Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.

Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

UNIT-1
Polyphase Induction Motors

 Construction details of cage and wound rotor machines

 Production of a rotating magnetic field
 Principle of operation
 Rotor emf and Rotor frequency
 Rotor reactance, rotor current and Power factor at
standstill and during operation.
 Rotor power input, Rotor copper loss and mechanical
power developed and their interrelation
 Torque equation – expressions for maximum torque and
starting torque
 Torque-Slip & Torque-Speed characteristics
 Equivalent circuit – Phasor diagram
 Summary
 Important concepts and conclusions
 Important formulae and relations
 Illustrative Problems
 Important Questions

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Introduction:

The induction machine is an important class of electric machines which finds wide
application as a motor in industry and in its single-phase form in several domestic
applications. More than 85% of industrial motors in use today are induction
motors. It is substantially a constant-speed motor with a shunt characteristic i.e. a
few per cent speed drop from no-load to full-load. It is a singly fed motor (stator-
fed), unlike the synchronous motor which requires ac supply on the stator side
and dc excitation on the rotor. The torque developed in this motor is due to
current induction) in the rotor (Hence the name Induction Motor) which is
possible only at non-synchronous speed. (Hence it is also asynchronous motor) It
is a singly-fed machine i.e. it draws its input power from the mains to set up the
rotating magnetic field in the air-gap which is essential for its operation and no
external field supply is required.

Induction motor construction:

The stator of an Induction motor is similar to that of a Synchronous machine with

three phases wound on it, but with a different type of rotor construction. A
typical two-pole stator is shown in the figure below.

Fig: The stator of a typical induction motor showing the stator windings

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

The rotor core is of laminated construction with slots suitably punched in for
accommodating the rotor winding/rotor bars. The punched laminations are
stacked and fitted directly onto a shaft in the case of small machines, while in the
case of large machines a stack of annular punchings of a suitable cross-sectional
area are fitted onto a spider web arrangement on the shaft.

There are two types of induction motor rotors which can be placed inside the
stator. One is called a cage rotor, (or a squirrel cage rotor) and the other is called
a wound rotor.

A cage type induction motor rotor consists of a series of conducting bars placed in
the rotor slots carved in the face of the rotor and shorted at either end by large
shorting rings. In large machines alloyed copper bars are driven in the slots and
are brazed onto copper end-rings. Small Rotors usually have a die cast aluminum
bars wherein the end-rings are also cast simultaneously with the same material by
using a suitable mould. This is an economical process and is generally employed in
mass production of small size induction motors.
Figures below show cage type induction motor rotors and the cutaway view of
complete Squirrel Cage Induction Motors.

Figure :(a) Sketch of cage rotor. (b) A typical cage rotor.

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

(a) Cutaway diagram of a typical small cage rotor induction motor

(b) Cutaway diagram of a typical large cage rotor induction motor.

The rotor circuit of a squirrel-cage motor cannot be tampered with and the
machine has a low starting torque, while it has excellent running performance.
Therefore, it cannot be used where a high starting torque is required. The starting
torque of a squirrel-cage motor can be improved by employing either a double
cage rotor or a deep-bar rotor. Such type of construction serves the purpose of a
medium starting torque requirement.

The rotor has a lesser number of slots than the stator and these must be a non
integral multiple of stator slots so as to prevent magnetic locking of rotor and
stator teeth at the time of starting. Further for the same purpose rotor teeth are
skewed (twisted) slightly. The slots in the induction machine are semi-enclosed so

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

as to increase the permeance per pole so that the magnetization current, which is
responsible for less than unity power factor of this motor, is kept within limits.

The other type of rotor is a wound rotor similar to that of the stator except that
the number of slots are lesser and fewer turns per phase of a heavier conductor
are used. A wound rotor has a complete set of three-phase windings placed in the
slots of the rotor core that are similar to the windings on the stator. The three
phases of the rotor windings are usually Y-connected. The ends of the three rotor
windings are brought out and connected to the slip rings on the rotor's shaft. The
slip-rings are tapped by means of copper-carbon brushes which are riding on the
slip rings. Hence motors with such wound rotors are also called as Slip Ring
Induction Motors.
Two wound rotors are shown in figure (a) below, and a complete wound-rotor
induction motor is shown in the figure (b) below.

Fig: Typical wound rotors for induction motors. (Notice the slip rings and the
bars connecting the rotor Windings to the slip rings)

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Fig: Cut away diagram of a wound-rotor induction motor (Notice the brushes
and slip rings. Also notice that the rotor windings are skewed to eliminate slot
harmonics)

Wound- rotor construction is generally employed for large size machines to be

used where the starting torque requirements are stringent. Wound-rotor
induction motors are more expensive than cage induction motors, and they
require higher maintenance because of the wear associated with their brushes
and slip rings. External resistance can be included in the rotor circuit through slip-
rings for reducing the starting current and simultaneously improving the starting
torque.

The connection diagram of a 3-phase slip-ring induction motor with delta-

connected stator and star connected rotor is shown in the figure below. The
rotor winding is connected to slip rings which are shorted through external
resistances at the time of starting. The resistances are cut-out as the motor
attains full speed.

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: 3-phase slip-ring induction motor—connection diagram

Production of a rotating magnetic field:

The torque induced in a loop of wire in an external magnetic field is proportional
to the strength of the loop's magnetic field, the strength of the external magnetic
field, and the sine of the angle between them. This is also true of real ac
machines. In general, the torque in any real machine will depend on four factors:
I. The strength of the rotor magnetic field
2. The strength of the external magnetic field
3. The sine of the angle between them
4. A constant representing the construction of the machine (geometry. etc.)

Hence we can say that if two magnetic fields are present in a machine, then a
torque will be created which will tend to line up the two magnetic fields. If one
magnetic field is produced by the stator of an ac machine and the other one is
produced by the rotor of the machine, then a torque will be induced in the rotor
which will cause the rotor to rotate and align itself with the stator magnetic field.
If there is some way to make the stator magnetic field rotate, then the induced

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

torque in the rotor would cause it to constantly rotate so as to "chase" the stator
magnetic field around in a circle. This, in a nutshell, is the basic principle of all ac
motors’ operation.
The fundamental principle of an ac machine operation is that if a three-phase set
of currents, each of equal magnitude and differing in phase by 1200, flows in a set
of three-phase windings located 1200 (mechanical ) apart around the surface of
the machine, then it will produce a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude.
The rotating magnetic field concept is illustrated in the simplest case by an empty
stator containing just three coiIs, each 1200 apart as shown in figure ‘a’ below.
Since such a winding produces only one north and one south magnetic pole, it is a
two pole winding.

To understand the concept of the rotating magnetic fie ld, we will apply a set of
currents to the stator of Figure below and see what happens at specific instants of
time. Assume that the currents in the three coils are given by the equations

(a) A simple three-phase stator. Currents in this stator are assumed positive if
they flow into the
Unprimed end and out the primed end of the coils. The magnetizing intensities
produced by each coil
are also shown. (b) The magnetizing intensity vector H aa’(t) produced by a
current flowing in coil aa'.

