Optical Sources _ Material used for emission of light... Optical Sources ; semigonductorsy sequin esters wavelength and material consideration (direct & indvest bandgap CeO mts) tecuirrents em epizl source for tlcommunicaion temperature on chen Cuantum efciony, optical ouput power characterises, spectral wish, eect o pele ics, modulation bandwidth, analog modulation, digital modulation, LED analog Semicondue i : inversion anal eons Diodes + absorption, spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, concept of population range fo aeee ital feedback, output power characteristics of LASER: Bias point and amplitude modulation slog applications of LEDs & laser diodes, comparison of LEDs & Lasers. ‘Semiconductor Physics Review) Requirements trom Optical Source: Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 2.3.1 Types of Transitions in LED. 2.4.1 Difference between GaAs Infrared LED and GaAsP Visible LED. 2.4.2 V-l Characteristics of LEI 2.4.3. V—I characteristics of Gallium Arsenide LED sn 24.4 Quantum Efficiency.. 2.4.5 Effect of Temperature 24,6 Protection Circuit for LED. 2.4.7 Calculation of Irradiance at the Detector... 2.4.8 Advantages of LED ... 2.4.9 Disadvantages of LEI 2.4.10 Applications of LED. LED Structures. 2.5.1 Homojunetion 2.5.2 Heterojunction Types of LED. 2.6.1 Planar LED.Page no. (2-2) Fiber O, eae ptic Communication {SPPU-Sem 8-E&TC) i 282 Surtace Emiting LED. 263 Edge Emiting LED (€LED).... 27 Comparison between Surface Emitting LED and Edge Emitting LED... 2.8 Modulation of LED. 29 ‘Modulation Bandwiath,. 2:10 Analog Modulation ‘and Digital Modulation.. aa mitter.. 2:12 Solved Problems on LED. Ue. 2.122 (MERE. UEx. 2.12.4 OES EAE US. 2.125 (UNO. 2.13 Basics of LASERe.. LED Analog Trans UQ. Explain the Basic Working Principle of Lasers (GESTS). UQ. Explain Working Principle of LASER Source used in Optical Fiber Communication. (GEESE. 2.13.4 ‘Comparison between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission. 2.18.2. Advantages of Lasers over other Light Sources. 2.14 Types of LASERs.. 2.44.1 Solid State Lasers. 2.14.2 Types of Solid State LASER 2.143 Gas Lasers... 2.14.4 Liquid Lasers 2.14.5 Semiconductor Lasers, 2.14.6 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCEL or VCSEL). 2.15 Concept Of Population Inversion and Optical Feedback 2.16 Semiconductor Injection Lasers 2.17 Output Power Characteristics of LASER. 2.18 Bias Point and Amplitude Modulation Range for Analog Applications of LEDs & Laser Diodes 2.19 Comparison between LED and Laser Diode. UQ. _ Differentiate LED and LASER sources. (DEEREAUETEEALEN EERE © Chapter Ends, Teta Bl recnieo Pubicatons..a SACHIN SHAH Venture jlabus w.ef acader pp - New Sy! (siCommunication (SPPU-Sem 8-E&TC) Con Fiber Oplic man 5 fo, La er te Photon ~ lace between : When even electron’ transition takes pl 7 ( eitvtion band and valance band; energy 2s well as |g. $37 C [omen ‘momentum are conserved. Rian Valse bang ‘The momentum of photon is given by, plank's constant, c= speed of light and v is the frequency. Depending on. the shape of bandgap as a function of ‘momentum; semiconductors are classified as direct bandgap ot indirect bandgap materials (3) Direct Bandgap Materials Ina direct band gap semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band occur at the same value of momentum. ‘* An electron from conduction band falls down and recombine. with a hole in valance band. This falling electron emits energy of amount hy, that means it emits a photon, This phenomenon is shown in Fig. 2.1.1. 7 Electrons in conduction band Here, @ ‘Transition of olactron —— Ee Direct band gap energy (E,) tetete Valanos band Momentum k —» ten Fig. 2.1.1 : Direct Band Material * Here electrons and holes have same momentum value, There isa direct recombination of electron and hole. Such materials are called as direct bandgap materials and the tS R icctea _Iiected nected iecons Fig. 23.1 : Construction of LED @) The length of anode terminal is made longer than that of cathode terminal. As sbown in Fig. 2.3.1, the diode is made forward biased. Here the battery supplies the holes into ‘ region and electrons into ‘n’ region. ‘These holes and electrons supplied by the battery are called as injected charge carriers. Now injected electrons, near the potential barier gets recombined with the holes. That means, the electrons are falling from higher energy level to lower energy level as shown in Fig. 2.32. Injected etocion ° Higher enorgy tvet ~~ Photon output Lowor energy love! Fig. 23.2: Transition of electron ‘When this transition occurs then the energy is radiated out. ‘When the diode is forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combined ‘constantly, xemoving one another out, Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the P- type silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the complete atom & mote stable and it gives the little burst of ‘energy in the form of a tiny packet or photon of ight. Tin case of ordinary diodes, the recombination is also taking place, But the photons are not radiated. Only the heat is developed because of this recombination. But in case of LEDs because of the use of material such as gallium arsenide the photons are radiated out. @ © © 2.3.1 . Types of Transitions in LED Generally two types of transition takes place. (a) Direct transition (0)__ Indirect transition (Optical Sources. This is shown in Fig. 2.3.3. = nee wanton Oireet — Conttion tang vation | a Netasate sae te elston falls dicey fam (Contin band) to he lowe easy Fig. 2.33 : Direct and indirect transiti In ease of direct transition, higher energy level level (valance band), But in case of indirect transition, because of difference in the ‘momenta of electron and holes, the electron when falling from conduction band stops at intermediate energy level (called 2s metastable state) fora cera time and then it wil Feach to the valance band. So