistance of the winding. Therefore, adequate
cooling of the motor is a must for reducing the copper losses in the induction motor.
Stray Loss in induction motor
It is desired that all the generated flux in the stator must be 100% coupled to the rotor and there should
be no leakage flux. However, practically the entire flux does not link to the rotor and some parts of the
flux leak in the magnetic path. The leakage flux gets linked to other conductive parts of the motor such as
the motor frame, bearings, and housing, and creates eddy currents that cause energy loss. Thus, the
leakage flux contributes to stray loss in the induction motor. The stray loss is a variable loss, and it
depends on the factors like design of the motor, core material, and the load on the motor.
The core of the motor should be of high-quality material in order to minimize the stray loss in the
induction motor.
Torque Equation of Three Phase Induction Motor

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The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors:
Firstly the magnitude of rotor current, secondly the flux which interact with the rotor of three phase
induction motor and is responsible for producing emf in the rotor part of induction motor, lastly the
power factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor.
Combining all these factors, we get the equation of torque as-

Where, T is the torque produced by the induction motor,

φ is flux responsible for producing induced emf,
I2 is rotor current,
cosθ2 is the power factor of rotor circuit.
The flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf E 1.
i.e φ ∝ E1
We know that transformation ratio K is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage (rotor voltage) to that
of primary voltage (stator voltage).

Rotor current I2 is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf under running condition , sE2 to total
impedance, Z2 of rotor side,

and total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,

Putting this value in above equation we get,

s = slip of induction motor

We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power factor of the
rotor circuit is

Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,

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Combining similar term we get,

Removing proportionality constant we get,

Where, ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s, ns = Ns / 60. So, finally the equation of torque becomes,

Derivation of K in torque equation.

In case of three phase induction motor, there occur copper losses in rotor. These rotor copper losses are
expressed as
Pc = 3I22R2
We know that rotor current,

Substitute this value of I2 in the equation of rotor copper losses, Pc. So, we get

The ratio of P2 : Pc : Pm = 1 : s : (1 – s)
Where, P2 is the rotor input,
Pc is the rotor copper losses,
Pm is the mechanical power developed.

Substitute the value of Pc in above equation we get,

On simplifying we get,

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The mechanical power developed Pm = Tω,

Substituting the value of Pm

We know that the rotor speed N = Ns(1 – s)

Substituting this value of rotor speed in above equation we get,

Ns is speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and ns is speed in revolution per sec (rps) and the relation
between the two is

Substitute this value of Ns in above equation and simplifying it we get

Comparing both the equations, we get, constant K = 3 / 2πns

Working Principle of Three Phase Induction Motor – Video
Equation of Starting Torque of Three Phase Induction Motor
Starting torque is the torque produced by induction motor when it starts. We know that at the start the
rotor speed, N is zero.

So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by simply putting the value of s = 1 in the equation
of torque of the three phase induction motor,

The starting torque is also known as standstill torque.

Maximum Torque Condition for Three-Phase Induction Motor

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In the equation of torque,

The rotor resistance, rotor inductive reactance and synchronous speed of induction motor remain
constant. The supply voltage to the three phase induction motor is usually rated and remains constant,
so the stator emf also remains the constant. We define the transformation ratio as the ratio of rotor emf
to that of stator emf. So if stator emf remains constant, then rotor emf also remains constant.
If we want to find the maximum value of some quantity, then we have to differentiate that quantity
concerning some variable parameter and then put it equal to zero. In this case, we have to find the
condition for maximum torque, so we have to differentiate torque concerning some variable quantity
which is the slip, s in this case as all other parameters in the equation of torque remains constant.
So, for torque to be maximum

Now differentiate the above equation by using division rule of differentiation. On differentiating and
after putting the terms equal to zero we get,

Neglecting the negative value of slip we get

So, when slip s = R2 / X2, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip Sm and it is
defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance.
NOTE: At starting S = 1, so the maximum starting torque occur when rotor resistance is equal to rotor
reactance.
Equation of Maximum Torque
The equation of torque is

The torque will be maximum when slip s = R2 / X2

Substituting the value of this slip in above equation we get the maximum value of torque as,

In order to increase the starting torque, extra resistance should be added to the rotor circuit at start and

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cut out gradually as motor speeds up.
Conclusion
From the above equation it is concluded that
1. The maximum torque is directly proportional to square of rotor induced emf at the standstill.
2. The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance.
3. The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
4. The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon rotor resistance, R 2. So, by varying the
rotor resistance, maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip.

Torque-speed & Torque-slip Characteristics of an Induction Motor

Table of Contents
 Torque-slip Characteristics
o Low Slip Region
o Medium Slip Region
o High Slip Region
o Motoring Region
o Generating Region
o Braking Region
 Torque-Speed Characteristics of Induction Motor
Torque-slip Characteristics
Torque-slip characteristics give the relation between torque and slip. The torque-slip characteristics show
how the torque changes with a change in slip. The slip is defined as a ratio of synchronous speed and the
actual speed of the rotor. The actual speed of the rotor varies with loading condition. Therefore, the slip
changes with loading condition.
In the previous article, we have derived the torque equation of an induction motor.

From the above equation, if R2 and X20 are kept constant, the torque depends on the slip. The torque-slip
characteristics curve looks like a rectangular hyperbola. And this curve is divided into three regions;

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  Low slip region
 Medium slip region
 High slip region
The curve for torque-slip characteristics for different values of rotor resistance is shown in the figure
below.

Related Post:
 Torque Equation of Induction Motor
 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor
Low Slip Region
At synchronous speed, the slip of an induction motor is zero. Hence, the torque developed in the rotor is
zero. Therefore, an induction motor always runs slightly less than the synchronous speed. And in this
condition slip is very low.
When the slip is very low, (sX20)2 is negligible compared to the R2. So, for low slip conditions,

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If we consider rotor resistance R2 as constant;
T∝s
Hence, at low slip conditions, the torque is directly proportional to the slip. This is the normal operating
region for an induction motor. In the low-slip region, the torque-slip curve is a straight line.
Medium Slip Region
If the load increases, the speed of an induction motor decreases, and slip increases. As the slip increases,
the term (sX20)2 becomes high compared to Rotor resistance R2. And in this condition, we can neglect the
rotor resistance R2.

So, the torque is inversely proportional to the slip. During this region, the curve shapes a rectangular
hyperbola and passes through the point of maximum torque. The maximum torque is achieved when R 2 =
sX20. This torque is known as pull-out torque or breakdown torque.
High Slip Region
If we increase the torque beyond the maximum torque point, the torque starts decreasing. This condition
is when the load increases. During this condition, the motor speed decreases, and the overload
protection must be activated to disconnect a motor from the supply. If the motor continuously runs in
this region, the motor will damage due to overheating. This region in a torque-slip curve is decreasing
region after the maximum torque point.
Generally, the induction motor operates for the value of slip between zero to S M. The slip SM is a slip at
the maximum torque point. The pull-out torque for an induction motor is 2 to 3 times of rated full-load
torque for typical operation. Therefore, the motor can handle overload for short period without stalling.
The torque-slip curve of the induction motor for constant rotor resistance is shown in the figure below.

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Similar to the above description, this curve is also divided into three parts;
 Motoring region
 Generating region
 Breaking region
Motoring Region
In this mode of operation, the slip of an induction motor is between zero to one. When the stator is
supplied by electric power, the rotor rotates below synchronous speed. And the torque of a motor varies
from zero to full-load torque as slip varies from zero to one.
During this condition, the torque is directly proportional to the slip. Generally, the induction motor
operates in this region. The slip is zero at synchronous speed and the slip is one at standstill condition.
Generating Region
In generating mode of operation, the induction motor runs above the synchronous speed and it behaves
as an induction generator. The speed of a motor increases above synchronous speed with the help of
external devices like a prime mover.
During generating region, the slip and torque both are negative. Hence, the machines receive mechanical
energy and deliver electrical energy. During the generating region, the motor requires to supply reactive
electric power.
Braking Region

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In the braking region, the polarity of supply voltage is changed. Hence, the motor rotates in a reverse
direction. This mode is used to stop the motor. This method of electrical braking is known as plugging.
During braking mode, the slip is greater than one.
By this method, the motor stops within a short time. But the kinetic energy stored in the load is
dissipated as heat. Therefore, during the breaking, a very high amount of heat is generated. And also, if
the stator is connected with the supply, it is also generated as heat. Hence, it is contained to disconnect
the supply from the stator before entering the braking mode.
 Related Post: Power, Voltage and EMF Equation of a DC Motor

Torque-Speed Characteristics of Induction Motor

The torque-speed characteristic is a curve between the torque and speed of an induction motor and it is
shown in the figure below.

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The below equation gives the speed of the rotor at which the maximum torque is achieved.
NM = NS (1-SM)
The equation of maximum torque is;

Here, we can see that the maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance. But the exact location of
maximum torque is dependent on rotor resistance. Greater the value of rotor resistance, the greater the
value of slip at which the maximum torque is achieved.
From the torque-speed curve, it is clear that as the rotor resistance is increases, the pull-out speed of the
motor decreases (the maximum torque remains constant).

Types of Motor Starters and Motor Starting Techniques

Table of Contents
 What is a Motor Starter?
 Why We Need a Starter with a Motor?
 How a Motor Starter Works?
 Types of Motor Starters Based on Starting Methods & Techniques
o Full Voltage or Across The Line Starter
o Full Voltage Reversing Starter
o Multispeed Starter

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 o Reduced Voltage Starter
 Type of Motor Starters:
o Manual Starter
o Magnetic Starter
o Direct Online (DOL) Starter
o Stator Resistance starter
o Rotor Resistance or Slip Ring Motor Starter
o Autotransformer Starter
o Star Delta Starter
o Soft Starter
o Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

What is a Motor Starter? A motor starter is an electrical device that is used to start & stop a motor
safely. Similar to a relay, the motor starter switches the power ON/OFF & unlike a relay, it also provides a
low voltage & overcurrent protection.
The main function of a motor starter is;
 To safely start a motor
 To safely stop a motor
 To reverse the direction of a motor
 To protect the motor from low voltage & overcurrent.

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Parts of a starter

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A motor starter is made of two main components that work together to control & protect the motor;
 Electrical Contractor: The purpose of the contactor is to switch ON/OFF the power supply to the
motor by making or breaking the contact terminals.
 Overload protection circuit: The purpose of this circuit is to protect the motor from potential
harm due to the overload condition. Huge current through the rotor may damage the winding as
well as other appliances connected to the supply. It senses the current & breaks the power supply.
Why We Need a Starter with a Motor?
A motor starter is essential for starting an induction motor. It is because of its low rotor impedance. The
rotor impedance depends on the slip of the induction motor which is the relative speed between the
rotor & stator. The impedance varies inversely with the slip.
The slip of the induction motor is at maximum i.e. 1 at standstill (rest position), thus the impedance is at
its minimum & it draws a huge amount of current called inrush current. The high inrush current
magnetizes the air gap between the rotor & stator that induces an EMF in the rotor winding. This EMF
produces an electrical current in rotor winding that creates a magnetic field to generate torque in the

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rotor. As the rotor speed increases the slip of the motor decreases & the current drawn by the motor is
reduced.

All in one starter.

The high inrush current is 5-8 times the normal rated full load current. So such amount of current can
damage or burn the windings of the motor that will render the machine useless & it can cause a huge dip
in voltage of the supply line that can damage other appliances connected to the same line.
In order to protect the motor from such a huge amount of currents, we use a starter that limits the initial
current for a short duration at startup & once the motor attains a certain speed, the normal power
supply to the motor is resumed. They also provide protection against fault conditions such as low voltage
& overcurrent during normal operation.
Although small motors rated below 1 horsepower have high impedance and they can withstand the
initial current thus they do not need such motor starter, however, they do need overcurrent protection
system which is provided by the DOL (Direct On-Line) starters. The above explanation shows that why we
need a starter to install with a motor?
How a Motor Starter Works?
A starter is a control device that is used for switching the motor either manually or automatically. It is
used for safe ON/OFF control of electrical motors by making or breaking its contacts.
The manual starter is used for smaller motors where the hand operated lever is manually operated
(move the contacts position) to the ON or OFF position. The disadvantage of these kinds of starters is that
they need to switch ON after power frailer. In other words, they need manual control for each (ON or

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OFF) operation. Sometimes, this operation may leads to flow high currents in the motor winding which
may burn the motor. This is why it is not recommended in most cases where other alternative motor
starters with protection are used such as automatic starters.