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

iaa'(t) = IMsinωtAmps
ibb'(t) = IMsin(ωt- 120°) Amps
icc' (t) = IMsin(ωt- 240°) Amps

The current in coil aa' flows into the ‘a’ end of the coil and out at the a' end of the
coil. It produces the magnetic field intensity

Haa'(t) = HMsinωt/00A ·turns/ m

where0°is the spatial angle of the magnetic field intensity vector, as shown in the
figure (b) above .The direction of the magnetic fie ld intensity vector Haa’(t)is
given by the right-hand rule: If the fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of
the current flow in the coil, then the resulting magnetic field is in the direction
that the thumb points. Notice that the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity
vector Haa'(t) varies sinusoidally in time, but the direction of Haa'(t) is always
constant.

Similarly, the magnetic field intensity vectors Hbb’(t) and Hcc’(t) are also given by

Hbb'(t) = HM sin (ωt- 120°) /1200 A ·turns/ m

Hcc’(t) = HM sin(ωt- 240°) /2400 A ·turns/ m

The flux densities resulting from these magnetic field intensities given by the basic
relation B = µH are:

Baa'(t) = BM sin ωt/00 Tesla

0
Bbb'(t) = BM sin (ωt- 120°) /120 Tesla
Bcc'(t) = BM sin (ωt- 240°) /2400 Tesla

Where BM = µHM. The currents and their corresponding flux densities can be
examined at specific times to determine the resulting net magnetic field in the
stator.

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

For example, at time ωt = 0°, the magnetic field from coil aa’ will be:
Baa = 0
The magnetic field from coil bb' will be:
Bbb = BM sin (- 120°)/1200
And the magnetic field from coil cc' will be:
Bcc' = BM sin (- 240°)/2400

The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be

Bnet = Baa' + Bbb’+ Bcc’

= 0 + (-√3/2BM) /120°+ (√3/2 BM) /240°
= 1.5 BM/-90°
The resulting net magnetic field is shown in figure (a) below.

(a) The vector magnetic field in a stator at time ωt= 0°. (b) The vector magnetic
field in a stator at Time ωt= 90°.

As another example, let us look at the magnetic field at time ωt= 90°. At that
time, the currents are:

iaa'(t) = IMsin900 Amps

ibb'(t) = IM sin (-30°) Amps
icc' (t) = IMsin(- 150°) Amps

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

and the magnetic fields are

Baa'(t) = BM/00 Tesla

Bbb'(t) = -0.5 BM/1200 Tesla
Bcc'(t) = -0.5 BM/2400 Tesla

The resulting net magnetic fields are:

Bnet = Baa' + Bbb’+ Bcc’

= BM/00+(-0.5BM) /120°+ (-0.5BM) /240°
= 1.5 BM/0°

The resulting magnetic field is shown in the figure (b) above. Notice that although
the direction of the magnetic field has changed, the magnitude is constant. The
magnetic field is maintaining a constant magnitude while rotating in a counter
clockwise direction. This explains the concept of the production of a rotating
magnetic field.

Principle of operation & The Development of Induced Torque in an Induction

Motor:

When current flows in the stator, it will produce a magnetic field in stator such
that Bs(stator magnetic field) will rotate at a speed:
nS = 120.fS/P
Where fs is the system frequency in hertz and P is the number of poles in the
machine. This rotating magnetic field Bs passes over the rotor bars and induces a
voltage in them. The voltage induced in the rotor is given by:
eind = (v x B) l
Where v is the velocity of the Rotor bars relative to the Stator magnetic field
B = magnetic flux density vector
And l = length of the rotor bar in the magnetic field.
Hence there will be rotor current flow which would be lagging due to the fact that
the rotor is Inductive. And this rotor current will produce a magnetic field at the

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

rotor, Br. Hence the Interaction between these two magnetic fields would give
rise to an induced torque: Tind = k.BR X BS
The torque induced would accelerate the rotor and hence the rotor will rotate .
However, there is a finite upper limit to the motor’s speed due to the following
interactive phenomenon:
If the induction motor’s speed increases and reaches synchronous speed then the
rotor bars would be stationary relative to the magnetic field
↓
No induced voltage
↓
No rotor current
↓
No rotor magnetic field
↓
Induced torque = 0
↓
Rotor will slow down due to friction

Conclusion: An induction motor can thus speed up to such a near synchronous

speed where the induced torque is just able to overcome the load torque but it
can never reach synchronous speed.

The Concept of Rotor Slip:

The induced voltage in the rotor bar is dependent upon the relative speed
between the stator Magnetic field and the rotor. This is termed as slip speed and
is given by: nslip = n sync -- n m
Where nslip = slip speed of the machine
nsync = speed of the magnetic field (also motor’s synchronous speed) and
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor.
Apart from this we can describe this relative motion by using the concept of slip
which is the relative speed expressed on a per-unit or percentage basis. Slip ‘s’ is
defined as:

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

On percentage basis and is defined as

S= (Nsync—N m ) / Nsync On per unit basis.

Slip ‘S’ is also expressed in terms of angular velocity ω ( Rad/Sec) as given below:

It can be noted that if the motor runs at synchronous speed the slip ‘S’ =0 and if
the rotor is standstill then the slip ‘S’ =1.It is possible to express the mechanical
speed of the Rotor in terms of Slip S and synchronous speed nsync as given below:

Rotor e.g. , Rotor frequency ,Rotor reactance, rotor current and Power
factor at standstill and during operation: (Effect of Slip on Rotor
parameters )

In case of a transformer, the frequency ‘f’ of the induced e.m.f. in the secondary is
same as the applied voltage to the primary. But in the case of an Induction motor,
the frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor is not same as that of the
applied voltage to the stator and it depends on the slip. At start, the speed N = 0
,the slip ‘s’= 1 and the frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor is same as

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

that of the voltage applied to the stator. As the motor picks up speed, the slip
becomes smaller and hence the frequency of the induced e.m.f. in the rotor also
becomes lesser. Due to this, some of the Rotor parameters also get affected. Let
us study the effect of slip on the following parameters.1.Rotor frequency
2.Magnitude of induced e.m.f in rotor. 3. Rotor reactance 4. Rotor power factor
and 5.Rotor current.