definitely time required for indirect transition is more dan that of dizectaasiton, (Q) In case of LEDS different materials are used to get the radiation in infrared region and inthe visible region. To get the radiation in infrared region GaAs material is used. It causes the divect transition and gives the wavelength neatly 885 nm. The energy output his case 1.4 eV. Sometime the combination of GaAs with indium and aluminiuimis used. This gives the wavelength as follows : InGaAs 8500 A* AlGaAs —+ 9000 A° To get the radiation in the visible region Gallium Phosphide (GaP) is used. This causes the indirect transition, If the nitrogen is dopped in GaP then it gives the visible radiation having the wavelength equals to 5650 A° . Tis gives green or yellow colours Sometimes the combination of GaAs and P is used. If nitrogen is used as an dopent materi) in this case then GaAsP gives out the wavelength equals to 5900 A®, This is yellow coloured light. @ @ @ ‘Aluminium Gallium Arsenide| high-brightness red, orange- Phosphide (AIGaASP) re, orange; and yellow Gallium Arsenide Phosphie| red to infra-red, orange (GaAs) [Gallium Phosphide (GaP) red, yellow and green ‘Aluminium Gallium Phosphide| green (AIGaP) Gallium Nitride (GaN) green, emerald green near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue Due as a substrate (Gallium Indium Nitride (GalnN) Silicon Carbide (SiC) Zine Selenide (ZaSe) ‘Aluminium Gallium Nitride’ (AlGaN) bive ultraviolet (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 22-28) (P8-106) {Bl rech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venturefiber Optic Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-£8TC) (Optical Sources)....Page no. (2-5) ws 2.4.1 Difference between GaAs Infrared LED and GaAsP Visible LED { Sap aE LED: “Type efLight | Radiaes bake | Radistes lignin nsble region | | Type of Transistor | 1k possess direct asitioa. For most of the wavelength transition is indirect | Tncident Enemy | Most of the incident energy B radiated | Sore of iecizen energy is converted int beat Bandesp Bandgap of GaAs= 1 eV Bandgap of GaAs S_| Wavelength | Wavelength of ight= 3 om Waveleopth of fights 0am. WB 24.2 V-I Characteristics of LED —, ‘© Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs 2 current to flow through it, as itis Hoa a current dependant device with their light ouput intensity being directly proporioaa! to the forward current flowing through the LED. «As the LED is to be connected in 2 forward bias condition across a power supply it should be current limited using a series resistor to protect it from excessive curreat flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery of power supply 2s it will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out. © From the table above we can see that each LED has its own forward voltage drop across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by LED andits the semiconductor material used, is the forward eae voltage drop for a specified amount of forward conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA, + In most cases LEDs are operated from a low volt value from say Sma for a simple LED indicator t Infrared Rod ‘Ambot Yolow Groon Bhio white Fig. 2.4.(a) : General VI characteristics of LED LDC supply, with 2 series resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to 2 sife Oma or more where a high beighmess light output is needed. % 2.4.3 V-Icharacteristics of Gallium Arsenide LED «The V —[ characteristics of forward biased gallium oo arsenide LED is as shown in Fig. 24.10). oO ‘+ The different electrical and optical parametecs are as follows : Te (ma) (2) Reverse leakage curreat (Ip) =50 nA. 1 (@)_ Reverse voltage (Vp) = 30 V- | (©) Forward current (Ig) = 1010 80 mA. {@) Forward voltage (Vg) = 121032 V 0001S" Gos (©) Power output (Po) = 200 to 500 pW ve— (Radiant intensity (Ig) = 24 mWisteradians (@) Peak wavelength @) = 90am. 2.4.1(b) = V—I characteristics of GaAs LED SACHIN SHAH Venture (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 22-23) (P8-108) [Bl recn-neo Publications...iber of Ste Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-€870) S244 Quantum Efficiency The quanti The quantum efcene ofan LED x defied as he rat ber of photon emited Oi tothe miner og in = Number of photons emited out © Number of elecroas injected in {intemal quantum efficiency of LED is given by, ‘otal recombination ietime Mae Oty Radiative recombination sse ime 4 Su = Nonradiative recombination sss time ‘The external quantum efficiency is given by, Mot = n(a+iy ee n= Refractive index of tight source material ‘Most of the LEDs are having quantum efficiency that is less than 1, ‘The efficiency gets reduced because ofthe following factors: (@) Nature of material used. (©) Change in reactive index. (©) Angle made by emitted photons. Materials used for the manufacturing of LED may consist of the defects or flaws. So it may happen that the emitted Photons gers trapped in these flaws and won't come out. Tis reduces the total number of output photons and in tra the ‘quantum efficiency. The light rays (photons) coming out from the LED enters into the air medium which's having eefractive index equals t 1. Because of change in refractive index, the bending of light rays takes place. This again reduces the quantum efficiency. ‘Some of the light rays coming out from LED makes an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle. This light rays causes the internal reflections that means they will not comes ot from the LED structure. % 2.4.5 Effect of Temperature } As the temperature of LED goes on increasing, most of the electron - hole recombination causes the nonradiative action, That means photons are-not emitted. So the power ‘output from the LED gets reduced. Fig, 24.2(a) shows the variation of output power of LED with tempetature. To provide the temperature compensation a simple circuit is used as shown in Fig. 24.2(0). } The LED is having negative temperauure coefficient, that ‘means as the operating temperature goes on increasing the ouput power 6d 0s. 03 “75-60-25 0 25 80 75 100 dune temperate (0) —> Fig. 2.42(a): Variation of output power with temperature Vee A As 80 ma Fig. 24.200) oO erasistor having pose temperature coefficient. eo Ry Vs | (ovtcl Soures)..Page n2.