On the other hand, the automatic starters which consist of electromechanical relays and contactors are
used to switch the motor ON/OFF operation. When current passes through the contactor coils, it
energizes and produces the electromagnetic field which pulls or pushes the contacts to make the
connection of motor windings to the power supply.
The start and stop push buttons connected to the motor and starter can be used for ON and OFF
operation of motors. The contactor coils can be de-energize by pushing the stop button which leads to
de-energize the coil. This way, the contactor contacts move back due to spring arrangement to its normal
position which leads to switch off the motor. In case of power failure or manual switch-off operation, the
motor won’t start automatically until we manually start the motor by pressing the “start push button”.
The following diagram shows that how a DOL motor starter operates for ON/OFF operation.
Types of Motor Starters Based on Starting Methods & Techniques

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In industries, various starting techniques are used to start an induction motor. Before discussing the
types of motors, here are some of the techniques used in motor starters.
 Full Voltage or Across The Line Starter
Such starters directly connect the motor with the power line providing the full voltage. The motors
connected through such starters have low power ratings so that they do not create a huge voltage drop
in the power line. They are used in an application where motors have low ratings & need to run in one
direction.
 Full Voltage Reversing Starter
3 phase induction motor’s direction can be reversed by swapping any two phases. Such a starter
incorporates two mechanically interlocked magnetic contactors with swapped phases for forward &
reverse direction. It is used in an application where the motor needs to run in both directions & the
contactors are used to control it.
 Multispeed Starter
In order to vary the speed of an AC motor, you need to vary the AC supply frequency or vary the number
of poles (by reconnecting the windings in some) of the motor. Such types of starter run the motor in a
few pre-selected speeds to meet its applications.
 Reduced Voltage Starter
The most common type of starting technique is to reduce the voltage at the starting of the motor to
reduce the inrush current that could damage the windings of the motor & also cause a huge dip in
voltage. These starters are used for high rated motors.
Based on the techniques described above, the following types of motor starters are used in industries.
Type of Motor Starters:
We will discuss the following types of motors and their starting methods based on the above motor
starting methods with advantages and disadvantages.
1. Direct Online Starter (DOL)
2. Stator Resistance starter
3. Rotor Resistance or Slip Ring Motor Starter
4. Autotransformer Starter
5. Star Delta Starter
6. Soft Starter
7. Variable frequency drive (VFD)

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The motor starters have many types but mainly they are classified into two types.
 Manual Starter
This type of starter operates manually and does not require any experience. A push-button is used to
turn OFF & ON the motor connected with it. The mechanism behind the button includes a mechanical
switch that breaks or makes the circuit to stop or start the motor.
They also provide overload protection. However, these starters do not have LVP (low voltage protection)
i.e. it does not break the circuit upon power failure. It can be dangerous for some applications because
the motor restarts when the power is restored. Thus they are used for a low power motor. Direct On-Line
(DOL) starter is a manual starter that provides overload protection.
 Magnetic Starter
Magnetic starters are the most common type of starter & they are mostly used for high power AC
motors. These starters operate electromagnetically like a relay that breaks or makes the contacts using
magnetism.
It provides a lower & safer voltage for starting & also includes protection against low voltage &
overcurrent. During the power failure, the magnetic starter automatically breaks the circuit. Unlike
manual starters, it includes automatic & remote operation that excludes the operator.
The magnetic starter consists of two circuits;
 Power circuit; this circuit is responsible for supplying power to the motor. It consists of electrical
contacts that turn ON/OFF the power supplied from the supply line to the motor through
overload relay.
 Control circuit; this circuit controls the contacts of the power circuit to either make or break the
power supply to the motor. The electromagnetic coil energizes or de-energizes to pull or push the
electrical contacts. Thus providing a remote control for the magnetic starter.
Direct Online (DOL) Starter
DOL aka Direct Online Starter is the simplest form of motor starter that connects the motor directly to
the power supply. It consists of a magnetic contactor that connects the motor with a supply line & an
overload relay for protection against overcurrent. There is no voltage reduction for safe starting a motor.
Therefore the motor used with such starters has below 5 hp rating. It has two simple push buttons that
start & stop the motor.
Pressing the start button energizes the coil that pulls the contactors together to close the circuit. And
pressing the stop button de-energizes the contactor’s coil & pushes its contacts apart thus breaking the
circuit. The switch used for turning ON/OFF the power supply can be of any type such as rotary, level,
float, etc.

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Although, this starter does not provide safe starting voltage the overload relay provides protection
against overheating & overcurrent. The overload relay has normally closed contacts that energize the
contactor’s coil. When the relay trips, the contactor’s coil de-energize and break the circuit.

Advantages of DOL Motor Starter

 It has a very simple & cost-effective design.
 It is very easy to understand & operate.
 It provides high starting torque due to the high starting current.
Disadvantages of DOL Motor Starter
 The high inrush current can damage the windings
 The high inrush current causes voltage dip in the power line.
 It is not suitable for heavy motors
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  It can decrease the lifespan of a motor
Stator Resistance starter
Stator resistance starter uses the RVS (reduced voltage starter) technique to start a motor. External
resistance is added in series with each phase of a 3 phase induction motor’s stator. The resistor’s job is to
reduce the line voltage (subsequently reducing the initial current) applied to the stator.
Initially, the variable resistor is kept at maximum position offering maximum resistance. Therefore the
voltage across the motor is minimum (in safe level) due to the voltage drop across the resistor. The low
stator voltage limits the starting inrush current that can damage the motor windings. As the motor picks
up the speed, the resistance is reduced & the stator phase is directly connected to the power lines.
As the current is directly proportional to the voltage & torque varies to the square of the current, a 2
times decrease in the voltage decreases the torque by 4 times. Thus the starting torque using such a
starter is very low & needs to be maintained.

Advantages of stator resistance motor starter

 It provides flexibility in starting characteristics.
 The variable voltage supply allows smooth acceleration
 It can be connected to both star or delta connected motor.
Disadvantages of stator resistance motor starter
 The resistors dissipate the power
 The starting torque is very low due to voltage reduction
 The resistors are quite expensive for large motors.

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Rotor Resistance or Slip Ring Motor Starter
This type of motor starter works on a full voltage motor starting technique. It works only on a slip ring
induction motor that is why it is also known as a slip ring motor starter.
External resistances are connected with the rotor in star combination through the slip ring. These
resistors limit the rotor current & increase the torque. This, in turn, reduces the starting stator current. It
also helps in improving the power factor
The resistors are only used during the starting of the motor & it is removed once the motor picks up its
rated speed.

Advantages of Rotor Resistance Motor Starter

 It provides a low starting current using full voltage.
 Due to high starting torque, the motor can be started under load
 This method improves the power factor.
 It provides a wide range of speed control
Disadvantages of Rotor Resistance Motor Starter
 It only works on slip ring induction motor
 The rotor is expensive & heavier.
Autotransformer Starter
Such type of motor starters uses an autotransformer as a step-down transformer to reduce the voltage
applied to the stator during the starting stage. It can be connected to both star & delta connected
motors.

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The autotransformer’s secondary is connected with each phase of the motor. The multiple tapings of
autotransformer provide a fraction of the rated voltage. During starting, the relay is at the start position
i.e. the tap point providing a reduced voltage for the startup. The relay switches between the tap points
to increase the voltage with the speed of the motor. At last, it connects it with the full rated voltage.
As compared to other voltage reduction techniques, it offers high voltage for a specific starting current. It
helps in providing a better starting torque.

Advantages of Autotransformer Starter

 It provides a better starting torque.
 It is used for starting large motors with a significant load.
 It also offers manual speed control.
 It also offers flexibility in starting characteristics.
Disadvantages of Autotransformer Starter
 Due to large size of the autotransformer, such a starter takes too much space.
 The circuit is complex & relatively expensive than other starters.
Star Delta Starter
This is another common starting method used in industries for large motors. The windings of 3 phase
induction motor are switched between star and delta connection to start the motor.

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To start the induction motor, it is connected in star using a triple pole double throw relay. The phase
voltage in star connection is reduced by the factor 1/√3 & it reduces the starting current as well as the
starting torque by 1/3 of the normal rated value.
When the motor accelerates, a timer relay switches the star connection of the stator windings into
the delta connection, allowing the full voltage across each winding. The motor runs at rated speed

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Advantages of Star Delta Starter
 Its design is simple & cheap
 It does not require maintenance

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  Provide a low surge current.
 It is used for starting large induction motors.
 It is best for long acceleration time.
Disadvantages of Star Delta Starter
 It works on delta connected motor
 There are more wire connections.
 It offers low starting torque which cannot be maintained.
 There is very limited flexibility is starting characteristics.
 There is a mechanical jerk while switching from star to delta.

SEQUENTIAL CONTROL
1-Reverse forward control circuit diagram (2 circuits)
In this chapter, I will present reverse forward control circuit diagram. Learn about the circuit diagram,
operating principle and advantages of forward reverse circuit diagram.
Content

Basic forward reverse control diagram

o a. Circuit diagram
o b. Working principle:
o c. Conclusion
 Reverse forward control circuit diagram with timer
o a. Timer Off Delay
o b. Reverse forward control circuit with timer
o c. Simulation video
Basic forward reverse control diagram
a. Circuit diagram
The figure below is a basic control circuit diagram for reversing a three-phase motor using a three-
position switch.

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Basic reverse forward control circuit diagram
b. Working principle:
+ When the main contact of KF contactor is closed, the motor runs in the forward direction. Conversely,
when the main contact of KR contactor is closed, the motor is energized to rotate in the opposite
direction. Because when we change the order of the phase supplied to three phase motor, it will change
the direction of the rotating magnetic field, leading to a change in the direction of the motor rotation.
+ When the switch is turned to the forward position, the coil of the KF contactor will be energized. The
dynamic contact of the KF contactor closes, and the motor rotates in the forward direction. The normally
open contact of KF will open to ensure that the KR contactor will not close while the motor is rotating
forward.

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Motor rotates in the forward direction
+ When the switch is turned to the reverse position, the motor will be supplied with power through the
dynamic contact of the KR contactor. The motor will rotate in the opposite direction. The normally closed
contact of the KR will also open to prevent the KF contactor from closing when the motor is in reverse.

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The motor rotates in the reverse direction
+ When the motor is overloaded for a period of time, the thermal relay will be affected and change its
state. The normally closed contact of the ORL opens to stop power to the motor, protecting the motor
from damage. At the same time, the normally open contact of the ORL closes, causing the fault light to
light up, indicating that the circuit is having trouble. The circuit can only work again after we reset the
thermal relay.

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The circuit is in overload error state
c. Conclusion
The circuit principle is simple, easy to use, and suitable for reversing control of small-capacity motors.
The disadvantage of the circuit is that when the motor is rotating, if we turn the switch to reverse
direction, the motor will reverse the rotation immediately. In this state will generate a large current.
Changing the direction of rotation of a running motor requires a lot more energy than starting a motor.
This large current may lead to the failure of the CB or affect other equipment. However, you can wait for
the motor speed to zero and then reverse the direction motor to avoid the above problem.
Reverse forward control circuit diagram with timer
To overcome the disadvantages of the circuit above. It is common to use two OFF Delay timers to delay
the reversing time, to ensure that the motor speed has decelerated to zero before the motor runs in the
opposite direction.

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a. Timer Off Delay
When voltage is applied to the timer coil, the timer’s normally closed contact opens immediately. When
we cut the input power to the timer, the timer keeps the contact open until the timer counts to the
preset time.

Off Delay Timer Working Principle (source: instrumentation tools)

In above picture, when the input signal is low, the contact remains in the previous state; this timer is
called an off-delay timer. Off delay timer use in the motor cooling system. The cooling system design with
a cooling motor, and it will run with the main motor. Thanks to the off delay timer, the cooling motor still
runs for some time after the main motor has stopped.
b. Reverse forward control circuit with timer

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Reverse forward control circuit diagram with timer
This circuit utilizes two off-delay coils to prevent the forward and reverse coils from being energized until
five seconds after turning on the reverse switch. There are two off-delay timers, each in parallel with
each contactor coil. The forward contactor coil will connect to the normally closed contact of the 2 timer.
And vice versa, the reverse contactor coil will connect to the normally closed contact of the 1 timer.
+ Assuming the motor is running in the forward direction, now Timer T1 is energized, so the normally
closed contact of Timer T1 will open. If we push the switch to the reverse position, the motor will stop,
and timer T1 will start counting time. When Timer T1 counts to the pre-set time, the contact of T1 will
close, and at this time, the KR contactor is energized. The motor rotates in the opposite direction.
While timer T1 is counting time, there is nothing to prevent the motor from being rotated in the forward
direction again, as the timer contacts of T2 remain closed.

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+ Similarly, when the motor is rotating in the reverse direction, if we push the switch to the forward
position, the motor will stop for a while. When timer T2 counts up to the pre-set time, the motor will
rotate in the forward direction
Applications
1. For transferring materials in conveyor
2. Automatic Gate Open and Close
3. Lifting materials in Hoist control

2-multiple push button control

There may be times when it's desirable to have more than one start-stop push-button station to
control a motor. In this section, the basic start-stop push-button control circuit will be modified to
include a second stop and start push button.
When a component is used to perform the function of stop in a control circuit, it will generally be
a normally closed component and be connected in series with the motor starter coil. In this
example, a second Stop push button is to be added to the existing start stop control circuit shown
in Ill. 1. The second push button will be added to the control circuit by connecting it in series with
the existing Stop push button.
When a component is used to perform the function of start, it's generally normally open and
connected in parallel with the existing start button (Ill. 2). If either Start button is pressed, a
circuit will be completed to M coil. When M coil energizes, all M contacts change position. The
three load contacts connected between the three-phase power line and the motor close to
connect the motor to the line. The normally open auxiliary contact connected in parallel with the
two Start buttons closes to maintain the circuit to M coil when the Start button is released.

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Ill. 1 A second Stop push button is added

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 Ill. 2 A
second Start push button is added to the circuit

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Ill. 3 Components needed to construct the circuit.

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Ill. 4 Numbers are placed on the schematic.

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Ill. 5 Numbers are placed by the corresponding component.
Developing a Wiring Diagram
Now that the circuit logic has been developed in the form of a schematic diagram, a wiring
diagram will be drawn from the schematic. The components needed to connect this circuit are
shown in Ill. 3.
Following the same procedure discussed in section 22, wire numbers are placed on the schematic
diagram (Ill. 4). After wire numbers are placed on the schematic, corresponding numbers are
placed on the control components (Ill. 5).
QUIZ:
1. When a component is to be used for the function of start, is the component generally normally
open or normally closed?
2. When a component is to be used for the function of stop, is the component generally normally
open or normally closed?
3. The two stop push buttons in Ill. 2 are connected in series with each other. What would be the
action of the circuit if they were to be connected in parallel as shown in Ill. 6?

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4. What would be the action of the circuit if both start buttons were to be connected in series as
shown in Ill. 7?

Ill. 6 Stop buttons have been connected in parallel.