Rotor frequency:

The speed of the Stator rotating magnetic field is given by NS = 120.fS/P (1)
Where fs is the system (supply) frequency in hertz and P is the number of poles in
the machine. At start the speed N = 0, the slip ‘s’= 1 and the rotor which is
stationary has maximum relative motion i.e. same as that of the R.M.F. Hence the
frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor is same as that of the voltage
applied to the stator. As the motor picks up speed the relative speed of the Rotor
with respect to the Stator RMF decreases and becomes equal to slip speed (NS-N).
As we know the frequency and magnitude of induced e.m.f in the rotor depends
on the rate of change of cutting flux i.e. relative speed (NS-N). Hence in running
condition the magnitude and frequency of induced voltage decreases. The rotor is
wound for the same number of poles as that of the Stator i.e. P. If fr is frequency
of the Rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition at slip speed of (NS - N) (when the
motor is running at a speed of N) then there exists a fixed relation between slip
speed (NS -N) ,fr and P just as in the case of stator. So for Rotor we can write:

Ns-N =120fr/P (2)

Dividing equation (2) by (1) we get:

(Ns-N)/Ns=(120fr/P) / (120.fS/P)

But (NS -N) / Ns = Slip ‘s’ and Hence s = fr/fs or fr = sfs

Thus we can say that the frequency of the Rotor induced e.m.f fr is slip ’s‘ times
the supply frequency fs.

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

As slip of an induction motor is normally in the range of 0.01 to 0.05 the Rotor
frequency is very small in the running condition.
Rotor Induced e.m.f:

We know that just like the induced frequency, the induced e.m.f is also is
proportional to the relative speed between the Rotor and the stator.
Let E2 = Rotor induced e.m.f when it is standstill i.e. relative speed is Ns
And E2r = Rotor induced e.m.f when it is running i.e. relative speed is Ns – N
So we have E2∝Ns i.e. E2 = kNs ----- (1)
And E2r∝Ns – N i.e E2r = k (Ns – N) ---- (2)

Dividing the second equation by first equation we get: E2r / E2 = (Ns – N) / Ns .

But (Ns – N) / Ns = slip ’s’ . Hence we get finally:
E2r = s E2
i.e. The magnitude of the Rotor e.m.f. in running condition also gets reduced to
slip times the magnitude of the e.m.f. in standstill condition.

Rotor Resistance and Reactance:

Just like the stator, Rotor winding also has its own Resistance and Reactance and
let them be R2 Ω /Ph and X2 Ω /Ph respectively.
We know that Resistance of a coil is independent of frequency while it’s
Reactance is given by X= 2πfL where L is the Inductance of the coil. Thus
X2( @ standstill ) = 2πfsL
And since fr = sfs
X2r( @ running condition ) = 2πfrL = 2πsfsL = s X2
i.e. X2r = s X2
Thus we can conclude that the Resistance of the Rotor which is independent of
frequency remains the same at both standstill and in running condition while the
reactance which is dependent on the frequency gets reduced to slip times the
Reactance in standstill condition.
Then we have Rotor impedance Z2 per phase as:

Z2 = R2 + j X2 = √ R22+ X22 Ω /Ph (@standstill )

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

And Z2r = R2+ j X2r = √ R22+ (sX2)2 Ω /Ph (@ Running condition)

Rotor power factor:

We know that the power factor any inductive circuit is given by:
Cos θ = R/Z
Using the above values of Resistance and impedance of the Rotor in both
standstill and running conditions in this relation for p.f. we get:

Cos θ = R2/Z2 = R2/√ R22+ X22 Ω /Ph (@standstill) and

Cos θ r= R2/Z2r = R2/√ R22+ (sX2)2 (@ Running condition)

The corresponding impedance triangles for both standstill and running conditions
are shown in the figures (a) and (b) below.

Fig: (a) Impedance triangle at standstill (b): Impedance triangle while running

Note: As Rotor circuit is inductive power factor is always lagging.

Rotor current:

The rotor currents (per phase) in both cases are given by (using the basic relation
I = E/Z):

I2 = E2 / Z2 = E2 / √ R22+ j X22(@standstill) and

I2r = E2r / Z2r = E2r / √ R22+ j X2r2 = s E2 / √ R22+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition )
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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Note: (θ2r is the phase angle between the Rotor voltage E2r and Rotor current I2r
which decides the power factor while the motor is running )

The corresponding Rotor equivalent circuits for both standstill and running
conditions are shown in the figures (a) and (b) below.

Fig (a): Rotor equivalent circuit at standstill (b): Rotor eq. circuit while running

Rotor power input, Rotor copper loss and mechanical power

developed and their interrelation:

An induction motor can be basically described as a rotating transformer. Its input

is a 3 phase system of voltages and currents. For an ordinary transformer, the
output is electric power from the secondary windings. The secondary windings in
an induction motor (the rotor) are shorted and so no electrical output exists from
normal induction motors. Instead, the output power is mechanical. The power
flow diagram given below shows how the Input Electrical power given to the
Induction Motor stator gets converted into Mechanical power at the Rotor end
and what are the losses taking place in between.

The input power to an induction motor Pin is in the form of 3-phase electric
voltages and currents and is given by:
PIN = √3 VLIL Cos θ
Where VL , IL are line values of voltage & current and Cos θ is motor power factor.

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 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Fig: Power flow diagram of an Induction motor.

The first losses encountered in the machine are I2R losses in the stator windings
(stator copper loss PSCL).Then,some amount of power is lost as hysteresis and
eddy currents in the stator (Pcore). The power remaining at this point is transferred
to the rotor of the machine across the air gap between the stator and rotor. This
power is called the air gap power PAG of the machine like.
PAG = PIN – (PSCL + Pcore) = Tind.ωs
After the power is transferred to the rotor, some of it is lost as I2R losses (the
rotor copper loss PRCL), and the rest is converted from electrical to mechanical
form (PCONV).i.e.
PCONV = PAG- PRCL = Tind.ωm
When this mechanical power is delivered to the load through the rotor shaft again
some more power is lost as mechanical losses known as friction and windage
losses PF&W and then again some unaccounted losses known as stray losses PMISC.
Finally the remaining power is the net output power delivered by the Motor to
the load as POUT i.e.
POUT = PM – (PF&W + PMISC) = Tload.ωm

This total power flow along with the losses in between is shown in the diagram
above.

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Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

The core losses do not occur in the stator side alone as shown in the figure above.
The core losses of an induction motor come partially from the stator circuit and
partially from the rotor circuit. Since an induction motor normally operates at a
speed near synchronous speed, the relative motion of the magnetic fields over
the rotor surface is quite slow, and the rotor core losses are very tiny compared
to the stator core losses. Since the largest fraction of the core losses comes from
the stator circuit, all the core losses are lumped together and shown as if they are
occurring at the stator end. The higher the speed of an induction motor, the
higher the friction, windage, and stray losses. On the other hand, the higher the
speed of the motor (up to nsync), the lower its core losses. Therefore, these three
categories of losses are sometimes lumped together and called as rotational
losses. The total rotational losses of a motor are often considered to be constant
with changing speed, since the component losses change in opposite directions
with a change in speed as explained.

Torque equation – expressions for maximum torque and starting

torque:
Torque equation: The torque developed in an Induction motor depends on the
following factors.

