AB. DESIGNING FOR VARIABLE LOADING Objectives of this Chapter After completing this chapter, the student will be able to: 1. Identify various kinds of variable loading commonly encountered by machine parts, including repeated, reversed, alternating and fluctuating type of loading, 2. Define the concept of fatigue and the standard, test in determining the fatigue or endurance strength or endurance limit ofa material. 3. Recognize the factors that affect the magnitude of the endurance limit orstrength, such as load type, surface condition, size of test specimen, ete, 4. Be familiarized with the common formulas in designing machine members based on fatigue: Soderberg, Goodman, Gerber and the ASME elliptic equations. 5. Apply the common formulas or equations in designing machine members subjected to variable stresses, for indefinite life. 6 Know the effect of stress raisers or stress concentration for machine members under variable loading, 7. Know the adjustments necessary in designing. machine members based ona finite ora limited life Variable Stresses ‘These are stresses due to cyclic loadings. They are characterized with loads that vary between values and are applied for several repetitions or eycles, Failures due to these loads are generally called “fatigue failures”. Aside from the yield and ultimate strength values S, and S,, another material property known as the fatigue strength or endurance strength Sy greatly determines how the machine member responds to these loadings. ‘Types of Variable Loads: 1. Reversed load 2. Repeated load 3. Fluctuating load 4. Alternating load 1. Reversed Load = Variation has equal values but of opposing signs Ge, loads are oppositely directed) Stress (+). Sas o iaxinnum magnitude of stress Fnax | Tmar(t) - Mmax(c) or or Fran 4, Trin”), Maun(©) 7a f F,M,T = axial load, bending moment, ‘ovisting moment on member Sq = mean or average stress 5, = Smet Snin al z Sq = alternating stress Simax = Simin Se z For a reversed load, since Sp, Sm = Oand Sq Sax Reversed load is the worst possible evelic loading of member. 2. Repeated Load = Variation is from zero to a certain maximum, value. It can be purely tensile or purely ‘compressive, i., one direction only Stress (4) (Pure tension) V2, _novof eyes (Pure compression) Fora repeated lod, snc Syn = Oden Sp = Sq = OE3. Fluctuating Load = Variation is between two values that are unequal in magnitude, but of the same directions. It can also be purely tensile or purely compressive. stress (4) a Sa Sin = + Tevet eyles 07 noo eretes Srain = See ‘Stress (—) (Pure compression) = This is like a repeated load, except that Sin # 0 = Thisis the usual load applied to members that are already stressed during the assembly and are further loaded with several repatitions during ‘operation. (c.g. springs, bolts, etc.) Alternating Load = Variation is between two values that are unequal in magnitude and of opposite directions. Stress (+) no,of cycles (Large part tension, small part compression) Stress (+), ee 0 no. of eycles Sm = ffm (Small part censton, large part compression) - This is like a reversed load, but the limits are not ‘equal. Siac # Soin = For any" of the above types, the mean and alternating stresses are always defined as Swnaz + Sie Sim (8s Suchins sion 2S 2023-2004 hasan ny By Note: The algebraic signs (+ oF -) of the stresses are to be ‘observed in the calculation of the mean stress Sw and the alternating stress S,. However, only absolute values of Sw and S,are to be considered when they are used in the design ‘equations fr variable stress analysis Soderberg equation, Goodman equation, Gerber equation, etc. Endurance strength (S,) and endurance limit (S,") Endurance Strength (Sn) This is the highest stress at which a material can be subjected to, for several repetitions until it breaks (e.g, at the rotating beam test or fatigue test) Ex. Sy =20 ksi @ 10° cycles, Endurance Limit (Sn) This is similar fo the endurance strength S, but the specimen did not break aller several repetitions (n > 10° cycles, usually). It is described without an accompanying number of eycles. Ex. ksi Note: = Most ferrous materials have defined values of endurance limit (Sn’) ~ steel, alloy steel, cast iron, et. = Nonferrous materials don’t exhibit ‘endurance Timits — aluminums and ‘copper-based materials, etc. Rotating Beam Test This is a standard test for the endurance strength or ‘endurance limit of a material specimen. Its also generally known as a “fatigue test” ‘Simple Setup coe = Tamanna Test Highlights: ~ Specimen should be ideally mirror-polished = Specimen’s diameter is about 0.25” to 0.3" = Specimen is under bending, applied with a load and thus, its stress is 45= During rotation, bending reverses and the specimen is under completely reversed load. This leads to purely alternating stress, with zero mean sess, The motor stops when the specimen breaks. At rupture, the revolution counter shows the number of cycles elapsed ax ksi @neyeles No.of ees trapre Detorethe motor aed Graph of Endurance Strength Test ~~ XQ Pores oes) on = Ferous Materials Non Ferrous Materials olL___ Sn No ofeeles (10% estes) Graph of Su vs. Suz Specimen is tested with loads having combination of both Sy and S. Defined Points of Failure in Material Testing ‘© Ifthe applied stress has no alteration, Sy (Typical UTM test Sy ~ for ductile materials Sy ~ for brittle materials © If the siress applied is pure alternation with zero ‘mean Stress, Sy, = 0 (Tupical Fatigue test or Rotating Beam test) Sq — for materials under completely reversed load applied for several cycles (A point Of failure when the stress is purely alternating. (Le., Sy = 0) feo ot ttre Ete te teem be sah) Ue steve irae oer te) = 5 s, (Bs diachine Dien 1_2*Som 2073-2004 _nASaEn.ny fy Where PLS = amy point on the line of safe stress Note: ‘Above graph is based on ductile materials (eg., steel) ‘The Soderberg equation is derived from the above graph by similar triangles. 5 Sy 7 as HW Sm Roget ge Goderberg Equation) For shear, the corresponding equation becomes 1 sass > Ft gE Goderverg Equation for Shear) Note: “An equation based on the ultimate strength of the ‘material is similarly derived. This is the Goodman ‘equation, : (Goodman Equation) 1 7 (Goodman Equation for shear) A closer predictor of failure (as described by newer textbooks) is known as the Gerber equation. This considers a parabolic curve (Gerber curve) unlike the Soderberg and Goodman equations which are straight lines. (Gerber Equation) Sn I factor of safety is included, the Gerber equation becomes N/ OW Also, modification (using shear properties) should be used for shear stresses. Where N= factor ofsafety, 1. to 2.0. (This is not ‘equal to the Factors of safety used in the previous consideration (Table 1.1) Sw = mean oraverage stress S. = allemating stress 46S, = yield strength of material Sy Sov Sy Sw = shear properties For steels: Sy, = 0465, for torsion (see AT 7) 5), = 055, for ordinary shear Sy, = 0.755, ‘+ refer to other sources for some updated value or tested properties. If tested values are available, use them Estimations are also available for some ‘materials For steels, S,'0.58, (for wrought steels with BH < 400) For other materials, sce p. 109-110 of DME Faires, Also, some estimates are specified in the tables for material properties Net or Corrected Endurance Strength, Se This is the strength value to be substituted into the useful equations (Soderberg, Goodman, Gerber, etc.) Sn = LPS FV Sw FMSn) Toad factor SLE, = size factor SuF.= surface finish factor Sn’ = endurance limit Note: If tested values of Sn’ are not present in tables, use ‘endurance strength values Sn @ n= 10° cycles, ‘The following factors are based on DME by Faires and MED by Shigley. Numerous factors are suggested by other sources. However, only the factors below are consistently used in the succeeding presentations or examples, © Load Factor LF.= 1.0 forbending 8 for axial loading 6 for torsion Factor Si. F.= LO ford < 0.3" Si F.=085 for 0.3" Sy ~ Kypalways ess than Ky” Ky, < Ky Example 6: ‘A shaft with a hardened profile keyway isto be made of steel (Sy = SOksi and Su = 7Oksi) and is to transmit @ torque that varies from zero to 6000 Ib - in. Consider a surface finish factor of © 9 and a Goodman factor of safety of 20. ) Determine the shaft diameter. Design for an indefinite life b) The same as a), except that the shaft is to withstand up to about 250,000 cycles only 3Solution: a) D=?: Indefinite life i. (@ Limited life only of 2.5 x 10° eycles 4