(2) But as shown in Fig. 24.3 this is compensated by using 2 Re: Re Fig. 243 : Temperature compensation % 2.4.6 Protection Circuit for LED * Tf the current passing through LED gets increased than the specified maximum curent then the LED may bum. So to limit this current always a series resistance is used, Consider the diagram shown in Fig. 2.44, Let Vo = 10 V ang let the current passing through LED is 80 mA, Thea, Vue Caren limiting resistor (R) = io 952 ‘current through the LED starts reducing. PU - New Syllabus w.e academic year 22-03) (P8-106) aR hrecreo Pubizations..A SACHIN SHAH Venturea S880 mA pig 244: LED with current initing resistor ore re Wap = Vota ats LED = 24 Se. 2.4.7 Calculation of Irradiance at the Detector Consider a light from the LED is allowed to fall on the laced ata distance ‘das shown in Fig. 245, jrcular detector and @ is the detector : Let ‘A’ is the area of the i divergence angle. From Fig, 24.3 we have, i. ore Detector Fig. 24.8 : Irradiation at the detector ee aug 8 nr = dant + ButOis generally small, nee dd e241) + We have, iradiance (H) at the detector, Output power 24.2) * Now using Equation (2.4.1) we get, 8 9. 10. im 12. Available in different cotours, They have longer life compared 1g lamps, Compatible with integrated circuits, Costis low. : % 2.4.9 Disadvantages of Lep | Output power ges affected by the Quantum efficiency is low. Gets damaged because of overvolta LED light causes Blue pollution LED fixtures are voltage Sensitive LED fixtures donot allow spherical light Distibtn Se ag L 2: 7 BE and o 4 ere 5. 6 %& 2.4.10 Applications of LED Various types of displays, Source in optocoupler. Infrared remote controls. Indicator lamps. In light batteries. Indicators in measuring devices. Picture Phones and Digital watches Camera flashes and automotive heat lamps ‘Traffic signals and Burglar Alafins 10. Digital Computers and Calculators a The common LED structures used in fiber opis ‘communication are as follows : 1. Homojunetion } 2. Heterojunction L 2 3. 4, 5. 6 7 8. 9. Fig. 2.5.1 : LED Structures %_ 2.5.1 Homojunction ny. —%o 4Po A ( 43 ) “Eee (2) Ifa p-n junction is made from two differeat mixes of ne 2 types of atoms, then it is called as homojunction. a (2) That means homojunction is an interface between the lye 2.4.8 Advantages of LED of similar semiconducting matecal. But these lye 1. They are small in size, semiconducting material are having different doping 2 Lightin weight. (3) Homojunction LED is also called as surface emit 3. They are mechanically rugged, (4) Advantage : An important advantage of homejencon 4 They have lower operatine tem is its low terminal impedance. 5. Nocomplex driver sneuiey een ©) Disad + Emitted light is usually nonizeton! circuitry is requized, isadvantage : Emitted light is 6 Switch - on time is very small. -L__They have higher speed. a HAH Ventu® PPU 'U- New Syllabus w.e. academic year 22-23) (P8-106) Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SFiber Optic Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-E&TC) a a Qo @ 8 2.5.2 Heterojunction Heterojunction is an interface between dissimilar layers of semiconductors. These layers of semiconducting material having different bandgaps, Ta case of heterojunction LED; the light is emitted from tle edges; so such LED is aso called as edge emiting LED. are Advantages ‘Due to increased current density; a fine light. ‘spot is obtained, ‘The light emitting area is small, so it becomes easy to connect LED to the optical cable. * High speed data transmission is possible. DESPA Ee ER Ee ‘The major types of LED are as follows : 2. Surtace Emitting LED 3. Edge omiting LED. Fig. 2.6.1 : Types of LED 2.6.1 Planar LED. ‘The structure of planar LED is shown isi Fig. 2.62. Light output Ohmic p-type epitaxial layer contacts n-type substrate Fig. 2.6.2: Structure of planar LED “The p-type epitaxial ayer is diffused on nype of substrate and this fabrication is done using vapour phase epitaxial process. The intemal reflection takes place in the structure; £0 low radiation is produced. That means limited amount of light is emitted out from such LEDs. Consider thatthe planner LED is fabricated 7from a material having refractive index ny then optical power emitted into Jower refractive index ais, Pig Fa 4n Popical 1 ——Qhtical Sources)... Page no, 2 Internally yenerated power i Ming Ioveral quantum efficiency Forward bias current Charge of electron Speed of light Planks constant ' Operating wavelength ‘Transmission factor of semiconductor external interface ‘ % Now, ‘5" Advantages & Disadvantages of Planar LED Advantages of Planar LED wo @) 8) @) losses due o reflection can be minimized in planer LED Radiance is low Simple construction and operation Due to Lambertian pattem, this LED appears to be bright in all directions. Disadvantages of Planar LED (1) Reflection tosses will be more in planer LED (2) Low output power (3), Low E/O conversion efficiency % 2.6.2 Surface Emitting LED The technique pioneered by Burrus and Dawson with hhomostructure devices was to use an etched well in a GaAs substrate in order to prevent heavy absorption of the emited radiation, and physically to accommodate the fiber. “These structures have a low thermal impedance in the active region allowing high curent densities and giving igh- radiance emission into the optical fiber. AS the ame indicates; the light is emitted from the surface of LED structure. The plant of light emitting surface is placed in a perpendicular direction to the axis of optical fber. Thus the light from LED can be directly