1. The stator magnetic field φ which induces e.m.f. in the rotor.

2. The magnitude of the Rotor current I2r in running condition.

3. The power factor ‘Cos Ɵ2r ‘ of the Rotor circuit in running condition.

Thus the expression for Torque can be given as: T∝ φ . I2r .Cos Ɵ2r ----- (1)

We know that the flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to the voltage
applied to the stator E1. And similarly the Stator and Rotor voltages E1 and E2 are
related to each other by a ratio of their effective number of turns ‘K ‘.

I.e. φ ∝ E1 and E1 / E2 = K and so effectively φ ∝ E2 ----- (2)

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Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

We have earlier obtained expressions for the Rotor current and Rotor power
factor as:

I2R= E2r/ Z2r = s E2 / √ R22+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition) ----- (3)

Cos Ɵ2R = R2 / Z2r = R2 / √ R22+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition ) ----- (4)

Using the above equations at (2) ,(3) and (4) in equation (1 ) we get :

T ∝ [s E22 R2 / R22+ (sX2)2]

Where ‘k’ is total the constant of proportionality and can be shown that k =
3/2πns where ns = synchronous speed in r.p.s. = Ns/60 ( Ns = Synchronous speed in
RPM). Substituting this value of the constant ‘k’ in the above expression for
Torque we get finally

T = (3/2πns) [s E2 2R2/ R22+ (sX2)2] N-m

So, Torques at any load condition can be can be obtained if Slip‘s’ at that load and
Standstill Motor parameters are known.
Starting Torque: Is the torque at the time of start in an induction motor and can
be obtained by substituting the corresponding value of slip ’s’ . At the time of
starting the speed N= 0 and hence the slip ‘s’ = 1. Using this value of ‘s’ in the
above equation for Torque we get the starting torque as :

Tst = (3/2πns) [E2 2R2/ R22+ X22]

N-m
Maximum torque:
Condition for maximum Torque:
As can be seen from the above Torque equation, the torque depends only on the
slip with which the motor is running since all the other parameters are constant.
Supply voltage to the stator is usually rated and hence constant and the turns
ratio between Stator and Rotor is also constant. Hence E2 is constant. Similarly R2 ,

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Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

X2 and ns are constants in an Induction motor. So to find out the maximum torque
we have to find out at what slip maximum torque occurs. Hence, mathematically
we can write the condition for maximum Torque as:

dT/ds = 0

where T = k [s E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sX2)2] . While evaluating the above differential it is to

be noted that in the above expression for Torque all the parameters like E2,R2and
X2 are also constants apart from the constant of proportionality ‘k’ and the only
variable is ‘s’ and this term is present in both numerator and denominator. Hence
we can differentiate the expression for torque using the formula for differential of
a quotient (u/v) after taking out all the constant terms out of the differential as
shown below.
T = (k E2 2 R2 ) [s / R22+ s2X22]

Now differentiating the term within the square brackets and equating the
numerator alone to zero we get:

s.d/ds[R22+ s2X22] – [R22+ s2X22]d/ds (s) = 0

i.e. s. [2 sX22] – [R22+ s2X22].1 = 0

i.e. 2 s2X22 - s2X22 – R22= 0

i.e. s 2 = R22/ X22

Or finally s = R2 / X2

So we conclude that the torque is maximum at a slip ‘s’ = R2 / X2 or in other

words the slip at maximum torque ‘sm’ is given by:

‘sm’ = R2 /X2

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Maximum Torque:

Now we can obtain the magnitude of maximum torque T max by substituting the
value of ‘sm’ = R2/ X2in place of ‘s’ in the general expression for Torque.

T max = k[sm E2 2 R2/ {R22+ (smX2)2}]

T max = k[(R2 / X2) E2 2 R2/ {R22+ {(R2 / X2)X2)2}]

Or finally T max = kE22/2X2

N-m
From the above expression for Maximum Torque we can observe the following
important points:

 It is directly proportional to the Square of the induced e.m.f. E2 in the rotor

at stand still.
 It is inversely proportional to the Rotor Reactance X2 at stand still
 The most interesting is :It is not dependent on the Rotor resistance R2. But
the slip or speed at which such a maximum Torque occurs depends on the
value of Rotor resistance R2

Ratios of Important Torques (In terms of Slip):

These are straightforward calculations. However since these ratios are very
important in several problems they are calculated and kept ready for quick use.

Ratio of Full load Torque to Maximum Torque:

T = k [s E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sX2)2]

Tfl = k [sfl E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sfl X2)2]

Tst= k [E2 2 R2/ R22+ ( X2)2]

T max =k [sm E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sm X2)2]

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Tfl / T max = k [sfl E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sfl X2)2] / k [sm E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sm X2)2]

= (sfl/ sm) [R22+ (sm X2)2]/ R22+ (sfl X2)2]

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22

Tfl / T max = (sfl/ sm) [(R22/ X22)+ (sm)2]/ (R22/X22)+ (sfl)2]

Substituting sm in place of (R2/ X2)

= (sfl/ sm) [(sm)2+ (sm)2]/ [(sm)2+ (sfl)2]

= (sfl/ sm) (2sm2)]/ [(sm)2+ (sfl)2]

Tfl / T max = (2sflsm)]/ [(sm2)+ (sfl)2]

Ratio of Starting Torque to Maximum Torque:

k [E2 2 R2/ R22+ ( X2)2]

(Tst/ T max) = -------------------------------
k [sm E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sm X2)2]

= [R22+ (sm X2)2]/ sm [R22+ ( X2)2]

Dividing both numerator and denominator by X22

= [(R22 / X22) + (sm)2]/ sm [(R22 / X22)+ 1]

Substituting sm in place of (R2/ X2)

(Tst/ T max) = [(sm)2+ (sm)2]/ sm [(sm)2+ 1] = [ 2sm2]/ sm [(sm )2+ 1]

(Tst/ T max) = 2sm/ (1+ sm2)

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Torque slip characteristic:

When an Induction motor is loaded from no load to full load its speed decreases
and slip increases. Due to increased load, motor has to produce higher torque to
satisfy higher load torque demand. The torque ultimately depends on the slip as
we have seen earlier. The behavior of the motor can be easily analyzed by looking
at the Torque versus slip curve from s=0 to 1. (Instead of Torque versus Speed
Characteristics because we have readily available equations for Torque in terms
of slip ’s’. The Torque vs. Slip Characteristics can then be easily translated to
Torque vs. Speed Characteristics since they are complementary to each other.)

We have already seen that for a constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant. So
we can rewrite the Torque equation T ∝ [s E22 R2 / R22+ (sX2)2] as
T ∝ [s R2 / R22+ (sX2)2] .
To study the Torque versus Slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s=0 to
1) into three parts and analyze.

The Torque speed characteristic can be divided into three important regions:

1. Low Slip Region:

In this region‘s’ is very small. So, the term (sX2)2 in the denominator would be
small compared to R22and hence can be neglected. Thus T ∝ s R2 / R22.i.e Torque
becomes directly proportional to slip ‘s’. Thus torque increases linearly with
increase in slip ’s’ and satisfies the load demand. Thus we can conclude that in
this region.