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 Ill. 7 Start buttons have been connected in series

3-How to Run Motors in Sequence? Power, Control, PLC & Wiring Diagrams
A Sequential Motor Control Circuit is an electrical circuit designed to control the operation of motors in a
sequential manner. The circuit is typically composed of a combination of control devices such
as contactors, timers, relays, and sensors. It prevents electric motors from starting simultaneously and
ensures that each motor operates in a specific sequence for a particular purpose.
Table of Contents
 Working of Sequential Motor Control Circuit
 Wiring Diagram of Control Unit for 3-Φ Motors Operation in Sequence
 Wiring Diagram of Sequential Operation of 3-Phase Motors
 Power Diagram of 3-Φ Motors Running in Sequence
 Control Diagram of 3-Φ Motors Operation in Sequence
o Operation of Control Circuit for Motors Running in Sequence
 3-Φ Motor’s Sequential Control Circuit Program on PLC
 Applications of Sequential Motor Control Circuit

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Working of Sequential Motor Control Circuit
The working of a sequential motor control circuit is relatively simple. The control circuit first activates the
first motor in the sequence by sending a signal to the associated starter, contactor and relay. Once the
relay receives the signal, it switches on the power to the motor, causing it to start running.
When the first motor reaches a specific set point or condition, it sends a signal to the control circuit to
switch off the power to the first motor and activate the second motor in the sequence. This signal can be
generated by a timer or a sensor that detects the first motor’s state.
Once the second motor receives the signal, the associated relay switches on the power, causing the
motor to start running. This process continues until all the motors in the sequence have been activated
and are running.
In the following post, we will show the Wiring, Power, Control and PLC diagram of sequential control
circuit for three phase motors.
Wiring Diagram of Control Unit for 3-Φ Motors Operation in Sequence
This sequential circuit diagram is designed to operate three motors in sequence using ON and OFF
buttons to control automatically the starting and stopping operation of each three phase motor with the
help of timers.
Click image to enlarge

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In the power circuit diagram, each motor is connected to a separate contactor with thermal overload
relay. Two timers (T1 & T2) are used with M1 and M2.
In this arrangement, the coil of first Timer “T1” is connected in parallel with the coil of Contactor “KM2”,
while the timer coil “T1” is in series with the normally closed contact of “KM2”. As a result, when
Contactor “KM2” is energized, the timer will be disconnected from the power supply, but Contactor
“KM1” will remain active.
The automatic operation of the circuit is as follow.
 3-Φ Motor “M1” is controlled by a set of push buttons, including an “ON” and “OFF” button.
 Three phase Motor 2 “M2” is controlled by the Timer “T1” and connected in series to the ON
button.
 3-Phase Motor 3 “M3” is controlled by the Timer “T2” and connected in series with ON button.
Wiring Diagram of Sequential Operation of 3-Phase Motors
Click image to enlarge

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Power Diagram of 3-Φ Motors Running in Sequence
Click image to enlarge

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Control Diagram of 3-Φ Motors Operation in Sequence

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How to Size a Cable for Industrial AC Motors?
If we searched about the purpose of Engineering, we will find that “Engineering is the application of
science and mathematics to solve problems”.
However, nowadays this purpose has changed a little, in addition to solving the problems; you have to
consider the cost of your solution.
Reducing costs and saving some money for your organization are the most important things that you can
present to your company or factory.
Therefore, today we are going to learn how to save some money by the proper calculation of the cable
sizing for your plant machines and equipment.
How to Size a Cable for Industrial AC Motors?
In this article, we will discuss how to do cable sizing for an industrial AC motor.
For calculating the size of any cable, you have to get through some steps.
 First Step is to determine the specification of your electric load:
Voltage (V): Specify the supply voltage and select the phase arrangement: 1 Phase AC or 3-phase
AC. Load (kW, kVA, A, hp.): Specify the load in kW, kVA, A, or hp. In addition, you have to specify cos {Φ}
(load power factor) when the load is specified in kW or hp.
Distance (m, ft.): The estimated cable or wire length in meters of feet.
Cable type: The number of cores in the cable.
Notice, “You can ignore the neutral and earth conductor in three-phase cables”.
Insulation type: The type of insulation. Typically Thermoplastic (PVC) or Thermoset (XLPE). The important
part is to select the correct temperature rating.
Cable installation: How the cable is installed “Consider the worst-case section of the cable installation”.
 Second Step is to prepare the required tables.
The vendor of the electric cables has to provide the required tables of his products “Cables”
Therefore, by going to the vendor website you have to get:
 Cross-section area (CSA) Vs. Rated current table.
 Cross-section area (CSA) Vs. Voltage drop table.
 Third Step Calculating the voltage drop.
Using the load specification and vendor tables, you can calculate the estimated voltage drop across the
cable.

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Total Voltage Drop = Vd (V/Amp/Meter) * Max. Current (Amp) * Cable length (Meter)
 Forth Step Comparing the allowable voltage drop with the actual voltage drop
According to (IEEE Rule B-23):
“At any point between a power supply terminal and installation, voltage drop should not increase above
2.5% of provided (supply) voltage.”
If the calculated voltage drop < allowable voltage drop then the designed CSA is accepted.
If the calculated voltage drop > allowable voltage drop then you have to choose a higher CSA.
Motor Cable Sizing Example Calculation
Here we have in Fig. (1) an example of a Three-phase induction motor that you are supposed to calculate
the size of its cable.

Figure 1
By starting with our first step “Determining Load Specification”:
 Supply voltage = 400 V
 Power = 30 KW
 Rated Current = 55 A
 Max. Expected current = 1.5 * Rated current = 82.5 A
Notice that you have to keep in mind the over-loaded current and to have a kind of safe margin so you
should make your calculation on 1.5 of the rated current.
 Cable distance = 110 M
 Cable type: Multicore Cables, with Stranded Copper Conductors, PVC Insulated and PVC Sheathed.

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  Cable Installation: Laid in free air.
Now by going through the next step “Cable Specification Table”:
 According to ELSEWEDY ELECTRIC Power Cable catalog: Shown in Fig. (2)
As the current rate for the selected size is bigger than the Max. Expected current.
The first estimation would be (CP1-T104-U11) with a CSA of 16 mm2 (Current rating = 83 A)

Figure 2
 According to ELSEWEDY ELECTRIC Power Cable catalog: Shown in Fig. (3)
The equivalent voltage drop for this CSA (16 mm2) is 1.275 (mv / AMP / Meter)

Figure 3
Now for the third step “Calculating the Voltage Drop”
As we said before:
Total Voltage Drop = Vd (V/Amp/Meter) * Max. Current (Amp) * Cable length (Meter)
Allowable Voltage Drop = 2.5% Supply Voltage
Then:
VD = 1.275 * 0.001 * 82.5 * 110 = 11.57 V

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 AVD = 400 * 0.025 = 10 V
By “comparing the allowable voltage drop with the actual voltage drop”, we can find that:
Total Voltage Drop > Allowable Voltage Drop
Then the designed CSA is not accepted so we have to select the next bigger CSA from our tables and
recalculate the voltage drop again to see if the new estimated CSA can fit our application or not.
—————————————————————————————————
By returning to Fig. (2) & (3)
The new CSA would be 25 mm2 (Current rating = 105 A), and the equivalent voltage drop for this CSA (25
mm2) is 0.957 (mv / AMP / Meter)
Then:
VD = 0.957 * 0.001 * 82.5 * 110 = 8.68 V
AVD = 400 * 0.025 = 10 V
By comparing the allowable voltage drop with the actual voltage drop, we can find that:
Total Voltage Drop < Allowable Voltage Drop
Finally, the designed CSA is accepted as the voltage drop is accepted then the selected cable is (CSA = 25
mm2)

Fundamentals of motor circuit protection

Motor circuit protection involves understanding the National Electrical Code and equipment nameplate
information
NFPA 70: National Electrical Code Article 430 covers motors including their overload protection, short-
circuit and ground-fault protection, conductors, control circuits, controllers, motor control centers,
disconnecting means, adjustable speed drive systems (also known as variable frequency drives) and
grounding. This article is based upon the 2017 edition of NEC.
Part III of Article 430 covers overload protection for the motor and its circuit. It is important to protect
motors, motor control equipment and motor branch circuit conductors from motor overloads and
excessive heat. It is also critical that the motor can start and perform its intended operation.
The NEC states provisions of Article 430 Part III shall not apply to motor circuits rated over 1,000 volts,
nominal. This article’s focus is on typical motors encountered below 1,000 volts.
Motor overload versus overcurrent
It is important to understand the differences between overload and overcurrent.

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An overcurrent is when current exceeds the rated current of the motor or the capacity of its conductors.
This can be from an overload, short circuit or ground fault.
Overload is when operation of a motor in excess of its normal, full-load rating persists for a long enough
time it would cause damage or overheating of the motor. A short-circuit or ground-fault is not considered
an overload condition. Overload protection protects the motor from becoming a fire hazard.
Motor overload protection is not designed or may not be able to stop short-circuit currents or ground-
fault currents. A fault is not an overload as stated in the NEC Article 100 definitions. However, an
overload is considered an overcurrent.
A short circuit is the unintentional electrical connection between any two normally current-carrying
conductors of an electrical circuit such as line to neutral or line to line.
A ground fault is an unintentional, electrically conducting connection between an ungrounded conductor
of an electrical circuit and the normally noncurrent-carrying conductors, metallic raceways or equipment
enclosures or the earth. During the period of a ground fault, dangerous voltages can be present on metal
parts until the circuit overcurrent protection device such as a fuse or circuit breaker opens.
The NEC also states the provisions do not require motor overload protection where a power loss would
cause a potential life-safety hazard such as with a fire pump.
Motor overload protection
A motor’s full load amps is used to size the overload protection. This FLA is found on the equipment
nameplate. Examples of overload devices include fuses and circuit breakers as well as motor starters with
overload relay(s) or a solid state motor controller/starter.
NEC 430.32 states for continuous duty motors with a service factor on the nameplate of 1.15 or more or
with a nameplate temperature rise of 40°C shall have the overload device sized at no more than 125% of
the motor nameplate current rating (FLA).
Continuous duty motors typically have continuous loads where the FLA current for is reached for three
hours or more.
Typical overload protection can be fuses or circuit breakers, if applied properly. When sizing the overload
device, if the calculation results in a nonstandard amp rating for a circuit breaker or fuse, the engineer is
to use the next smaller size. Standard fuses and circuit breaker sizes can be found in NEC 240.6(A).
All other motors other than ones with a nameplate of 1.15 or more or with a nameplate temperature rise
of 40°C shall have the overload device sized at no more than 115% of the motor’s FLA.
An example calculation to size a motor overload protection device is:
A motor nameplate has a service factor of 1.15 and an FLA of 24.5 amps.

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The NEC states this overload device shall be sized at no more than 125% of the motor’s FLA for motors
with a service factor of 1.15 or more.
24.5 amps x 1.25 = 30.625 amps
Use an overload protection device with a rating of 30 amps because the rating cannot exceed 125% of the
FLA. This overload protection device can be a fuse or circuit breaker.
Motor overcurrent protection
Part IV of NEC Article 430 lists the requirements for motor overcurrent protection. This includes branch
circuit short circuit and ground fault protection for the motor, the motor control equipment and the
conductors.
Article 430.52 states the requirement that a motor branch circuit short circuit and ground fault protection
device shall be capable of carrying the motor’s starting current. Typically, when voltage is first applied to
an induction motor it requires a large inrush starting current. As the motor starts to reach its rated speed,
the motor’s current reaches the FLA.
Table 430.52 in the NEC provides the maximum rating or setting of motor branch circuit short circuit and
ground fault protective devices. The table lists the type of motor (singe-phase, alternating current poly
phase motors other than wound rotor, squirrel cage — other than Design B energy-efficient,
synchronous, and wound-rotor and direct current/constant voltage). The table also lists for each type of
motor the percentage of full load current for various branch circuit and ground fault protective
devices: non time delay fuses, dual element (time delay) fuses, instantaneous trip circuit breaker and
inverse time circuit breaker.
This example calculation shows how to size the motor short circuit and ground fault protection device.
Determine the inverse circuit breaker size and conductor size for a 5-horsepower, 230-volt, single-phase
motor with 75°C terminals.
First, go to Table 430.52 and find the row with “single phase motors.” Next go to the “inverse time
breaker” column. There you will find “250,” which means “250% of full-load current.”
An electrical engineer may not have access to the motor nameplate during the design phase to determine
the FLA for the motor. The manufacturer should be contacted to determine the FLA. If the FLA is still not
available, the engineer should go to NEC Table 430.248 that lists full-load current in amps for single-
phase motors. For example: 5 horsepower at 230 volts is 28 amps.
28 amps x 2.50 (this is the 250% of the full-load current from Table 430.52) = 70 amps.
A 70-amp circuit breaker is a standard size so the correct size for the maximum overcurrent protection
device for this 5 horsepower motor.

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If a calculation for the protective device does not match a standard circuit breaker size, then the next
higher overcurrent protection device rating can be used. This explanation is found in Article 430.52(C)(1)
Exception 1. Refer to this article in the NEC for further exceptions.
The minimum size conductors for the motor is determined by Article 430.22. This states conductors for a
single motor are sized at no less than 125% of the table full-load current, not the nameplate amps.
From Table 430.248, use the 28 amps that were derived above.
28 amps x 1.25 (125% of the full-load amps) = 35 amps.
Use NEC Table 310.15(b)(16) to find the correct conductor size for copper, 75°C, Type THWN. For 35
amps, this is #10 AWG conductor size.
Note that the maximum overcurrent protection device is 70 amps while the conductors are sized at #10
AWG. In this example, the overcurrent protection for a motor circuit can be greater than the ampacity of
the conductors required. This is something that many engineers often struggle with. The thought is that
the conductor sizing should match the overcurrent protection device size. The NEC allows for the
overcurrent protection device to exceed the rating of the conductors to allow for motor in-rush current.
The NEC allows for a single overcurrent protection device for motor overload, motor branch short circuit
and ground faults. Article 430.55 combined overcurrent protection states that the single overcurrent
protection device shall meet the overload requirements in Article 430.32.
VFDs and adjustable-speed drive systems
VFDs are a type of adjustable-speed drive system. VFDs are becoming more common in commercial and
industrial facilities. VFDs can provide energy savings compared to constant speed motors.
NEC Article 430 Part X deals with adjustable-speed drive systems. Most VFDs come with their own
overload and short circuit and ground fault protection device.
If a VFD does not have its own protective device(s), then NEC 430.32 and 430.52 shall be used to
determine the rating of these devices.