coupled into the optical fiber ‘The structure of Double Heterodyae (DH) surface emiting LED is as shown in Fig, 2.63. ‘The SiO, layer acts as insulator between p” GaAs and metal. ‘The layer of p-AIGaAs is sed to avoid recombinations and sed to perform optical confinement. In this structure, 2 well is etched throug the substrate of device andthe optical fiber is cemented into it A microlens is placed on the LED to improve coupling efficiency. “The light emitted from the LED is directly coupled to the fiber. By using etching, the distance between active region and emitting surface is minimized a @ 8 Oy © rash han Buhliratians...A SACHIN SHAH Ventureeer Ontic Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-E&TC) (Optica! Sources) ..Page no. (2-9) ‘Ugh output uitimose optest ber Neral n-AIGaAs 40-50 um fatype Gas p GaAs p-AGaAS Mechanical Yj P' GaAs support Metatization gold stud ght emiting S10, region Contact 0 um diameter Fig. 2.63 : Double Heterodyne (DH) surface emitting LED * The differeat properties of surface emitter LED are: 6 ‘The internal absorption in the device is very low due to larger @) High radiance is obtained. bandgap confining layers. Moreover reflection coefficient at Gi Low terminal impedance is obtained in the active ‘the back crystal face is high which gives good forward region radiance, Gi) Due t0 Double Heterojunction (DH); the coupling | car Disadvantages efficiency (n) is increased. 1, ‘The surface emitting LED can transmit data rate less than 20 Gx) Emission patter is isotropic with 120° half power Mbps than edge emiting LED. beam width, 2. It comtains shor optical link with large NA. (Numerical “This pater is called as Lambertian pattern. Aperture) 3. Ifthe active layer temperature is increased thea lifetime of, Advantages and disadvantages LED is deceased. — Advantages % 2.6.3 Edge Emitting LED (ELED) Following ar the benefits or advantages of Surface Emiting LED: ‘© The Double Heterodyne (DH) AlGaAs edge emiting LED is 1. Optical coupling coefficient of LED with extemal fiber shown in Fig. 26.4 system is relatively higher. Heace this LED offers high | * Its widely used in optical fiber communication systema. Here optical coupling efficiency. collimated light from LED is required tobe fed into the fiber 2. Optical loss (due to intemal absorption) is very low. This is with high coupling efficiency. because of cater recombination near its top heterojunction. | © — Modern epitaxial growth techniques such as MBE, MOCVD 3. InP/inGaAsP based LED is used for long. wavelength fe, are used in order to design such complex LED structures. applications. © Ttoasists of two optical guiding layers namely P” AlGaAs 4, — Itoffers higher efficiency with low to high radiance, and n GaAs. 5. The top n-GaAs contact layer ensures low thermal resistance | * Central active layer is made using InGaAs having sarow and contact resistance. This allows high current densities and bandgap. It is bounded by wide bandgap layers such as p+ high radiation intensi InGaAsP and n+ InP cladding layers.Ret Optic Communication {SPPU-Sem 8-€8TC) 0. (210) (Optica! Sources). layer Fig. 2.64 ‘These two cladding layers help in coafining injected electrons ‘and holes into the middle layer. It also helps emitted photons to travel along LED axis as per optical properties. Both the siding layers have refractive index lower than active region, ‘and higher than surrounding material. ‘The strip geometry is similar to injection layer and it has transparent guiding layets with thin active layer. If the Numerical Apemure (NA} is tow (less than 0.3) the edge emitting LED couples more optical power than surface emitting LED. The modulation bandwidth is in terms of hundreds of Mizz vantages and Disadvantages F Advantages DH strip geometry has high radiance. ‘Swip geometry allows high cartier injection densities. It has superior beam collimation property which offers greater coupling efficiency with fiber optic cable compare to surface emining LED. 4 ‘Metal contact nrAlGeAs (active layer) Edge emitting LED It offers higher efficiency with low to high radiance. It fulfils high beightness LED requirements of the lighting industry. Ik radiates less power to the air compare to surface emitting LED due to reabsorption and interfacial recombination. Ik offers better modulation bandwidth and more directional ‘emission pattem. It offers 56 times more coupled power into NA (Numerical Aperture) of stepigraded index fibers. This is due to small beam divergence. Ik offers high data rates (> 20 Mbps) than surface emitting LED, Disadvantages Its structure is complex, ifficule to design heat sink, is expensive compare to other LED types. ‘There are many issues to be handled during mechanical ‘mounting and instalation G-LED AND 1 DGE EMITTING LED i 1. | Light is emitted from the surface of the device. Light is emitted from the edge of the device 2_| Active tayer is sandwiched between two layers. ‘Ichas wansperent guiding layers with thin active layers 3. | PAIGaAs performs optical confinement and recombination process. avoids Light spreads into guiding layers ceducing self absorption of active region PPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 22-23) (P8-106) Tarecnties Pusteaton..A SACHIN SHAH Vonunei Less modulation ‘bandwidth. i ope or opin pve Bea, More modulation bandwidth, Couples more optical power forlow Na Wave guiding narrows the beam dive [vision terns ouopie: —————" cuito Fabrcate Easy to Fabricate Difficult to mount and Handle Easy to mount and Handle Need Critical tolerance on fabrication eguse Less erica olrance Sai Rane 10, | tess Reliable a High System performance wy System pe = = u te ais a ‘Narrow Spectral bandwidth Internal Qusawum efficiency is ia the tage of O wang 15, | Maximom quantum efficiency is upto 60% iGo MODUIATION OF LED ee Modulation Methods . mn is the process in which one: of the parameters veined with the eater wave is varied, for the transmission of signal. The general modulation methods are amplitude, frequency, phase, imadiation etc. © But in case of fiber optic communication the data is transmitted in the form of light rays. And in this case the detector gives response to the change in irradiance of the signal. ‘© So generally irradiation modulation method is used. ‘© There are two types of this modulation techniques. 