• The mechanical speed decreases approximately linearly with increased load

• The motor slip increases approximately linearly with increased load.
• Induced Torque increases linearly with slip thus satisfying the load demand.
• Rotor reactance is negligible. So Rotor Power factor is almost unity.
• Rotor current increases linearly with slip.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

The entire normal steady state operating range of an Induction motor lies in this
linear low slip region. Thus in normal operation, an induction motor has a linear
speed drooping characteristic.

2. Moderate slip region: In this region:

 Rotor frequency is higher than earlier and hence the Rotor reactance is of
the same order of magnitude as the rotor resistance.
 Rotor current no longer increases as rapidly as earlier and the Power factor
starts dropping.
 The peak torque (Pull out or Break down Torque) occurs at a point where
for an incremental increase in load the increase in the current is exactly
balanced by the decrease in rotor power factor.

3. High slip region: In this region:

Slip is high i.e. approaching the value 1. Here it can be assumed that the term R22
is very small compared to (sX2)2. Hence the expression for Torque becomes T ∝ s
R2 / (sX2)2 i.e T∝ 1/ s. So in high slip region Torque is inversely proportional to
slip ‘s’. Hence the induced Torque decreases with increase in load torque since
the increase in Rotor current is dominated by the decrease in Rotor power factor
where as it should increase to meet the increase in Load demand. So speed
further comes down and Induced Torque still reduces further. So in this process
the motor comes to standstill i.e. the motor cannot run at any point in the high
slip region. Hence this region is called unstable region. On the other hand the low
slip region where the characteristic is linear is called the stable region.

The maximum Torque which the motor can produce before going into unstable
region occurs at ‘s’ = ‘sm’. Since beyond this torque the motor gets into unstable
region, this maximum Torque is also called as Break down Torque or pullout
Torque. The entire Torque slip characteristics are shown in the figure below.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Fig: Torque-slip Characteristics

Torque vs. Speed Characteristics:

They are just complimentary to the Torque-slip Characteristics. The detailed

Torque speed characteristics of an a Induction Motor Showing the Starting, Pull-
out and Full-load torques are shown in the figure below.

Fig: Torque speed characteristics of an a Induction Motor Showing the Starting,

Pull-out and Full-load torques

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Important characteristics of the Induction Motor Torque Speed Curve:

 Induced Torque is zero at synchronous speed.

 The graph is nearly linear between no load and full load (at near
synchronous speeds).In this region the Rotor resistance is much larger than
the Rotor reactance ,and hence the Rotor Current, magnetic field and the
induced torque increases linearly with increasing slip.
 There is a Max. Possible torque that cannot be exceeded which is known as
pull out torque or breakdown torque. This is normally about two to three
times the full load torque.
 The Starting torque is higher than the full load torque and is about 1.5
times. Hence this motor can start with any load that it canhandle at full
power.
 Torque for a given slip varies as the square of the applied voltage. This fact
is useful in the motor speed control with variation of Stator Voltage.
 If the rotor were driven faster than synchronous speed, then the direction
of the Induced torque would reverse and the motor would work like a
generator converting mechanical power to Electrical power.
 If we reverse the direction of the stator magnetic field, the direction of the
induced torque in the Rotor with respect to the direction of motor rotation
would reverse, would stop the motor rapidly and will try to rotate the
motor in the other direction. Reversing the direction of rotation of the
magnetic field is just phase reversal and this method of Braking is known
Plugging.

Full load Torque: When the load on the motor Torque increases, the slip
increases and thus the Induced torque also increases. The increase in induced
Torque is produced by a corresponding increase in the current drawn from the
supply.

The load which the motor can drive safely depends on the current which the
motor can draw safely. When the current rises, the temperature rises. Hence the
safe limit on the current is dictated by permissible temperature rise. The safe

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

limit of current is that which when drawn for continuous operation of the motor
produces a temperature rise which is well within the limits. Such a full load point
is shown as point ‘C’ on the plot and the corresponding torque is called the Full
load Torques TFL. If the motor is operated beyond this full load continuously the
windings’ insulation is likely to be damaged. But for short durations of time the
motor can be operated beyond the Full load Torque but up to the limit of
Breakdown Torque/Pull out Torque

Effect of change in Rotor resistance on Torque:

Earlier we have indicated that in slip ring Induction Motors external Resistance is
introduced at the time of starting to get higher Starting Torque and then it is
withdrawn in the running condition to get higher efficiency. Let us now see how
this is achieved. Let us get back and recollect the most important relation i.e.
general expression for Torque T:

T = k [s E2 2 R2/ R22+ (sX2)2]

At the time of starting, the slip = 1 and hence the starting Torque Tst becomes:

Tst= k [ E2 2 R2/ R22+ (X2)2]

We have also seen earlier that the maximum Torque Tmax is given by:

Tmax= KE22/2X2

and this Torque occurs at a slip Sm = R2/X2

Using these expressions the Torque - slip curves for various values of Rotor
resistance greater than the original value R2 are drawn and shown in the figure
below.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: Effect of change in Rotor resistance on Torque slip characteristics

From these figures and also from the above relations we get the following
important observations:

 As the Rotor resistance increases, the slip at which maximum torque occurs
increases i.e. the Torque-slip curve moves to the right i.e. towards higher
slip with the result the starting torque increases.
 But the other effect is the droop in speed becomes more for the same
change in Induced Torque (Load Torque). With higher droop losses are
more and hence we get reduced efficiency.
 So to get these both advantages, in Slip ring induction motors resistance is
added initially to get higher torque and once the motor picks up speed the
resistance is withdrawn to achieve higher efficiency.
 With increasing rotor resistance the maximum starting Torque remains
same but the slip at which it occurs only becomes higher.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Equivalent circuit – Phasor diagram:

Equivalent circuit:

The equivalent circuit of an Induction Motor is developed on the same lines as a

Transformer with the following nomenclature and as shown in the following
figure of an Induction motor depicted as a Transformer.

V1 = Applied Voltage to the stator /phase

E1= Induced Voltage in the stator /phase

E2 = Induced Voltage in the rotor /phase @standstill

K = Turns ratio = Stator turns/Rotor turns = E1/ E2

E2R = Induced Voltage in the rotor /phase @running condition

R1 = Stator Resistance /phase

X1 = Stator Reactance /phase

R2 = Rotor Resistance /phase

X2R= Rotor Reactance /phase @running condition

Figure: Induction Motor depicted as a Transformer

Page 30
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Just like in a Transformer the no load current I0 of an Induction motor has two
components IC and IM where:

IC = Active current component which supplies no load losses and

IM = Magnetizing component which sets up the flux in the core and the air gap.

These two currents give us two elements in the exciting branch R0 and X0 as
shown in the basic equivalent circuit below.