Electric Motor Formula and Calculations

DIRECT SINGLE THREE

TO FIND
CURRENT PHASE PHASE

POWER V x I x EFF V x I x EFF x PF 1.732 x V x I x EFF x PF

HORSE V x I x EFF V x I x EFF x PF 1.732 x V x I x EFF x PF

POWER 746 746 746

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 P P P
CURRENT
V x EFF V x EFF x PF 1.732 x V x EFF x PF

746 x HP 746 x HP 746 x HP

EFFICIENCY
VxI V x I x PF 1.732 x V x I x PF

POWER Input Watts Input Watts

------
FACTOR VxI 1.732 x V x I

SHAFT 120 x F
------ ------
SPEED no. of poles

Where

V= Voltage (volts) I= Current (amps) P= Power (watts)

EFF= Efficiency HP= Horsepower F= Frequency (Hz

Motor installation guide lines

Environment
Keeping your motor in a cool, clean, and in a well-ventilated area away from any external sources of
vibration, will greatly extend the life of your motor. Make sure that air is not recirculated throughout the
room your motor is housed in (without first being filtered), so that dirt and dust particles are not entering
your motor and causing overheating and friction issues. Installing an external air filtering system may be
a good idea. External vibrational forces can cause issues with the bearings in your motor and shorten
their lifespan. Keeping your motor far away from other equipment and any areas of construction is best
practice.
Foundation
A good rule of thumb is that the foundation for your motor should be rigid and oversized. The larger the
foundation, the easier it is to dissipate the vibration and movement of your motor. Concrete is the
material of choice when it comes to motor foundations because of its rigidity and vibration dampening
abilities.
Electrical Connections
The most important thing to remember when supplying power to your motor is to follow all applicable
electrical codes and to be sure to lock and tag out all affected equipment before preforming any and all

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electrical work. Make sure that all connections are tight and sufficiently insulated. You will also need to
use supply conductors designed for ASD circuits and a shaft grounding system (or insulated bearings) to
prevent damage from stray shaft currents. One of the most important pieces of your motor is the motor
nameplate. This will help you verify what type of wiring is needed in addition to many other important
details about your motor. NEVER remove the motor nameplate.
Alignment and Vibration
When installing your new motor, taking the correct steps to prevent over vibration and ensure proper
alignment will help you to avoid large and costly issues in the future. There are many tools available to
help you make sure that your motor is in proper alignment with your driven machine. Motors installed
with proper vibration mitigation strategies should have vibrations below 0.15 in/sec pk (2.5 mm/sec rms)
when measured in the horizontal, vertical, and axial directions at the motor bearings. Once installed
correctly, be sure to check vibrational levels and alignment at least quarterly.
Baseline Data
Once you have properly installed your motor, testing needs to be done in order to establish baseline
values that can be referenced later on; such as whenever you complete periodic maintenance or when
you want to replace your motor somewhere down the line with a comparable one.
Protective Guards
After installation, baseline testing, vibrational analysis, and alignment have been completed, be sure to
place protective guards on any exposed or rotating parts of your motor to make sure that you keep your
technicians and employees safe, and keep your motor as clean as possible.
Maintenance
Once your motor is properly installed and running, maintenance is very important to preserve and
improve your motors performance. Proper maintenance includes performing baseline tests continually at
periodic intervals and comparing the new values to the values gathered at initial installation

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Motor installation systems and design

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Maintenance of Electric Motors

Regular Motor Maintenance to Avoid Failure (and Prolong Its

Lifespan)
Electric motors are rotating machines composed mainly of a stator and a rotor which through the action
of magnetic fields generated in their coils (located in the stator) convert electrical energy into
mechanical.
These machines do not have a constant speed, have high performance (approximately 75%), have high
and constant torque (depending on the type of motor), do not need external cooling or external
ventilation (are self-ventilated), and in general, they are more efficient than their combustion
equivalents.
Knowing their importance in the industry, it is important to know some of the considerations needed
when performing maintenance on these motors. Let’s see them below.

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The maintenance in any machine is of vital importance since it guarantees its correct operation, prevents
some type of faults and even allows to increase its useful life. It can be classified as preventive and
corrective.
The preventive maintenance is performed periodically in order to verify its operation, as well as perform
the procedures (adjustments, lubrication, revision, etc.) and replace parts recommended by the
manufacturer based on the workload of the motor. This procedure is performed according to the
activities of maintenance planning and should interfere as little as possible in its routine operation.
On the other hand, corrective maintenance is performed as a consequence of a failure in the motor,
therefore it is random in nature and usually causes interruption of the production process, it is important
to minimize its effect to have the main spare parts needed for repair, as well as having qualified
personnel for the task.
For the conservation of the motors, both the electrical and mechanical components must be covered,
since they are subject to continuous use, so they wear out and become contaminated with external
elements.
The electrical components (windings, brushes, etc.) have a routine of maintenance that consists on the
revision of the connections, the change of the carbon brushes and the periodic measurement. For this
task, it is required to use various instruments such as mega ohmmeter, micro-ohmmeter, Multimeter,
oscilloscope, and others. They allow obtaining values of insulation, continuity, frequency, current,
voltage, power and waveforms.
Meanwhile the mechanical components such as: bearings, shaft and housing, have a conservation
program that consists of cleaning the mechanical components, reviewing the bases and nuts of the
motor, as well as taking measurements that allow evaluating the speed, the balance of the rotor, the
torque applied by the load and the temperature.
Preventive Maintenance checks
Below is a list of some basic preventive maintenance checks
Perform Visual Inspection
A quick visual inspection can reveal some important details about the electric motor. Take a look at its
physical condition and record your observations. If the electric motor operates in a rugged environment,
you will see signs of corrosion and dirt buildup on individual components. Observe the motor’s windings
to detect any hint of overheating, such as a burnt odor. Ensure relays and contacts are dust-free and
aren’t rusted. All these factors may cause an internal problem as the debris may pose a threat to the
efficient performance of the equipment.
Perform a brush and commutator Inspection
Regular maintenance checks help ensure that electric motors won’t experience inconsistencies or stop
working abruptly. Look for signs of wear and tear; any hint of excessive wear leads to commutation

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problems with the motor. This means you need to change the brush in order to regain the integrity of the
equipment’s function. Also keep a check on the commutator to ensure it doesn’t have any dents,
grooves, or scratches. These rough spots indicate brush sparking. Additionally, inspect the motor mount,
rotor, stator and belts thoroughly. Replace all worn out parts.
Conduct a motor winding test
Once you have inspected the various machine components, you need to test the motor’s windings. This
test helps you identify any anomalies or failures in the windings. If you see any burn marks or cracks or
smell a burning odor, conduct a mandatory motor winding test. The test involves disassembling the
motor to determine the abnormalities of the motor. If the windings are overheated, the chance of
serious damage is higher. Rewinding the motor and testing the wind insulation, which reveals
information on the resistance level, are also critical parts of the test.
Check the Bearings
Check the bearings for noise and vibration as they indicate potential problems, like poor lubrication, dirt
buildup, and wear and tear. If the bearing’s housing is too hot to touch, it may mean the motor is getting
overheated or there is an insufficient amount of grease. The maintenance requirements for bearings may
vary, depending on where the equipment is situated. You need to be aware of the different kinds of
bearings being used in the plant and what their repair requirements are.

Perform Vibrations Test

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Sometimes, excessive vibrations are difficult to detect manually. But, if not detected on time, vibration
can reduce the life span of an electric motor, which then eventually leads to motor bearing failure or
failure of windings. In most cases, the cause of vibration is mechanical in nature, such as a faulty sleeve
or ball bearings, too much belt tension, or improper balance. The electric motor can be tested by
removing the belts or by disconnecting the load and then operating the motor. Sometimes, even
electrical problems can give rise to vibrations. A few tests, such as field vibration analysis that is
conducted by mobile instruments that measure exact frequency and amplitude of vibrations, can help in
detecting the exact cause of vibrations.
Use Infrared thermography in Predictive maintenance
Recently, this method of inspection has become popular with predictive maintenance due to its desired
outcome. With infrared thermography, an infrared camera is used to capture thermal images without
interfering with the motor’s operation. These images provide a temperature profile of the electric motor
by giving heat patterns at several points throughout the motor simultaneously. All mechanical systems
produce a particular amount of thermal energy, therefore, they have normal thermal patterns along with
a maximal temperature at which the motor can work. In case any problem exists, such as insufficient air
flow, insulation failure, or degradation in the stator, the infrared camera will immediately detect the
unstable voltage in the form of a thermal image, helping you find its cause and solution.
Document your findings
Documentation is extremely important. Keep detailed records of all preventive maintenance schedules,
tests performed and their results. Maintain records of all repairs and replacements, as well. Doing so
allows you to have a better understanding of the equipment, identify which issues need to be addressed,
or determine which parts have to be replaced or repaired. Your records also will be helpful for future
audits and inspections.
Precautions to take while performing maintenance checks
 Only assign electric motor maintenance tasks to those individuals who are well-trained in
handling electrical components. Those who perform this task need to be aware of hazardous
situations.
 Qualified personnel who perform maintenance checks should be equipped with protective gear,
along with dielectric tested gloves and approved electrical test devices.
 Employees must make sure that pulleys and belts are in proper alignment and ensure operating
parts are moving easily and without excess friction. Contactors and relays can be checked by hand
for binding and sticking parts.
 Employees must be encouraged to regularly perform a maintenance task that keeps their
surrounding environment dust-free and clean to avoid creating an unwanted path for electric
current to flow.

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To ensure better maintenance of electric motors, all maintenance procedures and tests should be
conducted systematically in order to pinpoint potential problems and correct them before they result in
undesired downtime. This approach not only improves the motor’s operation, but also increases its life
span.
Different electrical materials2 have different maintenance requirements, so regular inspections must be
scheduled per their needs. With electric motors, it’s a matter of understanding what they need and
implementing those measures to enhance their productivity and the company’s profitability.

Activities of Preventive maintenance

 Inspect the electric motor at regular time intervals.
 Remove deposits of dust, oil, and dirt in the fan cover to maintain good ventilation and allow
proper cooling of the motor.
 Observe the behavior of the seals.
 Observe the electrical, mechanical connections and the fixing bolts.
 Check the bearings paying attention to anomalous noises and vibrations.
 When there is a lot of bearing wear, replace them using a tool called extractor, then connect the
new ones in cold or hot (oil baths) and lubricate them.
 Test the insulation resistance with a mega ohmmeter when the motor is without power and has a
considerable time at rest.

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  If it is necessary to disassemble the motor and access its internal parts, it requires the
intervention of qualified personnel using appropriate tools and working methods.
 Clean windings with dielectric solvent and bake in infrared light when there is a lot of dirt in the
coils to remove the corrosive substances, all in order to obtain better insulation resistance.
 Perform start-up tests once thorough maintenance has been carried out to verify its operation.
Activities of Corrective maintenance
 The motor does not start: Check the voltages of the grid, fuses, contacts, correct connections (star
or delta according to the terminal board and the load), and voltages in the rotor, contact of the
brushes, the circuit of the starting resistors and insulation of the windings.
 The current absorbed during operation is excessive: Check the load and replace the motor if it is
small, if this is not the case, check the insulation, rings, brushes, resistance circuit and rotor
winding to repair or rewind as the case may be.
 The motor overheats: Check load, clean grilles, ventilation slots, terminal board connections, and
the stator winding.
 The motor smokes and burns: Check windings and always keep the ventilation circuits clean to
repair or rewind as necessary.
Maintenance Activities according to Frequency
Frequent checks (3 Months or Less)
 Clean motor of any dust or oil.
 Check oil rings turn with shaft.
 Check oil level in bearings.
 Visually check for oil and grease from bearings.
 Technician to examine the starter switch, fuses and tighten loose connections.

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Every 6 months
 Clean motor, blowing out dirt from windings, and wipe commutator and brushes.
 Visually inspect commutator clamping ring.
 Check and replace brushes that are more than half worn.
 Examine brush holders, and clean them if dirty.
 Check brush pressure and position.
 Remove, clean out, and replace oil in sleeve bearings.
 Check grease in ball or roller bearings.
 Check operating speed or speeds.
 Technician to examine and tighten loose connections.
 Test current input and compare it with normal.
 Visually check drive, for smooth running, absence of vibration.

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  Check motor foot bolts.
Annually
 Remove and renew grease in ball or roller bearing.
 Test insulation.
 Clean out magnetic dirt that may be attached to poles.
 Check clearance between shaft and journal boxes of sleeve bearing motors.
 Check the commutator for smoothness and slot damage.
 Examine connections of commutator and armature coils.
 Inspect armature bands.
Conclusion
Electric motors are used in many installations (industrial, commercial and residential), thus they have
several important applications that allow the propulsion of trains, automobiles, compressors, pumping
systems, etc.
For this reason, its maintenance is very important for the operational continuity of the processes carried
out since its components wear out and deteriorate according to the volume of work as well as the
passage of time. The main reason for preventive maintenance is to reduce the interruption of the service
due to corrective maintenance, which is why adequate planning of preventive maintenance is essential
on an electric motor.