1. Analog modulation 2. Digital modulation In case of light sources; the response time (frequency response) isan important parameter. ‘+ For LED, the response time gives the information about time. required to change th light output with respect to input drive current. In another language; response time gives an idea of the delay in LED response. ‘The response time is mainly dependant on following factors : @ The doping level in active region, GG) Injected carrier lifetime (©) in the recombination region (ii). Parasitic capacitance of LED, {in case of LED, the property of light it inbeniee eee ight is modulated with the Sout Electcal 348 point Optical 3 48 pone Electrical bandwidth ke Optical bandwicth —o} Fig. 2.9.1 : Frequency response of LED © LEDis given by, Po P@) = Jiv@) Here, Py = Optical output power at zo modulation frequency © The major source of delay in output is the parite capacitance but this delay cin be reduced by applying « constant forward. bias to the diode, Thus the module response of LED is dependant only on carrier resombisea time. * A typical frequency response of LED is shown in Fig. 29! ‘The modulation bandwidth of LED is expressed cite @ terms of electrical quantity or optical quantity. i * Bleetrcal bandwidth is the value at which ouput cess power is reduced to 3.dB down the input eleticl FE “The power is directly proportional to curent 0 Property of li it ower ratio can be expressed as, polarization or frequency.“ Usht can be intensity, E re 1] " areas ibe drive current applied to LED input is Ratio = 10log| p@y sta Fequency "0" then the output optical power of r© 1. Ratio = 10log| 7) (SPPU- (sPPU New Syabus we academic year 22-25) (P6-105) vent [Bl rech-Neo Pubticaons.. SACHIN SHA‘communication (SPPU-Sem 8-E8TO) (Optical Sources)....Page no. (2-12) oor Opt re and (0) represents the cuensin ransmiting and | + The ample ofan i : Hee) tau Ate cecil brdvih be | "dine guna ad unis eanered ino he gel Sa canes ti, Mise eee TO 0.707. + During = ‘time period between this sampling event and the : next sampling event, the Seis of pulses ate tcasmited ope 38 isatthe frequency; where the cuent ratio | Thea to feproduce the oxiginal signal sampling theorem is isore! tn case of analog modulation technique the primary information signal is a time varying electrical signal. fn this ‘case the voltage evel continuously varies with an iradiance. Here the signal is defined by the envelope of waveform. This js called as amplitude modulation technique as shown in Fig. 2.10.1. Signal enone © LEDGE light emitting diode .it is one ofthe sourse element of fiber optics communication system LED analog transmitter is nothing bot fiber optics transmitter in that LED is used as Fig. 2.10.1 : Return to zero signal «In case of digits! modulation technique the signal is transmitted in the form of seties of pulses. These pulses are having te fixed amplitude and the amplitude is not varying as that of the analog modulation. Here the width ofthe pulses are restricted to certain level. “+ This called as quantization level. Ifthe pulse js considered as logic high level and if the pulse then itis considered as logic low level. © If the width of the pulse is less than slot then itis aid to be “return (o 2210" shown in Fig. 2.10. preseat it absent the predetermined time (RZ) signal. This is as Tea st Fig. 2.10.2 : Non return to zero signal » Now if the pulse width completely fills the predetermined time slot then that signal is called as non-retum to zero signal (NRZ). This is as shown in Fig. 2.10.3. spt sce econo : interface LED |Txstanal = ese] dee repsido 3 Bottom side g say 4 Ea Becreio Ssotace Fig. 211.1 : LED analog Transmitter ‘The function of LED is its convert analog signal into ight signal for transmission purpose. ‘The basic optical transmitter converts electical signal ito ‘modulated light for hansmission over optical fiber, ‘+ Depending upon nature of this sigaalyesulting modulated ligth may be tumed on and off or may be linacly varied in ‘tensity between vo levels which is shown io Fig. 2.11.2 Wu WV OnOFF Modulation ——_Linear Modlation Basic modulation methods intensity Fig. 2.11. 'SPPU - New Syllabus w.e-f academic year 22-23) (P6-106) [Bal rech.teo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureFiber Optic Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-E&TC) SSa——— pol 2.12, SOLVED PROBLEMS:ON LED. pk = x aONE é Ex. 2.12.1 : What power is radiated by LED if its intemal guanmim efficiency Nigy is 1.5 %, wavelength is 800 nm and forward current is 45 mA ? Soin. : Internal power is given by, Pa = Thnig' 3, Here Tg = 15% = 0.015 i= 45mA=45x107 A q = Charge of electron = 1.602 x 107” b= Plank's constant = 6.625 x 10" © = Speed of light =3 x 10° m/sec 2 = Wavelength = 800 nm 800% 10"? m = 0015 x45 x 10x 6.625 x 1043 10° 1.602 x 10" 7x 800 x 10 Pi = 1.0467 mW Given, Radiative recombination lifetime = +, = 50 ns [Non Radiative recombination lifetime = t= 110 ns Wavelength = 2=087 pm = 087%10°m Deive eureat = i=40 mA = 409x107 A (The total recombinasion lifetime i, _ Ze oT ete 50% 150 = BaN pe Ma7s as ‘Now internal quantum efficiency is. 2 _ M375 Min = 7,7 50 0.6875 = 68.95 % (i) _Soternal power is given by. (Optical Sources)... Page no. (2-13) Ex. 2.12.3 : An optical wansmiter uses DH structure InGaAsP LED operating at a wavelength of 1550 om and 4, = 25 nsec, t,, = 90 nsec Ifthe LED is driven with a curreat of 35 mA. (Find imermal quantum efficiency and power generued wernally (Gi) In =3.5 of the light source material, find the power emitted from the device, & Soin. : @ The total recombination lifetime is, Toe fe ataae c= BEB toste ; Now nteral quantum ficiency, a = he = O72 (5) Temal powers given, = nt Pie = Miarga, *. Pg = 21.9217 mW Now extemal quantum efficiency is, 1 1 -—- Met = atl) G5G5+) Net = 00141=141 % Optical power and internal power are related by, Sle five=Line widt es * 6.625 x10 @ Soin: ap 1.602 x 100.8710 ‘LED emits light with 2 = $20 om centre wave Pig = 39.2155mW 42.