Figure: Induction Motor Basic Equivalent Circuit

The stator and the Rotor are shown separated by an airgap. The rotor current I2R
shown in the circuit is given by:

I2R = Rotor current in running condition

= E2R/ Z2R = s E2 / √ R22+ (sX2)2(@ Running condition which is represented

suitably on the rotor side in the equivalent circuit.

Representation of Rotor circuit in different equivalent forms:

We have I2R = s E2 / √ R22+ (sX2)2 = E2 / √ (R2/s)2 + (X2)2

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

This other form of equation for I2R indicates that the rotor circuit can be
represented equivalently with a fixed voltage E2, fixed reactance X2 and a variable
resistance R2/s. Further (R2/s) can also be represented as:

R2/s = R2+ R2/s- R2 = R2 + R2 [(1/s) –1] = R2 + R2 [(1–s)/s] .

This indicates that the variable Rotor resistance can be equivalently represented
as two parts:

1. Rotor resistance R2 itself which represents the copper loss and RL= R2 [(1–
s)/s] representing the load resistance which is the electrical equivalent of the
mechanical load on the motor.

So, the modified equivalent circuit of the Rotor can thus be shown as below:

Figure: Modified Rotor Equivalent Circuit

Equivalent circuit referred to Stator: Is shown in the figure below with all the
parameters E2 ,I2R, R2 , and X2 referred to the stator side and shown with
additional “ ‘ “ (prime) as given below.

E’2 =KE2 ;I’2R = I2R/K ; R’2 = K2 R2 ;X’2 = K2X2 and

R’L = K2 RL = K2R2 [(1–s)/s] = R’2 [(1–s)/s]

The equivalent circuit with these changes is shown in the figure below:

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Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: Total Equivalent circuit referred to Stator

Final Approximate Equivalent circuit referred to Stator: Just like in the case of
Transformer, the excitation circuit (R0and X0) can be moved to the input side i.e.
to the left of R1 and X1 with the assumption that the voltage drop across R1 and X1
due to the small current I0 can be neglected. With this assumption and after
combining the R1 and X1 with R’2 and X’2 we get the final Approximate Equivalent
circuit referred to Stator as shown in the figure below with the following final
equivalent values of all parameters.

Figure: Final Approximate Equivalent circuit referred to Stator:

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

R1E= Total equivalent resistance referred to Stator =R1 + R’2 = R1 + K2 R2

X1E= Total equivalent reactance referred to Stator =X1 + X’2 = X1 + K2 X2

Phasor diagram:

The Phasor diagram of a loaded Induction Motor is similar to that of a loaded

Transformer. The only difference is, the secondary of Induction Motor is rotating
and short circuited while a transformer secondary is stationary and connected to
a load. The load on Induction Motor is mechanical while the load on a transformer
is electrical. So by finding the electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the
motor, the phasor diagram of an Induction Motor is developed with the following
notation and using the given relations. (All bold faced letters indicate Phasor
quantities)

Φ = Magnetic flux linking between Stator and Rotor

E1 = Self induced e.m.f. in the stator

E2R = Mutually induced e.m.f. in the rotor

R1 and X1 = Stator resistance and reactance /phase respectively.

V1 = Voltage applied to the stator which has to counter balance the induced e.m.f.
in the stator E1 and the voltage drops I1R1and I1X1 . Hence on the stator side we
can write

V1= -E1 + I1(R1+ jX1) = - E1 + I1 Z1

E2R =The rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition has to supply the drop across
the rotor impedance as the rotor is short circuited.

= I2R (R2+ jX2R) = I2R Z2R

The rotor current in running condition is I2R and it lags E2R by rotor power factor
angle Φ 2R.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

The rotor current reflected to stator side I’2R is given by I’2R = I2R/K Where K =
Stator/Rotor turns ratio. The induction motor draws a no load current of I0 which
is the phasor sum of core loss current IC and magnetizing current IM.Thus the total
current I1 drawn by the stator is the phasor sum of I’2Rand I0and is given by:
I1 = I’2R + I

Φ 1 = Phase angle between V1and I1and hence Cos Φ 1is power factor of the
Induction Motor.

Using all the above relations and the notation the phasor diagram is developed
in the following steps:

 Take Φ as the reference phasor

 The induced voltage E1lags Φ by 900
 Show -E1 by reversing the voltage phasorE1
 The phasorE2R is in phase with E1 . So show I2R lagging E2Ri.e. E1 direction by
Φ 2R
 Show I2RR2 in phase with I2Rand I2RX2R leading the resistive drop by 900, to
get exact location of E2R
 Reverse I2R to get I’2R
 IM is in phase with Φ while IC is at 900 leading withΦ . AddIM and IC to get
I0
 Add I0 and I’2R to get I1
 From tip of -E1phasor add I1R1 in phase with I1 and I1X1 at 900leading to
I1to getV1Phasor.
 Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1

The phasor diagram is shown in the figure below.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Power and Torque in an Induction Motor: (In terms of slip’s’ and

equivalent circuit parameters)

In the power flow diagram we have already studied broadly the power and torque
relations. Now with the development of the motor equivalent circuit we have a
better insight into these relations including the important term slip‘s’. Accordingly
we will redefine the power flow in terms of slip’s’ and equivalent circuit
parameters. This approach is essential to solve many problems. For quick
reference Power flow diagram and the Rotor side equivalent circuits are
appended here again.

The stator copper losses in the 3 phases are: PSCL = 3 I12 R1

The core losses are: PCore = 3 E12/R0
And the air gap power is: PAG= Pin – PSCL - Pcore

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Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Figure: Power Flow Diagram

Figure: Modified Rotor Equivalent Circuit

In the above equation it is to be noted that Pcore combines both stator and rotor
core losses which can be acceptable since Rotor core losses are very small
compared to the rotor copper losses. It is also to be remembered that the only
element in the equivalent circuit where the air-gap power can be subsequently
consumed [(lost + used as output power (used to drive the load)] is in the resistor
R2/s. Thus, the air-gap power is given by:

PAG = 3I22R.R2/s = Tind.ωs …. (1)

The actual Rotor copper losses are given by: PRCL = 3I22R.R2 …. (2)
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Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

[I2Ris the rotor current (running condition) and R2 is the Rotor resistance before
referring to stator] From the above two equations (1) and (2) we notice that the
rotor copper losses are equal to slip times the air gap power i.e. PRCL = s .PAG ..(1)

After stator copper losses & core losses are subtracted from the input power we
got the Air gap power from which rotor copper losses are subtracted, to get the
remaining power which is converted from electrical to mechanical form. The
power thus converted, which is called developed (converted) mechanical power is
given as: [from equations (1) and 2)]

Pconv = PAG - PRCL = 3I2R2.R2/s - 3I2R2R2 = 3I2R2 R2 [(1/s) –1 ]

= 3I2R2 (R2 /s)(1- s) = Tind.ωm

Thus finally Pconv = PAG (1--s) = Tind.ωm ……. (2)

If we carefully observe the above equations 1 and 2 we can notice that the three
important equations PAG, PRCL and PCONV are in the ratio of 1: s: (1-s). This relation
is very useful in solving several problems.