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 ELECTRIC MOTOR TESTING

Electrical maintenance programs are designed to increase equipment promptness and uptime while
decreasing capital operating cost. Electric Motor Testing is usually the first thing to be sacrificed when
cutting back on operational expenses. But smart companies, understands that without proper
maintenance programs, there is billions of dollars of lost revenue through increased motor repair costs,
downtime, and waste in industrial and commercial companies.
Why is Electric Motor Testing Done?
After bearing failure, electrical faults are the most common mode of motor failure, so in addition, a
properly planned electrical testing scheme is important for making sure of the plant reliability. The
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) conducted a survey which brought into the light that, 48% of
motor failures are because of electrical failures. The 48% can be again divided into rotor problems (12%)
and winding problems (36%). The other 52% of failures are mechanical faults.
Many diagnostic tools, such as clamp-on ammeters, temperature sensors, a Merger or oscilloscope, can
help illuminate these issues.
Winding defects occurs due to contamination, ageing of insulation, thermal overload, power surges,
damaged wire/materials, and other causes. They start as energy crossing an insulation fault like
moisture, which sets apart at least one turn. This creates extra stress and increase in temperature across
the fault, which increases until the winding fails.
Some of the winding faults are:
 Between turns in a coil
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  Between coils in a phase
 Between coils in different phases
 Between a coil or phase and ground
Fault finding of at least one of the above can save your facility countless hours of shut down and
numerous dollars in savings.
What is done during Electric Motor Testing?
There are various kinds of testing done on motor. They are:
Electric Motor Impulse Testing
Electric Motor impulse testing is an integral part of predictive maintenance of electrical motors. Below
are few questions that helps in explaining the influence of extensive impulse testing on a motor?
 Can impulse testing damage healthy or deteriorated insulation?
 Can DC Resistance, Inductance, Merger or HI Pot tests diagnose weak turn-to-turn insulation?
 After failing an impulse test, are motor with weak insulation able to operate?
 Are motors with a turn-turn short able to perform continued function?
This was accomplished by putting a low voltage motor through extensive testing rigors, until inducing a
failure. Following the failure, additional testing investigated the possible deteriorating effects on turn-
turn insulation due to impulse testing beyond the motor’s dielectric breakdown. NOTE: This paper was
edited from the original version of the IEEE paper published in 2003.
Electric Motor Rotation Testing
Check for fan or pump motor rotation when testing offline with the MCE. Fans may continue to slowly
rotate due to drafting in the Plenum. Pumps that are attached to a shared header might remain rotating
if other pumps attached to the header are functioning. This will adversely affect the Standard Test
results, possibly creating higher than normal resistive and inductive imbalances.
Wound Rotor Electric Motor Testing
Wound rotor motors have a three-phase winding wound on the rotor which is connected to three phases
of start-up resistors to provide current and speed control on start-up. Failed components in the resistor
bank are common and often overlooked when troubleshooting. These damages can have major influence
on the complete functioning of the motor and must be provided significant attention when
troubleshooting these motors.
Electric Motor Insulation Resistance Testing
Electric motor insulation exhibits a negative temperature coefficient, meaning as temperature increases,
resistance decreases. This will make you certain that insulation resistance of a de-energized motor will
reduce after commencing the motor. However, most often the resistance will initially increase after

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running due to moisture being evaporated by the increasing temperature of the windings. The standard
IEEE43 on insulation resistance testing needs a temperature rectification to forty degrees Celsius, which
could instantly turn suitable measured resistance readings into disappointingly low rectified resistance
readings. Before sending a motor to be renovated, consider space heaters.
Meg-ohm Test
The meg-ohm test has long been the tool of choice for most engineers, and this simple test is often the
only electrical test performed on a motor. However, while the meg-ohm test has a valid role to play, it is
simply not capable of detecting all the likely faults within a motor’s winding.
PC tests
Modern test equipment utilizes PC control to provide automatic testing and fault diagnosis, thus
removing the responsibility on the operator to interpret the results. The equipment can detect micro
arcs, and to stop the test automatically. Database software permits resources to be saved with all test
outputs, so that a practice can be built up with time, preferably from the inauguration of first-hand
motor. Automated testing also helps remove operator error, inconsistency created by different operators
applying different parameters and the possibility of the operator applying over-voltage to the motor. The
latest testers combine all static electrical tests within one portable device, which also can create
professional test reports.
Static or Insulation Testing
It is performed with the motor disconnected from the power supply. It is particularly done from the
motor control cabinet and must be performed in a predetermined test sequence.
Winding Resistance Test
It will highlight dead shorts, loose connections and open circuits. Such tests must be performed with
accurate equipment, which can measure down to 0.001 ohm. It is extremely important to correct the
resistance values to a constant temperature, typically 20 degrees Celsius. The motor temperature should
be quantified as precisely as achievable, and the copper temperature should be utilized wherever
possible. A motor that has been recently operating is very unlikely to be at ambient temperature, so the
use of ambient temperatures should be avoided. Upon conclusion of the test, the one imbalance
between the phase-to-phase readings are quantified.
DC Step Voltage Test
it is typically performed at twice line voltage plus 1000 volts. The voltage is increased in a series of steps,
and the leakage current is plotted. Effective insulation to earth will denote a linear plot, whereas a non-
linear plot will indicate an insulation deterioration at that voltage where the leakage current instantly
amplified. The step voltage test provides a great deal more information than the basic DC hipot test.
DC Hipot Test
simply applies a voltage, measures leakage current and calculates meg-ohms. If the meg-ohms are
greater than the acknowledged smallest estimate, the motor passes. Even if there is an area of damaged
insulation which causes a lower reading of meg-ohms, if that value is higher than the minimum accepted
value, it will still pass.
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Surge Test
This test is used to verify the turn-to-turn, coil-to-coil and phase-to- phase insulation condition and is
typically performed at twice line voltage plus 1000 volts. It can identify dead shorts, frail insulation,
unbalances and loose connections caused by incorrect winding. It works by injecting high voltage pulses
into each phase, creating a potential difference between one turn and the next. The resulting sine waves
from every phase must equal 1 another.
The above-mentioned tests are offline tests.
Dynamic Motor Testing or online Testing
A more recent addition to electrical testing technologies, this involves measuring the voltage and current
of the motor’s three phases, while the motor is functioning in its usual setting, and quantifying a host of
data related to, the motor, the power supply and the load. Both electrical and mechanical issues can be
identified.
Power quality values, including voltage level, unbalance and distortion are determined and compared to
industry standards. Bad power quality can point to rise in temperature within motors, and as heat is the
greatest enemy of insulation power quality problems must be determined and rectified where possible.
The Recommended Off-line in-Service Electric Motor Tests are
 Stator winding resistive imbalance
 Stator winding insulation resistance (Meg-Ohm checks)
 Polarization Index (PI)
 Step Voltage test
 Surge test
The Recommended Spare Electric Motor Tests are
 Stator winding resistive imbalance
 Stator winding insulation resistance (Meg-Ohm checks)
 Polarization Index (PI)
 Step Voltage test
 Surge test
The Recommended New/Refurbished Electric Motor Tests are
 Stator winding resistive imbalance
 Stator winding insulation resistance (Meg-Ohm checks)
 Polarization Index (PI)

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  Step Voltage test
 Surge test
How is Motor Testing Done?
Three Phase
 Make sure the link for power supply is in decent state. Verify the connection bar for terminal (U,
V, W). Connection type – STAR OR DELTA.
 Confirm the power supply VOLTAGE for electric motor. 230/400.
 With the help of Multimeter, verify the continuity of winding from phase-to-phase (U to V, V to
W, W to U). Every phase-to-phase should have a steadiness if winding is OK.
 Verify the motor winding reading in ohms utilizing ohmmeter or Multimeter for phase-to-phase
terminal (U to V, V to W, W to U). The ohms reading for each winding must be the same (or nearly
the same).
 Insulation resistance of motor winding using Insulation tester meter set to the 500 Volt scale
(1000v DC)
1. Verify from phase-to-phase (U to V, V to W, W to U) and
2. Check from phase to earthing (U to E, V to E, W to E). Minimum test value of the electric motor is
1 Meg Ohm (1 MΩ).
 With the motor running, check the running amps of the motor using Clamp on meter.
 Match up to the full load current on the name plate of motor.
 After the completion of every step choose the condition of electrical motor either NEED TO
REPAIRE or OK
Single Phase
 Utilizing ohmmeter or Multimeter, verify the motor winding readings in ohms. (C to S, C to R, S to
R). The reading for start to run should be equal to C to S + C to R.
 Correct electrical terminal identification: There are three terminal connections on a hermetically
sealed motor compressor and are as follows:
1. Common (C)
2. Start (S)
3. Run (R)
 To determine the proper terminal, link these processes applies:

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  The highest resistance reading is between the start and run terminals
 The middle resistance reading is between the start and common terminals.
 The lowest resistance reading is between the run and common terminals.
 Utilizing Insulation tester meter set to the 500 Volt scale insulation resistance of motor winding
can be found. Check from windings to earth (C to E, S to E, R to E). Minimum test value of the
electric motor is 1 Meg Ohm (1 MΩ).
 Keeping the motor running, verify the running amps of the motor utilizing a Clamp on meter.
 Compare to the FLA on the name plate of motor.
 If every step is completed – decide the condition of the electrical motor: OK or NEED TO REPAIR.
All Types
 Check the appearance of the motor. Verify for body deterioration or damage to the cooling fan
blade or shaft.
 Manually rotate the shaft to check the bearing condition. Check for free & smooth rotation.
 Note the motor data from the motor NAME PLATE.
 Earth Continuity: Use your ohmmeter to verify the resistance between earth and motor frame is
less than 0.5 Ω.
 Power supply, 415 v between Ll to L2, L3 to L1 and L2 to L3.
Benefits of Motor Testing
 Increase up-time
 Save money
 Conserve energy
 Improve safety

Motor troubleshooting
Use this resource to troubleshoot your motor
1. Motor Fails to Start Upon Initial Installation
 Motor is wired incorrectly
o Refer to the wiring diagram to verify the motor is wired correctly.
 Motor damaged and rotor is striking stator

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 o Rotate the motor’s shaft and feel for rubbing.
 Power supply or line trouble
o Check the source of power, overload, fuses, controls, etc..
2. Motor Has Been Running, Then Fails to Start
 Fuse or circuit breaker is tripped
o Replace the fuse or reset the breaker.
 Stator is shorted or went to ground (Motor will make a humming noise and the circuit breaker or
fuse will trip)
o Check for leaks through the coils. If leaks are found, the motor must be replaced.
 Motor overloaded or jammed
o Inspect to see that the load is free. Verify the amp draw of motor versus the nameplate
rating.
 Capacitor (on single phase motor) may have failed
o First discharge the capacitor. To check the capacitor, set the volt-ohm meter to RX100 scale
and touch its probes to the capacitor terminals. If the capacitor is OK, the needle will jump
to zero ohms, and drift back to high. Steady zero ohms indicates a short circuit; steady high
ohms indicates an open circuit.
3. Motor Runs but Dies Down
 Voltage drop
o If the voltage is less than 90% of the motor’s rating, contact your power company or check
to see that another piece of equipment isn’t taking power away from the motor.
 Load increased
o Verify that the load has not changed and the equipment has not gotten tighter. If it is a fan
application, verify that the air flow hasn’t changed.
4. Motor Takes Too Long to Accelerate
 Defective capacitor
o Test the capacitor per previous instructions.
 Bad bearings
o Noisy or rough feeling bearings should be replaced by the motor supplier.

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  Voltage too low
o Make sure the voltage is within 10% of the motor’s nameplate rating. If not, contact your
power company or check if some other equipment is taking power away from the motor.
5. Motor Runs in the Wrong Direction
 Incorrect wiring
o Rewire the motor according to the schematic provided with the motor. Groschopp wiring
diagrams can be found within the “Wiring Diagrams” page of our resources section or on
individual motor pages.
6. Motor Overloaded/Thermal Protector Continuously Drips
 Load too high
o Verify that the load is not jammed. If the motor is a replacement, verify that the rating is
the same as old motor. If the previous motor was a special design, a stock motor may not
be able to duplicate the performance. Remove the load from the motor and inspect the
amp draw of the motor unloaded. It should be less than the full load rating stamped on the
nameplate (only true for three phase motors).
 Ambient temperature too high
o Verify that the motor is getting enough air for proper cooling. Most motors are designed to
run in an ambient temperature of or less than 40°C. (Note: A properly operating motor
may be hot to the touch.)
7. Motor Overheating
 Overload. Compare actual amps (measured) with nameplate rating
o Locate and remove the source of excessive friction in the motor or load. Reduce the load
or replace the motor with one of greater capacity.
 Single phasing (three phase only)
o Check the current at all phases. It should be approximately the same.
 Improper ventilation
o Check external cooling fan to be sure air is moving properly through the cooling channels.
If there is excessive dirt build-up, clean the motor.
 Unbalanced voltage (three phase only)
o Check the voltage at all phases. It should be approximately the same.
 Rotor rubbing on stator

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 o Tighten the thru bolts.
 Over voltage or under voltage
o Check the input voltage at each phase of the motor to make sure the motor is running at
voltage specified on the nameplate.
 Open stator winding (three phase only)
o Check the stator resistance at all three phases for balance.
 Improper connections
o Inspect all the electrical connections for proper termination, clearance, mechanical
strength, and electrical continuity. Refer to the motor lead diagram.
8. Motor Vibrates
 Motor misaligned to load
o Realign the load.
 Load out of balance (direct drive application)
o Remove the motor from load and inspect the motor by itself. Verify that the motor shaft is
not bent.
 Defective motor bearings
o Test the motor by itself. If the bearings are bad, you will hear noises or feel roughness.
 Load too light (single phase only)
o Some vibration at a light load is standard. Consider switching to a smaller motor for
excessive vibration.
 Defective winding
o Test the winding for shorted or open circuits. The amps may also be high. For defective
winding, replace the motor.
 High voltage
o Check the power supply to make sure voltage is accurate.
9. Bearings Fail
 Load to motor may be excessive or unbalanced
o Check the motor load and inspect the drive belt tension to ensure it’s not too tight. An
unbalanced load will also cause the bearings to fail.

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  High ambient temperatures
o If the motor is used in an environment with high ambient temperatures, a different type of
bearing grease may be required. You may need to consult the factory.
 High motor temperatures
o Check and compare the actual motor loads to the motor’s rated load capabilities.
10. Capacitor Fail
 Ambient temperature too high
o Verify that the ambient temperature does not exceed the motor’s temperature rating
(found on the nameplate)
 Possible power surge to the motor (caused by a lightning strike or other high transient voltage)
o If this is a common problem, install a surge protector

Motor downtime can mean lost revenue, product spoilage, and equipment failure and employee
downtime. A motor could be out of commission for several reasons, and by understanding the
fundamentals, you can avoid motor failures in your plant or project. Simply replacing the motor may not
solve the problem, which is why diagnosing the problem itself can save your company time and money.

Here are more top tips in basic motor troubleshooting.