=20 nm (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 22-23) (P8-106) [Bil rech-Neo Pubicatons..A SACHIN SHAH Ventre@) @ @ (SPPU-- New Syllabus w. __(Optical Sourcos)....Page no. (2-14) Frequency sp spacing = Af a5 & “ Where wh L = Length and 8 = efractve index ‘Also wavelength spacing a = 2 @ ala th = PS Potiag hs vale n Eaton 1) ar a Bxiohea 2x82x10™ ‘820m Fig. P. 2.12.5 : Typical spectrum from a gain guided GaAs laser diode emission of radiation, Here the word ‘light? stands for the electromagnetic radiation which covers the range from ultraviolet region to the infrared region. ‘The light has a dual nature. It consists of a wave nature and the energy. The energy contained by the light means, the number of photons contained by that light. ‘The laser light is ‘monochromatic’ in nature. That means this Light is baving a lsingle colour or single wavelength (mono means one and éhroma means colour). Similarly this light is coherent in the nature, that means all the wavelets contained in laser light are in the same phase. This is the major advantage of laser over ordinary light sources. “The basic structure of any laser is based on an active medium (cither a gas or semiconductor) contained between multiple reflectors. Shown in Fig) 2.13.1. ef academic year 22-23) (P8-108) 6) Mirror [ ittit = Pumping energy reflective roflective 13.1 : LASER’ Fig. ‘A laser's reflectors contain light by oscillating it through a ‘medium repeatedly allowing the energy to coherently build ‘up with each pass using a process called stimulated emission. Laser radiation escapes due to a partially reflecting mirror in the assembly. This light can be used for a variety of applications including medical equipment, entertainment projectors, sensing for dynamic measurements, laser ‘manufacturing, positioning, and! machine vision. ‘The fist successful laser was designed by ‘Maiman’ in 1960. After that several improvements were done and now-a-days various types of laser are available. That are ruby lasers, Gaseous lasers, power lasers, semiconductor lasers et. © a Basie steps required to form laser beam are as follows : ‘There are generally three processes Basie steps of laser beam () Absorption (i) Spontaneous emission (i) Stimulated emission (iv) Population invorsion Fig. 2.13.2: Steps of Laser beam > @ Absorption * Under normal condition the tendency of electrons in case of the semiconducting material is to stay at, the lower energy level. This lower energy level is called as ground state (E,), # If the photon of certain energy is incident on this electron then the electron absorbs this energy. So the total energy contained by that electon gets increased and now it is possible for that electron to shift towards the higher energy level ). [Bl reon-neo Pubiicatons..A SACHIN SHA Venture(Optical Sources) rier opti Commu Tris pocess ownin F213, Injoctodeooton ____—g, — woe ; etocton a yout > 1333: Absorption of photon ‘acrally the number of electrons, absorbing the incident photons and travelling towards the higher enersy lovel are vie bat for simplicity only one electron is shown, This afer of electron is purely because of increase in its energy: ration is that, the incident photon Here the important conside should-provide sufficient energy t0 the electron to cause the motion of electron from E, to Ep. This sufficient energy in this case isthe energy level difference between E, and Ep. ‘That means the incident photon should provide atleast the energy Ey ~ By. But if this much amount-of energy is not provided by the incident photon, then th electron will absorb the energy, but it will not reach to the energy level E>, Jn this case the electron gets shifted and occupies an intermediate energy level between E, and Ey This intermediate energy level is called as metastable state, And after sometime the electron falls back to its original energy level that is ground state. (id) Spontaneous emission [After the absorption process the electron or atoms are present at the higher energy level that means they possess the excited state. Now if no incident light (Uiat means photons) are provided externally then these electrons stays at this stage for a short time, But after some time period, the electrons falls back to its original stage that is lower energy level. Consider one electron present at the higher energy level. ‘When this electron falls back to the lower energy level, it will ‘emit the energy which. was absorbed by it during the absorption process. Thus it gives out the radiation. ‘The eoeigy emitted during this transition of electron from Ey to E, is simply the energy level difference between these two energy levels (lat mean E, ~ E). This electrons falling back ‘to ground state may directly comes to the ground state or it may follows 2103 steps to reach tothe ground state. Re 2.jpomaneous emission process is shown in Here the important thing is that, ER Ry Excited electom ee e Tt Phony 2) Fig. 2.13.4 : Spontaneous emission > Gili) Stimulated emission + This is the Key process of the formation of tas Because in this process only the amplification of jy, place. Consider the electron or atom preseat in te hate, We have discusied tat afer cele nn om falls due to spontancous process and emits pooa + Bot before the occurence of ths spontaeons enr ‘excited atom then there is no chance for this stom to goto he further higher energy level. ‘© In this case once the extemal photon stikes to