Summary:
Important formulae and relations:

 Synchronous speed of rotating magnetic field :nS = 120.fS/P

 Torque induced in the rotor: T∝ φ . I2r .Cos Ɵ2r or T = k φ . I2r .Cos Ɵ2r
 slip s on percentage basis:

 Slip s on per unit basis: S= (Nsync—N m ) / Nsync

 The magnitude of the rotor induced voltage E2Rin terms of the rotor
induced voltage at rotor in locked conditionE2 : E2R = s.E2
 The magnitude of the rotor Reactance X2Rin terms of the rotor Reactance at
rotor locked condition X2 : X2R = s.X2(since fr = s.fsandX2R= s.2π fsLR)

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Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

 The rotor frequency can be expressed as :

fr = (P/120). (nsync -- n m.)

 Important relationships between Air gap power PAG, converted power Pconv
,Rotor induced Torque T ind ,Rotor copper losses Prcl and the slip s :

T ind = Pconv/ ωm
T ind = PAG/ ωs
Prcl = s.PAG
Pconv = (1-s) PAG

 Induced Torque Tind : Tind = (k E2 2 R2 ) [s / R22+ s2X22]

 Slip at maximum Torque S maxT:‘sm’ = R2 / X2

Maximum developed torque Tmax = kE22/2 X2

Starting Torque Tst : Tst= k [E2 2 R2/ R22+ X22] N-m

Illustrative Problems:
Example 1: In a 6 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz Induction motor with star connected Rotor,
the rotor resistance per phase is 0.3 Ω, the reactance at standstill is 1.5Ω per
phase and the e.m.f between the slip rings on open circuit is 175 V. Calculate:(i)
Slip at a speed of 960RPM (ii) Rotor e.m.f per phase (iii) Rotor frequency and
reactance at speed of 950 RPM

Solution: Given data: R2 = 0.3 Ω, X2 = 1.5 Ω, P = 6, f = 50 Hz, E2(line @standstill) =

175 V
E2ph = 175/√3 = 101.0362 V (@ standstill)
i) Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = 120x50/6 = 1000 RPM.

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Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Slip ‘s’ @960 RPM = (Ns-N)/ Ns = (1000-960)/1000 = 0.04 i.e. 4%

ii) Rotor e.m.f. per phase at the speed of 960RPM = E2r = s E2ph

= 0.04 × 101.362 = 4.0414 V

iii) For N = 950 RPM , slip ‘s’ = (1000-950)/1000 = 0.05
Rotor frequency fr = s f = 0.05 × 50 = 2.5 Hz
X2r = s X2 = 0.05 × 1.5 = 0.075 Ω

Practice example: A 3 φ, 50 Hz slipring Induction Motor gives a stand still open

circuit voltage of 500 V between slip rings. Calculate the rotor current and
power factor at (i) standstill and (ii) with a slip of 4%. The per phase rotor
resistance and Inductance are 0.2 Ω and 0.04 H .

Example 2: A- 6-pole, 50Hz, 3-phase, induction motor running on full load with 4%
slip develops a torque of 149.3 N-m at its pulley rim. The friction and wind age
losses are 200 W and the stator copper and iron losses equal 1620 W. Calculate:

(i)Output power (ii) Rotor cu loss and (iii)The efficiency at full-load.

Solution: Torque at pulley rim means final torque out put at the shaft end and
hence Tsh = 149.3 Nm, Number of poles P = 6, f = 50 Hz, s = 4 % i.e. 0.04
i) Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = 120 × 50/6 = 1000 r.p.m

And Motor speed N = Ns (1-s) = 1000 (1-0.04) = 960 r.p.m

Pout = Tsh ×ω (Motor speed in Rad/sec) = Tsh ×2π N/ 60 = 15009.273 W

ii) Torque developed by the motor:

Pm = Pout + Friction loss = 15009.273 + 200 = 15209.273 W

From the power flow diagram we know that: PAg : PcL : Pm is 1 : s : 1 – s

Pm /Pc = 1 – s/s i.e. Pc = s Pm/(1 – s) = 0.04 ×15209.273/(1- 0.04) = 633.7197 W

iii) PAG = Pm +Pc = 15209.273 + 633.7197=15842.9927 W
∴ Pin = PAG + Stator loss = 15842.9927 + 1620 = 17462.9927 W

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

∴ % ƞ = (Pout/ Pin) × 100 = (15009.273/17462.9927 )× 100 = 85.949 %

Example 3: The power input to the rotor of a 440 V, 50 Hz 6-pole, 3-phase

induction motor is 80 kW. The rotor emf is observed to make 100 complete
alteration per minute.

Calculate : (i) The slip (ii) The rotor speed (iii) Rotor copper losses per phase.

Solution : Power input to rotor = P2 = 80 kW, P = 6, f = 50 Hz, fr = 100 alterations

per min = 100/60 Hz = 1.667 Hz.
i) We know that the frequency of the Rotor Induced frequency fr= s f . Thus slip
‘s’ = fr / f = 1.667/50 = 0.0333

ii) Motor synchronous speed Ns = 120 f/ P = (120x 50)/ 6 = 1000 RPM

ii) Motor(Rotor) speed N = Ns (1- s) =1000x( 1- 0.0333) = 966.667 r.p.m

iii) We know that the ratio: PAG : PCL: Pm is equal 1 : s : 1 – s

i.e. Rotor copper Losses Pc = s PAG = (0.0333) x 80,000 = 2666.64 W

∴ Rotor copper Losses per phase = PCL Per Phase = 2666.4/3 = 888.888 W

Example 4: The power input to a 500 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-Phase induction motor
running at 975 rpm is 40 kW. The stator losses are 1 kW and the friction and
windage losses total to 2 kW, Calculate: i)The slip ii) Rotor copper loss and
iii) Shaft power

Solution: Given data: Pin = 40 kW, f = 50 Hz, P = 6, N = 975 r.p.m, Stator Loss =
1kW, Friction and windage loss = 2kW
i) Motor synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P = (120x 50)/ 6 1000 RPM

We know that the slip’s’ = Ns - N/Ns = (1000 -975)/100 = 0.025 i.e. 2.5%
ii) We know that the Air gap power PAG = Pin - Stator losses = 40 - 1 = 39 kW
We know that the ratio: PAG : PCL : PM is 1: s : 1- s i.e. PAG/PCL = 1/s

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

∴ Rotor copper loss : Pc = s PAG = 0.025 ×39 = 0.975 kW

iii) Power developed by motor: Pm = PAG - Pc = 39-0.975 = 38.025 kW
∴ Finally Shaft power = Output Power Pout

= Pm - Frictional losses = 38.025 - 2 = 36.025 kW

Example 5: A10 Kw, 400 V, 3- Phase induction motor has full load efficiency of
0.87 and power factor 0.85. At standstill at rated voltage the motor draws 5 times
full load current and develops a starting torque of 1.5 times full load torque. An
autotransformer is installed to reduce the starting current to give full load torque
at the time of starting. Calculate the voltage applied and line current.