1. Failure to Start
When your electric motor fails to start, begin by checking the motor and the load are turning freely.
Ensure the load does not require more power than the motor can deliver. If the motor is being operated
for the first time, ensure the wiring is correct.
Next, check the motor circuit. Make sure the correct voltage is present at the motor terminals. The poor
connections, faulty switches, and relays can create high resistance in the line, creating a voltage drop
when power is applied to the motor. Confirm the motor switch is turned on.
If the voltage is too low or at 0, look at fuses and overload protectors designed to cut off power to the
motor and protect it from damaging current surges. If these are fine, work backwards from the motor to
find the point where power is lost.
If the correct voltage is found at the motor terminals, it may be time to dis-assemble and inspect the
motor. If the stator windings are damaged, contact the manufacturer to be repaired and rewound.
2. Stoppage

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Sometimes an electric motor will operate normally and suddenly experience a stoppage. This is usually
caused by an overload where a safety protection device such as a fuse or overload protector is tripped to
prevent high currents from damaging the motor windings.
It is important to figure out what caused the safety protection to trip. Review operation and ensure the
load is free and is not encountering intermittent resistance. In some cases, overload can happen
intermittently. Overload will not always trip the safety protections, which could create damaging current
surges and heat spikes that reduce the motor's service life.
If the motor safety protections do not trip, move on to the steps laid out in the previous section to check
the motor circuit, power supply and eventually the motor itself.
3. Failure to Reach Speed
If the motor starts but does not reach up to speed, check whether it can deliver the power required by
the load. A motor that’s too small for the job will struggle to perform and may experience damaging
current levels and overheating. Also, check for damaged bearings, which are usually accompanied by
increased noise and vibration. This can cause resistance that prevents the motor from reaching its full
operating speed.
Is your bearing damaged? Shop our bearings.
If you already know you have the right motor for the job, check the voltage at the motor terminals during
operation. Poor connections and faulty fuses, switches and relays can cause voltage drops that only
appear when the motor is drawing full power.
Check the length of power cables – long cable runs can create small electrical resistances that
significantly impact the upper end of motor performance.
4. Overheating
Overheating can quickly degrade the motor’s internal components and reduce its service life. The motor
temperature should be checked regularly to ensure it operates within the manufacturer's safe
temperature range. If the motor is too hot, the root cause may be the way it is operated, its cooling
system, or a combination of both.
When an electric motor starts, it typically experiences a surge of current during acceleration that builds
heat inside the motor. This heat may dissipate quickly once the motor has reached its normal speed.
However, if the motor is stopped and started frequently, the heat may not have time to dissipate and will
continue to build up. In this case, it is recommended to use either a soft starter or a speed controller such
as a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to gradually accelerate the motor and prevent current surges from
happening.
Shop our VFDs.

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If the load changes continuously and is highly variable during operation, current surges can occur as the
motor is forced to draw sudden bursts of power to overcome the resistance. This quickly builds up
damaging levels of heat inside the motor. It may be necessary to review the motor's suitability for the
application and consider using a larger motor or one with a better cooling system.
A motor with a shaft-mounted fan is risky to operate at low speeds because the cooling system is less
effective as speed is reduced. In this case, it may be necessary to switch to a motor with a separate
blower that provides maximum cooling regardless of speed.
Finally, check that the motor cooling is working properly. Clear air intake vents and ensure the fan is
clean and is capable of moving air through the motor.
5. Vibration and Noise
Excessive or unusual vibration and noise are signs that something is wrong. Begin by removing the load
and running the motor freely. If the vibration and noise continue, check the motor bearings for damage,
misalignment and excessive play. Replace or realign the parts if necessary. If the problem persists, the
motor may have come out of balance, and it will require rebalancing.
If the problem only occurs with the load attached, ensure the motor is properly mounted and the
mounting bolts are tight. The motor should align with the load, and the coupling should be secured.
Lastly, check whether the load is balanced and secure.
Another possible cause of vibration is the loss of one phase of power, accompanied by reduced power
output from the motor. Check that sufficient power is available for each phase of the motor.
Summary
These tips should give you the knowledge to undertake basic electric motor troubleshooting, enabling
you to quickly move from diagnosis to solution and get your operation back online

Electric Motor Bearing Greasing and Lubrication

Rolling-element bearings used in electric motors are at risk for various modes of failure if an incorrect
maintenance or lubrication strategy is implemented. These include incorrect lubricant selection,
contamination, and loss of lubricant and over greasing. This article discusses several effective strategies
to minimize the likelihood of these failure modes.
Most electric motors are designed with grease-lubricated, antifriction, rolling-element bearings. Grease is
the lifeblood of these bearings because it provides an oil film that prevents the harsh metal-to-metal
contact between the rotating element and races. Bearing troubles account for 50 to 65 percent of all
electric motor failures, and poor lubrication practices account for most of these bearing troubles. Proper
maintenance procedures, planning and the use of the correct lubricant can increase productivity by
reducing these bearing troubles and motor failures.

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Failures
Get to know the failures. By knowing the failure modes, focus can be placed on reducing or even
eliminating them.
Incorrect Lubricant - It is important to use the correct grease for specific applications. Re greasing with
the wrong grease can lead to premature bearing failure. Most oil suppliers have grease that is specifically
designed for electric motors, which is different from their multipurpose extreme purpose (EP) grease.
Grease Incompatibility - Greases are made with different thickeners, such as lithium, calcium or polyuria.
Unfortunately, not all greases are compatible with each other, even those with the same thickener type.
Therefore it is important to use the same grease or compatible substitute throughout the life of the
bearing.
Motor Casing Full of Grease - If the grease cavity is overfilled, and high pressure from the grease gun is
applied, the excess grease can find its way between the shaft and the inner bearing cap and press into
the inside of the motor. This allows the grease to cover the end windings of the insulation system and
can cause both winding insulation and bearing failures.
Lubricant Starvation - There are several possible causes of lubrication starvation. The first is insufficient
grease being added during installation. The second is inappropriate, elongated re lubrication intervals.

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The third involves the possibility that the oil has separated from the thickener base due to excessive
heat.
Over pressurization of the Bearing Housing - Anytime there is an over pressurization of the bearing
housing, stresses are placed on parts that were not designed to handle the pressure. Keep in mind that
the standard manual grease gun can produce pressures up to 15,000 psi.
Overheating Due to Excess Grease -Too much volume will cause the rotating bearing elements to churn
the grease, trying to push it out of the way. This results in parasitic energy losses and high operating
temperatures, and increases the risk of oil separation and bearing failure.
Getting Started
To begin, a plan must first be in place. The following suggestions are the bare minimum that need to be
discussed and implemented to get the program started.
1. Make an equipment list that includes all the assets needed in the program.
2. Verify the type of bearings and their seals that are installed in both the inboard and outboard
ends of motors. This will determine if the bearings are re Greasable. A policy should also be
determined for the re greasing of shielded bearings, commonly found in motors. (Some experts
recommend not greasing double-shielded bearings.)
3. Choose a grease type that will be adequate for the program. Remember that once a grease type
and manufacturer are chosen, it's best to not deviate from this choice. If this grease is different
from a grease previously used in the bearings, the previous grease will need to be cleaned out or
flushed from the bearings and housings.
4. Make all necessary modifications to the electric motors. This includes adding fittings and making
them accessible.
5. Establish a set of procedures for maintaining the motors.
Develop a PM System
There are many choices to make when deciding on a preventive maintenance (PM) system. In some
plants it may be beneficial to use only a spreadsheet, while others have the need for complete dedicated
systems. The end goal is the same. Each motor needs to be tracked as an asset, accomplished by noting
the attention each motor receives. Some factors to include in the PM system are: date of installation,
horsepower, frame size, rpm, bearing type and environmental conditions. Setting up a system like this
may take some time, but once completed it will be a great tool.
Determining Grease Type
When searching for a lube type and manufacturer or supplier, there are several things to consider. The
following is a list of qualities of a good electric motor grease:

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  Good channeling characteristics
 NLGI Grades 2 to 3
 Base oil viscosity of an ISO VG 100 to 150 or more specifically 90 to 120 cSt at 40°C
 High dropping point, 400°F minimum
 Low oil bleed characteristics, per D1742 or D6184
 Excellent resistance to high-temperature oxidation
 Good low-temperature torque characteristics
 Good antiwear performance (but not EP)
Polyuria grease is popular with many bearing and motor manufacturers. A significant proportion of
equipment manufacturers also specify some type of polyuria grease in their electric-powered machinery.
A polyuria-based grease is an excellent grease for electric motors; however, this thickener is incompatible
with most other thickeners. Some manufacturers don't recommend mixing one brand of polyuria with
another. Instruct the motor rebuild shop on what grease to use, and make sure the grease type is
specified on new motor purchase orders.
Determine re grease Time Cycle
There are several methods for determining re grease time cycle. It is important to realize that no single
method will provide a magical answer to a plant's problems. The multiple calculators, tables and charts
available can provide a good starting point. They can be used to determine how to set the cycles. The real
fine tuning, however, must be done by trial and error. The factors that most calculators have in common
are load, operation time, bearing type, temperature, environment and speed. This is where the database
that was built will be beneficial.
Grease Volume Control
Grease volume control has been a long-standing problem for industry, and simply following OEM
recommendations may not be enough to solve this problem. There is a simple equation that takes a
logical approach to determining the volume of grease to be added. The formula is:
G = 0.114 x D x B
Where G = the amount of grease in ounces, D = the bearing outside diameter in inches and B = the
bearing width in inches.
Once the volume is found, it must be converted into shots, or pumps of the grease gun. There is one way
to obtain the value used to convert the number; for this the user will need the grease gun to be used and
a postal scale. After finding the output per full stroke of the handle, label the gun so that it is now
"calibrated". The average value is approximately 18 shots per ounce for most manual guns but grease

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gun output can vary by a factor of 10, so be sure to calibrate each gun. Noria's online grease
calculator can assist.
The Use of Feedback Instruments
Feedback from the lubrication points is needed to verify that the proper frequency and volume has been
chosen. Ultrasonic instrumentation might be the best tool available to dial in the optimum re lubrication
frequency. A conservative approach is to use a frequency generation method as a starting point, and
continuously refine that value based on feedback from the ultrasonic equipment. Likewise with volume,
ultrasonic can be used to hone in on the correct amount of grease by using the hybrid method. Ultrasonic
will be fully discussed in a later issue of ML because it is somewhat of an art form and warrants a
separate article on this subject.
Electric Motor Bearing Lubrication Procedure
The intent of a good maintenance program is to extend the service life of a motor. In most cases,
improper electric motor lubrication procedures can have a negative impact on the program. A basic set of
procedures should include some variation of the following:
1. Ensure the grease gun contains the appropriate lubricant.
2. Clean the areas around the relief and fill fittings.
3. Remove the grease relief valve or drain plug.
4. Grease the bearing with a calculated amount of grease. Slowly add grease to minimize excessive
pressure buildup in the grease cavity.
5. Watch for grease coming out the relief port. If excessive amounts of grease are pumped into the
motor and the old, used grease is not being purged, stop and check for hardened grease blocking
the relief passage.
6. If re greasing is performed with the motor out of service, run the motor until bearing temperature
increases to operating temperature to allow for thermal expansion of the grease. Ensure the relief
valve or drain plug is left out during this process.
7. Allow the motor to run at this temperature for a short time to expel any excess grease before
installing the bottom grease relief valves.
8. After excessive grease has been purged, reinstall the drain plug and clean excessive grease from
the relief port area.
This article was written to inform the reader of some of the thought processes that go into the creation
of a electric motor lubrication program. Remember to take your time and do it right the first time. The
rewards are worth the effort.

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MOTOR REWINDING 1

In this intractable we will show you, how to rewind and renew old three phase electric motor
In this intractable, we’re going to make step forward. In next steps we will show you how to analyze
motors winding, disassemble motor, remove bearings, calculate new winding, rewind motor, reassemble
it with new bearings and test motor. Rewinding is very long process. It took about two days to rewind it,
replace all old parts and reassemble it.
Step 1: Analyze Motor

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Three phase asynchronous [induction] motor is most common used motor in the world. It has very good
efficiency and low manufacture and maintain costs. Two main parts of motor are rotor and stator. Rotor
is usually made as squirrel-cage, and it is inserted in stators hole. Stator is made out of iron core and
winding.
Stator is used to generate magnetic field. 3 phases generates rotation magnetic field so we don't need
capacitor on three phase motor. Rotation magnetic field "cut" squirrel-cage, where it induces voltage.
Because cage is short-circuited, voltage generates flow of electric current. Current in magnetic field
generates force.
Because magnetic field must rotate faster than rotor to induce voltage in rotor. That's why motor speed
is a little bit less then magnetic field speed ((3000 rpm [Magnetic field] -- 2810 rpm [Electric motor])).
That's why we call them three phase ASYNCHRONOUS electric motor.
Step 2: Analyze Motor

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Motors Inscription board
On the motors inscription board we can find most useful information about motor:
 Motors nominal voltage (for star (Y) and triangle (D) motor connection) [V]
 Motors nominal current (for star (Y) and triangle (D) motor connection) [A]
 Power of the electric motor [W]
 Power factor cosFi
 Rotation speed [rpm]
 Nominal frequency [Hz]
Step 3: Analyze Winding

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Open the cover of conduit box.
Before measuring remove all connections in conduction box. Measure resistance for each winding,
resistance between two different winding and resistance between winding and motors frame.
Resistances of three winding should be same (+/- 5%). Resistance between two winding and winding -
frame should be more than 1.5 Mega ohm.
You can detect burned motors winding by unique smell (smells like burned lacquer).
Step 4: Disassembling Motor
Take few picture of motor. Mark spots between first cover and stator and second cower and stator (we
will need this marked points at motors assemble).
Remove covers from motor. Usually they are attached on stator by long screws. If you can’t separate
cover and stator you can use rubber hammer. Gently hit cover and try to rotate it.
Step 5: Disassembling Motor
Remove rotor from stator. You can gently hit rotors axis with rubber hammer.
Step 6: Disassembling Motor
Remove ventilator from rotors axis. We had metal ventilator so we heated it up. We separated it very
easily from axis.
Remove clamp, and safety ring if you have one. Then remove second cover.
Step 7: Removal of Bearings
Use puller to remove bearings on both sides. You must be careful because you can easily damage the axis
of rotor.
Step 8: Removal of Old Winding

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First you need to cut old winding from stator. For this job use hammer and chisels. Try not to damage
stators lamellas.
Do same on both sides of stator.
Step 9: Removal of Old Winding
Remove connections and conduit box from stator. In next step you will need to heat up old coils, and
conduit box must be empty.
Step 10: Removal of Old Winding
Heat up winding with flame torch to burn out the rest of lacquer.
If you burned old lacquer you should be able to push remain winding out of stators gaps.
Step 11: Sandblasting
Sandblasting is process where sand hits surface of work piece with very high speed and slightly damage
it.
You can easily remove old color form motor with sandblasting. While sandblasting you need to be
careful, that you don't damage surface too much, especially edges of cowers.
Step 12: Paint Motor

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The color must withstand at least 100 degrees Celsius. Make sure you don't paint inscription board
Step 13: Identification of Old Winding

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You can find all information about type of old winding in "winding head". Winding head is part of
winding where all connections are made.
By the winding head (Type of winding), number of wires in each gap and thickness of the wire you can
rewind new motors winding without doing calculations in next step.
Step 14: Calculation of Parameters for New Winding