Solution:
From the given data first we can calculate directly the full load current IFL.Using
the straight forward formula.

Ifl = Pout/ (√3 VLcos Ø × ƞ) = 10 × 103/ (√3 ×400 ×0.85 × 0.87)

= 19.5182 A
Then let us use the standard Torque relation ‘Torque is proportional to the square
of the voltage’ to calculate the reduced voltage to get starting Torque equal to FL
Torque.
Tst1 = 1.5 Tfl α (400)2
Tst2 = Tfl α (V2)2
∴ Tst1/ Tst2 = 1.5 Tfl/Tfl = (400/V2)2
∴ V2 = 400/√1.5 = 326.6 V
For 400 V, Ist1 = 5 Ifl
Then for 326.6 V, Ist2 = 5Ifl × 326.6/400 = 4.0825 Ifl
∴ Ist2 = 4.0825 × 19.5182 = 79.6833 A
On the autotransformer secondary, motor current is 79.6833 A and secondary
voltage is 326.6 V.
∴Iprimary = (326.6/400 )× 79.6833 = 65.0614 A
∴ Line current = 65.0614 A

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Example 6 : A 3Ø slip ring IM with a synchronous speed of 1500 r.p.m. develops

4 HP at 1410 r.p.m. Calculate the stator input, if the stator power loss is 500 W.
If a resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit so that the mechanical power is 5 HP
at 1125 r.p.m then calculate the stator input assuming the stator losses to be 150
% of the previous value.

Solution : From Given Data we have : Ns = 1500 RPM, Pm1 = 4 HP at N1 = 1410

r.p.m, Pm2 = 5 HP at N2 = 1125 r.p.m.

From the standard ratio of powers and loss we have : PAG : PCL: Pm is 1 : s : 1 - s

Hence PAG/Pm = 1/1 – s

Applying this relation to the two cases we have, we get

Case 1: s1 = (Ns - N1)/Ns = [(1500 – 1410)/1500 = 0.06

(PAG)1/Pm1 = 1/(1 - s1)

i.e. (PAG)1= Pm1 [1/(1 - s1)] = (4×735.5)/(1- 0.06) = 3129.7872 W

∴ (Stator input)1 = (PAG)1 + Stator loss = 3129.7872 + 500 = 3629.79 W
Case 2: s2 = (Ns - N2) / Ns = (1500 – 1125) /1500 = 0.25

(PAG)2/Pm2= 1/(1 – s2 )
∴ ( PAG)2 = Pm2[1/(1 - s1)] = (5×735.5)/(1 -0.25) = 4903.333 W
Stator loss = 150 % of 500 W = 750 W
∴ (Stator input)2 = 4903.333 + 750 = 5653.333 W

Example 7: A-3 Phase wound rotor of induction motor develops a maximum

torque of 4 times the full load torque at a slip of 0.20. The per phase rotor
resistance is 0.04Ω. The stator resistance and rotational losses are negligible.
Calculate the value of external resistance that must be inserted in the rotor circuit
in order to maximize torque at staring.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

Solution: Tm = 4Tfl, sm = 0.2, R2 = 0.04 ( where Tm is maximum Torque and Sm is

the Slip at maximum Torque)
We know that sm = R2/X2 i.e X2 = 0.04/0.2 = 0.2
We have the standard formula: Tfl/Tm = 2Sfl ×Sm/s2m+ s2fl ( where Tfl and Sfl are
Torque and slip at full load. )
∴ ¼ = 2sfl × 0.2/(0.2)2 + S2fl

Simplifying and solving we get S2fl – 1.6.Sfl +0.4 = 0 i.e. sfl = 1.574, 0.025
∴Sfl= 0.025 i.e. 2.5 % ….. (Since slip cannot be higher than 1)
We know that Tst α E22R2/(R22 +X22) and Tm α smE22R2/[R22 +(smX2)2]
But at start: R’2 = R2 + Rex (With External resistance added)
and Tst = Tm (To maximize
torque)
∴Tst/Tm = 1 = E22R’2/*(R’2)2 +(X2)2] × [R22 +(sm X2)2 ] /SmE22R2
i.e. 1 = R’2/*(R’2)2 + (0.2)2 ] × [(0.04)2 + (0.2 × 0.2)2]/0.2 × 0.04
Simplifying we get : (R’2)2 – 0.4 R’2 + 0.04 = 0 i.e. R’2 = 0.2, 1
∴ R’2 = 0.2Ω (Neglecting higher value since we need to find out the
minimum resistance to be added)
∴ Rex = R’2 – R2 = 0.2 -0.04 = 0.16 Ω

Important Questions:
1. Explain briefly the constructional features of (i) Squirrel cage Induction Motors
(ii) Slip ring Induction Motors with the help of suitable figures.

2. Describe with the help of suitable figures and all relevant equations how a
Rotating Magnetic field is generated by a set of three phase voltages.

3. Explain briefly the Principle of operation of an induction Motor & the

development of Induced Torque in an Induction Motor.

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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)
 Electrical Machines -2 (EM-2): Lecture Notes: (Prof.K.Subhas)
Unit 1: Polyphase Induction Motors

4.(a) Explain the concept of slip in an Induction Motor (b) Derive expressions for
(i) Rotor induced emf E2 (ii) Rotor Induced frequency fR (iii) Rotor reactance X2
(iii) rotor current I2 and (iv) Power factor at standstill and during operation: (Effect
of Slip on Rotor parameters ) with the help of Impedance triangles. (c) Using the
above parameters draw the Rotor equivalent circuits @ Standstill and in running
condition.

5. Explain clearly the relationship between Rotor power input, Rotor copper loss,
other important losses and final mechanical power developed with the help of a
power flow diagram and appropriate equations.

6. (a) Explaining clearly the underlying principles derive an expression for the
Torque induced in a an Induction motor. (b) Derive the condition for the
maximum developed Torque. Using this condition derive the expression for the
maximum Torque. (c) Using these relations derive simplified expressions in terms
of slip at various conditions for the important torque ratios:

(i) Tfl /T max (ii) (Tst/T max)

7. (a) Using the basic Torque equation of an Induction Motor explain the
dependence of Torque on slip in the three important regions and thus draw the
Torque slip characteristic. (b) Explain the terms Starting Torque, Maximum
Torque and Full Load torque with reference to the Torque – Slip Characteristics.

8. (a) Draw and Explain how Torque - speed characteristic can be obtained from
the Torque - Slip Characteristic. (b) Explain the important performance
characteristics of the Induction Motor from the Torque Speed Curve

9. (a) Starting from the first principles ,step by step develop the equivalent circuit
in the final simplified form with Rotor referred to Stator side.
(b) Explain what is Phasor diagram and draw the Phasor diagram of the Induction
motor with reference to the above equivalent circuit.
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Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET)
Department of EEE (2021-22)