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New winding of motor depends of stators package (dimensions of iron core). For better presentation we
made 3D model of my stators package.
You need to measure following things:
 Length of stators package: lp= 87mm;
 External diameter of stators package: Dv= 128mm;
 Inner diameter of stators package: D= 75.5mm;
 Number of stators gaps: Z= 24;
Step 15: Calculation of Parameters for New Winding

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Now measure dimensions of stators slot.
 Width of stators slot: b1= 6.621mm; b2= 8,5mm;
 Height of stators slot: hu= 13.267mm;
 Opening of stators slot: b0= 2mm;
 Height of slots "neck": a1= 0.641mm;
 Tooth width: bz= 3.981mm;
Step 16: Calculation of Parameters for New Winding

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If you have other shape of slot you look at upper picture.
Step 17: Calculate Number of Pole Pairs

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Number of pole pairs depends on nominal frequencies and rotation speed of magnetic field. You can get
rotation speed of magnetic field by rounding motors speed (2810) to closest value (3000, 1500, 1000,
750...).
Step 18: Calculate Number of Pole Pairs

this motor has 2 pole pairs and it generates magnetic field as you can see on upper picture.
Step 19: Calculate Pole Step

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Pole step is distance on inner circle of stator, and it marks size of each pole.
Step 20: Calculate Pole Surface

Pole surface is marked red on picture two. One pole surface is exactly half surface of stator that’s
because we have 2 pole motor.
Step 21: Calculate Pole Surface

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Because iron core of stator is not made out of pure iron we need to calculate real package length. You get
iron filling factor from upper table. It depends on type of isolation.
Step 22: Calculation of the Tooth Length

Step 23: Calculation of the Height of the Yoke of the Stator

Stators yoke is part of stators package which extends from stators tooth to end of package.
Step 24: Calculation of the Yoke Cross Section

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Step 25: Calculation of the Cross Section of Teeth of One Pole

Step 26: Calculation of the Slot Surface

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Step 27: Choosing the Type of Winding

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Step 28: Calculation Number of Slots Per Pole and Phase

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Step 29: Calculation of Pole Step (in Slots)

Step 30: Winding Factor

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There is a table in upper picture. You cant pick up winding factor from table if you have one layer
winding.
Step 31: Induction in the Air Gap

Select appropriate value of induction in air gap from table. It depends on number of pole pairs. If motor
is older chose column I, else chose value from column II.

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Step 32: Calculation of the Induction in the Teeth of the Stator

Step 33: Calculation of the Induction in the Stator Yoke

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Step 34: Calculation of the Magnetic Flux of One Pair of Poles

Step 35: Calculation of the Number of Turns in the Phase

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Step 36: Calculation of Calculation Number of Turns in Slot

Step 37: Determine the Filling Factor

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To get right filing factor you need to have surface of your slot. Then you easily write down filling factor
from upper graph. Filling factor must be between upper and bottom recommended line.
Step 38: Calculation of Cross Section of the Wire

Step 39: Calculation of Thickness of Wire

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According to the result you pick a wire which is in +/-2% range of result. I picked 0,8mm wire.
Step 40: Winding Diagram

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Second picture is showing the magnetic field generated by stators winding. O and X are showing direction
of electric current. Current which is flows inside picture has clockwise direction of magnetic field. If
would had 4 pole motor we would have 4 areas instead of 2 areas of magnetic field.
Step 41: Isolating Stators Slots
Measure length of slot, and add about 16mm (depends of how you will twist paper). Cut it and twist it as
I have done on gifs. Put isolate paper on table, and place ruler on it, so you get about 4mm gap in which
you will insert isolate paper and then twist it. Use screwdriver to bend it and insert it in gap. It should fit
perfectly so you can’t pull it out.
Step 42: Measure Length of Coils

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Make model of coil. Place model in right slots, leaving some free space. You must not leave too much
space, because winding would be too bit, and you must not make it too small, because you will not be
able access to all slots.
Step 43: Winding Coils
Place model in special tool. Free 3d model of winding tools are available on "Rewinding one phase
motor" intractable. Make sure you wind correct number of turns. After you wind coil you need to tie it up
with piece of wire. Then you can take it of winding tool.
Step 44: Inserting Coils in Stators Slots
Careful place coils in stators slots. This can take a long time to do. Be gently so you don't damage wires
lacquer. Rotate coils so their end wires will come out on the side, where is the hole from stator to
electrical clips. You can use wooden stick to put winding in slots.
Mark ends of coils!
Step 45: Connecting Coils

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Wire coils together according to winding diagram. Solder and isolate them. End of each coil wire to
conduit box and extra isolate them.
Step 46: Bind the Coils
Bind the coils with the stator lacing thread. Sew stator lancing thread around coils, as you can see on
pictures. Tight winding well.
Step 47: Varnishing the Motor
1. Heat up cooking oven to 100 °C. Put motor in it.
2. When motor heats up, spills lacquer on motors coils as you see on pictures
3. Turn motor around and do the same
4. You can reuse old lacquer.
5. Put motor in hot oven, and cook it for about 4 hours
6. Take motor out and clean edge (so cover will fit perfectly).
DON'T DO IT INSIDE BUILDING OR KITCHEN!

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Step 48: Reassemble Motor
Attach new bearings. Lubricate axis of rotor. You find type of bearing on side of bearing. If you can’t find
it, you can measure it and find number in catalogue on internet.
Step 49: Reassemble Motor
Attach cover on stator. Watch marks to put it into right place.
Step 50: Reassemble Motor
Put rotor in stator, and close it with second cover. Screw motor together.
Step 51: Reassemble Motor

Connect end of coils to clips, according to picture from analyze motor.

Step 52: Reassemble Motor
Put ventilator and last cover on motor. If you have iron ventilator heat it.
Step 53: Measurement

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 Next
things:
 Resistance of winding
 Free running test of an electric motor
 Test of the loaded electric motor
 Optimal voltage test
 Short circuit test
 Torque characteristic

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MOTOR REWINDING 11
c

 Table of Contents
 Introduction
 Safety Precautions
 Tools and Materials Needed
 Step 1: Disconnect the Power
 Step 2: Remove the Motor Housing
 Step 3: Accessing the Windings
 Step 4: Identify and Document Wiring Connections
 Step 5: Remove the Windings

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 Step 6: Inspect and Clean the Windings
 Step 7: Rewind the Motor
 Step 8: Reinstall the Windings
 Step 9: Reassemble the Motor Housing
 Step 10: Testing the Rewound Motor
 Conclusion
 Introduction
 Electric motors play a crucial role in various industries, powering everything from household
appliances to heavy machinery. Over time, these motors may experience wear and tear, resulting
in decreased efficiency or even failure. One solution to this problem is rewinding the motor, a
process that involves replacing the worn-out copper windings.
 Rewinding an electric motor can be a cost-effective way to prolong its lifespan and restore its
performance. While it may seem like a daunting task, with the right tools, materials, and
knowledge, you can successfully rewind an electric motor. In this article, we will guide you
through the step-by-step process of rewinding an electric motor, ensuring that you approach the
task with confidence and achieve the desired results.
 Before we dive into the details, it is important to note that rewinding an electric motor requires
both technical expertise and attention to safety. If you are not familiar with electrical systems or
lack experience in motor repair, it is highly recommended to seek the assistance of a professional.
Safety should always be the top priority when working with electricity and mechanical
components.
 Now that we have addressed the precautions, let’s explore the tools and materials you will need
for the motor rewinding process.
 Safety Precautions
 Before beginning any work on an electric motor, it is crucial to prioritize safety to prevent
accidents and injuries. Here are some essential safety precautions to follow when rewinding an
electric motor:
 Disconnect the Power: Before starting the rewinding process, always disconnect the power supply
to the motor. This can be done by shutting off the circuit breaker or unplugging the motor from
the power source. Never work on a motor that is still connected to electricity to avoid electrical
shock.

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 Wear Protective Gear: To protect yourself from potential hazards, wear appropriate protective
gear such as safety goggles, gloves, and a dust mask. This will shield your eyes, hands, and
respiratory system from debris, solvents, and fumes.
 Work in a Well-Ventilated Area: Ensure that you are working in a well-ventilated space to
minimize the inhalation of any fumes emitted by solvents or cleaning agents. Open windows or
use fans to improve air circulation.
 Use Insulated Tools: When handling electrical components, use insulated tools to reduce the risk
of electrical shock. Insulated tools have handles made from non-conductive materials, providing
an extra layer of protection.
 Beware of Sharp Edges: Throughout the rewinding process, be cautious of any sharp edges or
protruding components that could cause injury. Use caution when removing the motor housing or
working with any metal parts.
 Keep the Work Area Clean: Maintain a tidy workspace by removing any unnecessary objects or
debris. This will minimize the risk of tripping or falling and ensure that you have ample space to
work safely.
 Work with a Partner: If possible, it is advisable to have someone else present while rewinding the
motor. They can assist you when needed and provide an extra set of eyes for safety checks.
 Follow Manufacturer Guidelines: Refer to the manufacturer’s guidelines and instructions for your
specific motor model. Each motor may have unique specifications and precautions that need to be
followed.
 Seek Professional Help: If you are unsure about any step of the rewinding process or lack
experience in motor repair, it is always best to consult a professional. They have the expertise and
knowledge to handle the task safely and effectively.
 By adhering to these safety precautions, you can minimize the risk of accidents and ensure a safe
working environment while rewinding an electric motor. Remember, safety should always be a
top priority throughout the entire process.
 Tools and Materials Needed
 Before you begin rewinding an electric motor, it is essential to gather the necessary tools and
materials. Having everything prepared in advance will streamline the process and ensure that you
have everything you need. Here is a list of the tools and materials you will need for the motor
rewinding process:
 Tools:
 Screwdrivers: A set of screwdrivers with different sizes and types, including flathead and Phillips
screwdrivers, for removing screws and accessing the motor components.

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 Pliers: Both regular and needle-nose pliers will come in handy for gripping and manipulating small
parts during the rewinding process.
 Wire Strippers: To remove the insulation from the existing windings, you will need a wire stripper
tool designed to cut and strip wires.
 Multimeter: A Multimeter is important for measuring voltages, resistances, and continuity. It will
help you diagnose any issues with the motor windings.
 Insulation Tape: Insulation tape is used to securely wrap and insulate the rewound windings,
preventing any short circuits or electrical malfunctions.
 Measuring Tape or Calipers: Accurate measurements are crucial when rewinding a motor. A
measuring tape or calipers will allow you to determine the correct length and diameter of wire
needed for the new windings.
 Brushes: Small brushes, such as toothbrushes or paintbrushes, are useful for cleaning the motor
components and removing dust or debris.
 Soldering Iron: A soldering iron and solder wire are necessary for soldering connections between
wires and terminals.
 Heat Gun or Hair Dryer: A heat gun or hair dryer can be used to soften the insulation on the
existing windings, making them easier to remove.
 Materials:
 Copper Wire: You will need copper wire of the appropriate gauge and length to create the new
windings. Ensure that you select wire suitable for motor rewinding.
 Electrical Insulation Varnish: Insulation varnish is used to coat the rewound windings, providing an
extra layer of protection against moisture and electrical shorts.
 Insulation Sleeving: Insulation sleeving is used to insulate individual wires and prevent them from
touching each other. This helps maintain the integrity of the windings and prevents electrical
shorts.
 Cleaning Solvent: A cleaning solvent, such as isopropyl alcohol, can be used to clean the motor
components and remove any dirt or grime.
 Replacement Bearings: If the motor bearings are worn out or damaged, you may need to replace
them during the rewinding process. Make sure to have the appropriate replacement bearings on
hand.
 Replacement Motor Capacitor: In some cases, the motor capacitor may also need to be replaced.
Consult the manufacturer’s specifications to determine the correct replacement capacitor.

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 Having these tools and materials ready before you begin rewinding the electric motor will ensure
a smooth and efficient process. It is important to gather everything you need in advance to avoid
delays or interruptions during the rewinding process.

 Step 1: Disconnect the Power

 The first step before undertaking any work on an electric motor is to ensure that the power supply
is completely disconnected. This is crucial for your safety and to prevent any electrical accidents
or damage to the motor.
 To disconnect the power, follow these steps:
 Locate the power source: Identify the power source that supplies electricity to the motor. This
could be a circuit breaker, a switch, or an outlet.
 Turn off the power supply: Once you have located the power source, switch it off or shut off the
circuit breaker that supplies power to the motor. This will ensure that no electricity is flowing to
the motor during the rewinding process.
 Double-check for power: To be absolutely certain that the power is disconnected, use a voltage
tester or a Multimeter to verify that there is no voltage or current present at the motor’s
terminals.
 Lockout and tag out: To further ensure your safety and prevent accidental power restoration, use
a lockout/tag out device to lock the switch or circuit breaker in the off position. This will prevent
anyone from inadvertently turning the power back on while you are working on the motor.
 By following these steps to disconnect the power, you can be confident that the motor is
completely de-energized and safe to work on. Remember, working on an electric motor that is still
connected to power can be extremely dangerous and may result in severe electrical shock or
damage to the motor.
 Once you have confirmed that the power is disconnected, you can proceed to the next step of the
motor rewinding process with peace of mind.

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 Step 2: Remove the Motor Housing

 Once you have ensured that the power supply is disconnected, you can proceed to remove the
motor housing. Removing the motor housing will provide access to the internal components of
the motor, including the windings.
 Follow these steps to remove the motor housing:
 Inspect the motor housing: Before removing the housing, visually inspect it for any signs of
damage or loose screws. If you notice any issues, take note of them for later inspection or repair.
 Locate and remove the screws: Most motor housings are held together with screws. Use a suitable
screwdriver to remove the screws and set them aside in a safe place. Take note of the position
and order of the screws, as they may be different lengths or have different threading.
 Gently pry open the housing: Once the screws are removed, gently pry open the motor housing
using a flathead screwdriver or a plastic pry tool. Take care not to use excessive force to prevent
damaging the housing or internal components.
 Inspect the housing interior: With the motor housing open, visually inspect the internal
components, including the windings, bearings, and other mechanical parts. Look for any signs of
damage, wear, or loose connections.
 Secure the removed screws: As you remove the motor housing screws, it is a good practice to
secure them in a tray or container. This will prevent them from being misplaced and ensure they
are readily available when you need to reassemble the motor later.
 Removing the motor housing allows you to have a clear view of the motor’s internal components.
This step also facilitates the inspection and assessment of any potential issues that may require
further attention during the rewinding process.
 Remember to handle the motor housing with care to avoid causing damage to the housing or
other sensitive parts of the motor. With the housing removed, you are now ready to move on to
the next step in rewinding the electric motor.

 Step 3: Accessing the Windings

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 Once you have removed the motor housing, it’s time to access the windings of the electric motor.
The windings are the coiled wires responsible for generating the magnetic field that drives the
motor’s rotation. To access them, follow these steps:
 Identify the windings: Take a close look at the interior of the motor, paying attention to the wire
bundles that form the windings. The windings are typically located near the stator or armature of
the motor.
 Remove any retaining clips or brackets: Some motors may have retaining clips or brackets that
secure the windings in place. If present, carefully remove these clips or brackets using pliers or a
screwdriver. Take note of their positions for reassembly later.
 Detach any terminal connectors: The windings are usually connected to terminal connectors that
provide electrical connections. Use pliers or a screwdriver (depending on the type of connectors)
to disconnect the wires from the terminals. Alternatively, take a photo or make a diagram to
document the connections for reference.
 Inspect the windings: Once the windings are accessible, inspect them for any signs of damage or
wear. Look for broken or frayed wires, burnt insulation, or any other visible issues. If you notice
any problems, take note of them for repair or replacement.
 Label the windings: To ensure that you can reassemble the motor correctly, it’s helpful to label
each set of windings. Use labels or markers to indicate the start and end of each winding, as well
as any specific details or special considerations.
 Accessing the windings is a crucial step in the rewinding process as it allows for visual inspection
and identification of any issues. Remember to exercise caution when handling the windings to
avoid damaging them or causing further harm to the motor.
 With the windings now accessible, you’re ready to move on to the next step: identifying and
documenting the wiring connections.

 Step 4: Identify and Document Wiring Connections

 After accessing the windings of the electric motor, the next step in the rewinding process is to
identify and document the wiring connections. This will ensure that you can reassemble the

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 motor correctly and maintain the proper electrical connections. Follow these steps to accurately
identify and document the wiring connections:
 Inspect the wiring connections: Take a close look at how the wires are connected to the terminals
or connectors. Observe the color-coded wires and their positions in relation to the terminals.
 Make a diagram or take photos: To document the wiring connections, create a diagram or take
clear photos of the existing connections. Label the terminals and corresponding wires for easy
reference during reassembly.
 Note any special configurations: Some motors may have unique wiring configurations, such as
multiple speed settings or specific winding arrangements. Make sure to note any special
configurations or details that are relevant to your motor.
 Disconnect the wires: Once you have documented the wiring connections, carefully disconnect the
wires from the terminals or connectors. Take note of any specific instructions or precautions
required for each wire.
 Organize and label the wires: To avoid confusion, organize the disconnected wires and label them
according to your documentation. This will help you identify which wires correspond to specific
terminals or connectors later on.
 Properly identifying and documenting the wiring connections is crucial for a successful motor
rewinding process. It ensures that you can reassemble the motor accurately and maintain the
electrical integrity of the windings. Take your time during this step to ensure accuracy and clarity
in your documentation.
 With the wiring connections identified and documented, you are now ready to proceed to the
next step: removing the windings from the motor.

 Step 5: Remove the Windings

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 With the wiring connections identified and documented, it’s time to remove the old windings
from the electric motor. Removing the windings allows you to make way for new, properly
rewound windings. Follow these steps to remove the windings:
 Inspect the windings: Before removing them, carefully inspect the windings for any signs of
damage or wear. Look for broken wires, damaged insulation, or any other issues that may require
repair or replacement.
 Loosen the windings: Depending on the motor design, you may need to loosen the windings by
gently prying them loose with a screwdriver or using specialized winding removal tools.
 Remove the windings: Once the windings are loosened, carefully pull them out from the motor
core. Take care not to damage any other components, and pay attention to the order in which the
windings are removed. Keep them organized to maintain clarity during reassembly.
 Clean the motor core: After removing the old windings, take the opportunity to clean the motor
core. Use a soft-bristle brush or a cloth to remove any debris, dust, or old insulation residue. A
cleaning solvent may be used, but make sure it is appropriate for electrical components and has
completely dried before proceeding.

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 Inspect other components: While the windings are removed, inspect other components such as
the rotor, stator, and bearings for any signs of damage, wear, or malfunction. Replace or repair
any necessary parts.
 Removing the windings can be a delicate process, so take your time and handle the windings with
care. Keep track of the order and arrangement of the windings to ensure proper reinstallation.
 With the windings successfully removed, you are ready to move on to the next step: inspecting
and cleaning the windings before rewinding the motor.
 Step 6: Inspect and Clean the Windings

 After removing the old windings from the electric motor, it’s essential to inspect and clean them
before proceeding with the rewinding process. This step ensures that the new windings will be
installed on a clean and well-prepared surface. Follow these steps to inspect and clean the
windings:
 Inspect the windings: Carefully examine the removed windings for any signs of damage, such as
broken wires, burnt or frayed insulation, or loose connections. Make note of any areas that
require repair or replacement.

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 Clean the windings: Use a soft brush or compressed air to remove dust, dirt, and other debris from
the windings. Be gentle to avoid causing further damage. If there are stubborn stains or residue,
you can use a cleaning solvent suitable for electrical components. Ensure that the windings are
completely dry before continuing.
 Check for continuity: Using a Multimeter set to the continuity mode, test the continuity of each
winding. If there are any breaks or interruptions in the flow of electrical current, you may need to
repair or replace the affected section of the winding.
 Repair or replace damaged windings: If you encounter any damaged windings during inspection,
take the necessary steps to repair or replace them. Repair options may include soldering broken
wires, reapplying insulation, or splicing new wire sections. If significant damage is present, it may
be more practical to replace the entire winding.
 By inspecting and cleaning the windings, you ensure that the rewound motor will operate
optimally and avoid any potential issues caused by damaged or dirty components. Additionally,
evaluating the windings during this phase allows you to address any necessary repairs or
replacements before proceeding.
 With the windings inspected, cleaned, and, if needed, repaired or replaced, you can now proceed
to the next step: rewinding the motor with new copper wire.

 Step 7: Rewind the Motor windings

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 Now that the windings have been inspected, cleaned, and prepared, it’s time to begin the
rewinding process. Rewinding the motor involves replacing the old windings with new copper
wire to restore its electrical functionality. Follow these steps to rewind the motor:
 Select the appropriate copper wire: Choose a copper wire with the correct gauge and length for
the motor’s specifications. Refer to the manufacturer’s guidelines or consult an electric motor
specialist for the appropriate wire size.
 Secure the wire end: Start by securing one end of the copper wire to the designated starting point
of the motor core. This point is usually marked or indicated in the motor’s documentation or
schematic.
 Begin winding the wire: Carefully wind the copper wire around the motor core, following the
original winding pattern as closely as possible. Use gentle and even tension to ensure proper
alignment and spacing between the wire turns.
 Maintain insulation separation: As you wind the copper wire, make sure to maintain insulation
separation between adjacent wires. This can be achieved by using insulation tape or insulating
sleeves on individual wires to prevent contact and potential short circuits.
 Continue winding until completed: Repeat the winding process until you have completely covered
the motor core and all the designated winding areas. Take care to maintain consistent and even
winding throughout the process.
 Secure the wire end: Once you have finished winding the copper wire, secure the other end to the
motor core, ensuring it is tightly held in place. Use appropriate insulating materials, such as
insulation tape or insulation varnish, to secure and protect the wire connections.
 Precision, attention to detail, and patience are crucial during the rewinding process to ensure the
new windings are properly installed. Take your time and refer to any diagrams or documentation
you have created during the earlier steps to ensure accurate placement and alignment of the
copper wire.
 With the motor successfully rewound, you are ready to move on to the next step: reinstalling the
windings into the motor.

 Step 8: Reinstall the Windings

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 With the motor successfully rewound, it’s time to reinstall the newly wound windings back into
the motor. This step involves carefully placing the windings in their proper positions and
reconnecting them to the motor terminals. Follow these steps to reinstall the windings:
 Refer to your documentation: Review the diagrams or photos you created earlier to ensure the
correct placement of the windings. Pay attention to any specific instructions or notes you made
during the removal process.
 Position the windings: Carefully position the rewound windings back into their original locations
within the motor. Ensure that each winding is aligned properly, with the correct orientation and
spacing.
 Reconnect the wiring: Using your documentation as a guide, reconnect the wires of the windings
to their respective terminals or connectors. Double-check that each wire is properly secured and
tightened.

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 Secure the windings: Once the wiring connections are made, fix the windings in place using any
retaining clips or brackets that were previously removed. Ensure that the windings are secure and
properly aligned.
 Throughout the reinstallation process, it is essential to be attentive to detail and ensure that the
windings are reinstated exactly as they were before. Referencing your documentation and taking
your time will help ensure the proper alignment and connection of the windings.
 With the windings successfully reinstalled, you are now ready to proceed to the next step:
reassembling the motor housing.

 Step 9: Reassemble the Motor Housing

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 After the windings have been reinstalled and secured, it’s time to reassemble the motor housing.
This step involves putting the motor housing back together to protect the internal components
and provide stability to the rewound motor. Follow these steps to reassemble the motor housing:
 Retrieve the motor housing components: Gather all the components of the motor housing,
including any screws, clips, or brackets that were removed during the disassembly process.
 Align the motor housing: Carefully position the motor housing to align it with the motor core.
Ensure that any openings or slots in the housing match up with the corresponding features on the
core.
 Secure the motor housing: Begin securing the motor housing by inserting and tightening the
screws in their designated positions. Use the appropriate screwdriver to tighten the screws firmly
but avoid over-tightening, as it may damage the housing or internal components.
 Attach any retaining clips or brackets: If there were any retaining clips or brackets, reattach them
securely to hold the motor housing in place. Refer to your documentation or notes from the
disassembly process to ensure proper placement.
 During the reassembly of the motor housing, it’s important to be mindful of the alignment and
proper tightening of screws or clips. Take care not to damage any components or misalign any
parts of the motor during this step.
 With the motor housing successfully reassembled, you are now ready to proceed to the final step:
testing the rewound motor to ensure its functionality.

 Step 10: Testing the Rewound Motor

 After completing the rewinding and reassembly process, it’s crucial to test the rewound motor to
ensure that it functions properly. Testing the motor will help you determine if the rewinding

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 process was successful and if any further adjustments or repairs are needed. Follow these steps to
test the rewound motor:
 Connect the power: Ensure that the motor is properly connected to a power source. Double-check
that the power supply is switched off before connecting the motor.
 Inspect the terminal connections: Verify that all the wiring connections from the windings to the
motor terminals are secure and tightened. If any connections seem loose or improper, correct
them before proceeding.
 Turn on the power: Switch on the power supply and observe the motor’s initial response. Listen
for any unusual sounds, vibrations, or signs of overheating, which may indicate a problem with
the rewinding process or other motor components.
 Check motor functionality: Test the motor’s functionality by running it at different speeds and
loads, if applicable. Pay attention to any irregularities, such as reduced power, overheating, or
inefficient operation. If any issues arise, investigate further to identify the cause and make any
necessary adjustments or repairs.
 Measure voltage and current: Using a Multimeter or appropriate measuring device, measure the
voltage and current of the motor while it is running. Compare the readings to the motor’s
specifications to ensure that it is operating within the desired range.
 Perform a load test: If applicable, subject the motor to a load test to assess its performance under
normal operating conditions. Monitor the motor’s behavior and measure any changes in voltage,
current, or temperature during the test.
 Monitor for an extended period: Keep an eye on the motor’s performance over an extended
period to ensure its stability and reliability. Look out for any recurring issues or signs of
deterioration.
 By thoroughly testing the rewound motor, you can identify any potential problems, validate the
effectiveness of the rewinding process, and make any necessary adjustments or repairs. This step
ensures that the motor is ready for regular use and minimizes the risk of failure or inefficiency.
 If you notice any issues or abnormalities during the testing process, it is advisable to consult a
professional for further assessment and assistance.
 With the rewound motor successfully tested and functioning properly, you have completed the
entire process of rewinding an electric motor. Congratulations on a job well done!
 Remember to exercise proper maintenance and care for the motor to prolong its lifespan and
optimize its performance in the long run.
 Conclusion

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 Rewinding an electric motor can be a complex but rewarding process. By following the step-by-
step guide outlined in this article, you can successfully rewind an electric motor and restore its
functionality and performance.
 Throughout the rewinding process, it is crucial to prioritize safety and follow the necessary
precautions. Always disconnect the power supply and wear appropriate protective gear to
prevent accidents and injuries. If you lack experience or confidence in motor repair, it is advisable
to seek the assistance of a professional.
 Gathering the necessary tools and materials, such as screwdrivers, pliers, wire strippers, and
copper wire of the appropriate gauge, is essential for a smooth and efficient rewinding process.
 The step-by-step process includes disconnecting the power, removing the motor housing,
accessing the windings, identifying and documenting the wiring connections, removing the
windings, inspecting and cleaning the windings, rewinding the motor with new copper wire,
reinstalling the windings, reassembling the motor housing, and finally, testing the rewound motor
to ensure its functionality.
 Thoroughly inspecting and cleaning the windings, along with accurately identifying the wiring
connections, is crucial for a successful rewinding process. Take your time and document the
process to ensure accurate reassembly later on.
 Once the rewinding process is complete, test the motor’s functionality, measuring voltage and
current, and subjecting it to load tests to ensure optimal performance. Monitor the motor’s
behavior over time to identify and address any recurring issues.
 Remember, if you encounter any difficulties or feel uncertain at any point during the rewinding
process, it is always recommended to consult a professional who specializes in electric motor
repair.
 By successfully rewinding an electric motor, you can extend its lifespan, restore its performance,
and save on the cost of replacement. Embrace the challenge and satisfaction that comes with
mastering this valuable skill.
 With proper care and maintenance, your rewound electric motor will continue to power various
applications and contribute to the smooth functioning of machinery and appliances for years to
come.

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