this excing tom, tis atoms leaves its postion from tis higher ee level and it will emit the photon. Thus we are geting twp photons at the output one which is stiking on the exed atom and other coming oiit because of the excited stom leaving the higher energy level. © Soone input photon causes the emission of two photons and the light amplification takes place. This process is shown in Fig. 2.13.5. '* These two photons are in same phase and travelling in same direction. Incident photon Excited atom Ey ~ + Photons amited because of —~——— stimulation eT Fig, 2.135 : Stimulated emission © Consider a box containing the excited atoms. Now if phtoe that nicans a lightwave is applied 10 it as som Fig. 2.13.6, then the stimulated ‘emission takes place, light wave gets amplified. the npr igh wre ost be applied to the excited atom before the occu spontaneous emission process. i (SPPU - New Syllabus w.0.f academic year 22-23) (P8-106) onte [Eel rech-Neo Publications..A SACHIN SH!so Ope Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-E&TC) retent awa Exctedatom — fmpEted | : a ay does ep op Eee ias | lent electromagnetic | electromagnetic S field. ana | A 4 | This phenomenon takes | Thisis he baie IAS place in light sources like | phesemenon taking place in rad oon LED, uorescent tubes etc._| the formation of leer beam / 5. | There ig no poputation | Popa + Oberwise no amplification of input wave wil take place, || ~ | inversion i oi rather inthis case output wave will be having same amplitude png, as that of input wave, a 1 If nstead of excited atoms, the atoms at the lower enesgy level are present in the box, then these atoms absorbs the energy ftom input wave and the amplitude of input wave gets reduced + Spin this case to cause the amplification two conditions are necessary. (@) The input light wave (photons) should strike the excited atoms before the occurrence of spontaneous emission In the total structure the number of excited atoms should be more than that of atoms present atthe ground level +The process in which the number of excited atoms made larger than that of the atoms present at ground state is called “popalation inversion”. + Similarly the time petiod for which the atoms preseat inthis excited state should be made longer. This again makes easier to cause the stimulated emission, + ‘Thus in case of stimulated emission if numberof atoms atthe excited state are more, more number of photons are emitted, ‘Thus causing amplification of light. +All these photons are in same phase and are travelling in the ‘same direction, Now this amplified light wave is called laser ‘beam whichis coherent and monochromatic is nature: o 2 2.13.1 Comparison between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission =| Gv) Population Inversion * Under the conditions of thermal equilibrium given by the Boltzmann disuibution the lower energy level Ey of the ‘two-level atomic system contains more atoms than the upper energy level E,. To achieve optical amplification it is necessary to create a nonequibibrium distibution of atoms such that the population of the upper energy evel is sreter than that of the lower energy level (ie. Nz>Nj) This condition, i known as population inversion In order to achieve population inversion it is necsssary to excite aloms into the upper energy level E, 2nd hence obtsin 4 non-equilibrium distribution. This process is achieved using an extemal energy source and is refered to as ‘pumping’. A ‘comamon method used for pumping involves the application of imense radiation (eg, from an optical flash tebe or high-frequency radio field). Atoms are excited into the higher cnergy state through stimulated absorption. When the two levels are equally degenerate (or not degenerate) thus the probabilities of absorption and stimulated emission are equal, providing at best equal populations in the two levels. Population inversion, however, may be obtained in systems with thee or four energy levels. The energy-level diagrams, for two such systems, which conespond to two non-semiconductor lasers, are illustrated in figure. To aid attainment of population inversion both systems display a central melasable state in which the atoms spend an ‘unusually Jong time. Itis from this metastable level thatthe stimulated emission or lasing takes place. The three-level system (Fig. (8) consists of a ground level Ep , = metastable level E atid a third level above te metastable level Ey Initially, the atomic distribution will follow Boltzmann's Lat However, with suitable pumping the electrons in some ofthe 2 ‘atoms may be excited from the ground state into the higher 1. | An excited electron; falls | If extemal photon stikes an level Ep. Since Ey is a normal level the electrons will rapidly back t0 the lower energy | excited election then this decay by nonradiative processes to either By or directly to level, giving out 9 photon, | excited electron falls back to Eq, Hence empty states will always be provided in E>. The It represents spontaneous | ground state, producing metastable level E, exhibits a much longer lifetime than E, emission stimulated emission which allows a large number of atoms to accumulate at 2. | Amplification action does | Amplification of photons B.Over a period the density of atoms in the metastable state not take place. take place. No increases above those in the ground state N and SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 22-23) (P8-106) |Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venturewo Gon Bein BATO) population Inver Is aid Unice Ove two bo ‘tienulated emis: mn nd tence Jasing can then cc, Coating taative electron Mansions letwenn Jevels By eh FA diaiebick ith Me tneeteve uch a the aby yp powers ste of the laser transition is he gro tate, Hence anor than ball the groaned ns ust be inapedd into tie metastable sate Wy achleve population that generally requires ery gh pm canoe the terminal ‘inversion Thy contast, » fourdevel system suely as the Hele laser illustaated in Fy, (hy) bs characterized by wich tower pumping teaqitcanents ln this ease the pumping exces Hv atoms om the ground state Into energy Hevel By anid they decay rapidly fo the mitastable level I. Howeve, since the populations of 1 omy seamsin exseatally changed, small Increase in tHe nuinber of atoms in energy level By creates population inversion and lasing, takes place Uetween this Jevel and level Enotgy (E) Pumping Ey Enorgy (6) w Fy, 2413.7 + Energy-level dlagrams show inversion and lasing for two nonsemiconductor lasers: (8) three-level system ruby (erystal) laser; (b) four-level system - He-Ne (gus) laser, o @ © © o @ 6) “ 6) Fneray OF) (Optical Sources)...Page no (217) ‘exp (ET) Ps Density of atoms (1) W 1 ip, 243-1(b) a nonequi population inversion brium distribution showing, 2.13.2 Advantages of Lasers over other Light Sources Advantages ‘thas high information earying capacity and hence is used in ‘communication domain for transmission of information tis. free from elecuo-magnetic interference, ‘This phenomenon is used in optical wireless communication through free space for telecommunication as well as computer networking. hss very minimom signal leakage. Laser based fiber opte cables are very light in weight and. hence are used in fiber optic communication system. {his less damaging compare to X-rays and hence widely used in medical field for teatment of cancers It is used to burn sanall rumors on eye surface and also on tissue surface, High intensity and low divergence of laser is used for knocking down the enemy tank with accurate range determination, For this purpose neodymium and carbon dioxide Iver types are used. Laser range finder is also used jn several defence areas for medium range upto 10 Km. Single laser beam can be focused in areas smaller than 1 mnicro diameter. One square micro area is needed to store 1 bit of data, This helps io storing 100 million data in one square cin. Due to this fact, laser is being used in laser CDs ‘nd DVDs for data storage in the form of audio, video, documents ete, Disadvantages It is expensive and hence more expenditure to the patients ‘requiring laser based treatments Ttis costly to maintain and henee more cost to doctors and Hospital management. Increases complexity and duration of the treatment based on laser devices or equipments Laver eannot be used in many commonly performed dental procedures eo fil cavities between teeth et Ler beam is very dliate to handle in cutting process. The slight mistaken adjusting disse and tempeare may ead (GPPU-- New Syllabus w.6{ sendomic year 22-23) (PB-100) [Bl rech-tico Pubtications..A SACHIN SHAH VentureFiber Optic Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-E8TC) Page no. (2:18) te Buming oF dscolring ofthe meal. Moeoverin waar higher power during the ‘Cutting process, * (© Wishart to human be i and often bums them during ‘contacts According to the type of material used for the formation of Jaser beam, the lasers are classified as the @ Solid state laser, © Ruby laser © N&YAG Laser ©) Gaseous lasers, © He-Ne Laser © COpLaser © Excimer Laser (QD) Liquid tasers and (IV) Semiconductor laser %S 2.14.1 Solid State Lasers The solid-state laser is a type of laser where the medium used 's solid, The solid material used in these lasers is either glass or ‘crystalline materials. Shown in Fig, 2.14.1 > (@) Working of Solid-State Laser * Glass or crystalline materials used in a solid-state laser are used as impurities in the form of ions along with the host ‘material. Doping is the term used for describing the process of addition of impurities tothe substance, Reflector and pumping cavity 3. (Optical Sources). ‘The dopants that are used in this type of laser are terbivm (Tb), erbium (Ev), and cerium (Ce) which are rare earth elements. ‘The host materials are ywerbium-doped glass, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium gamet, neodyr doped glass and sapphire. The most commonly used host ‘material is neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet. () Application of Solid-State Laser ‘The drilling of holes in the metals becomes easy with these lasers. ‘The push-type solid-state lasers are used for medical purposes such as for endoscopy. ; ‘They find application in the military and are used in the target destination system, (©) Advantages of Solid-State Lasers ‘These lasers have casts that are economical. ‘The construction of a solid-state laser is simple. ‘The output can be both continuous and pulsed. ‘There is very less or zero chance of material ia active ‘medium going waste, The efficiency of these lasers is high (@) Disadvantages of S¢ State Lasers ‘The output of solid-state lasers is not high. ‘The divergence of this laser is not constant and varies between 1 milliadian to 20 milliradians. ‘There is @ power loss in the laser due to heating of the rod. Pump lamp Fig. 2.14.1 : Solid State LASER %_ 2.14.2 Types of Solid State LASER (2) Ruby laser ‘This isa solid state laser which can be operated in a continuous mode or in a pulsed mode. Principle of operation Ruby rod.contains a chromium atoms which ase excited by the flash tube. The stimulated emission is done and th particular wavelength is emitted. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 22-23) (P8-106) we laser light of a Tel rech-vco Publications. SACHIN SHAH Venturerained. 1s the ability advantages jnuous and pul Boscom 8 pst mel ed operations can be o it giv is considerably TOF, sted chromium atoms iS Life time of excit a appre case ebm osion POMS : We ion watts a0 |k Higer power upo ten tonsa rillion watt atiained from this laser. se Disadvantages 1 For a coninvous operation cooling S120 should be provided. 2, Beeause of heating th ww change the resonance wavelength of Taser beam. 4 normal aby Taser is operated continuously then the ruby material may gets melt 4, Foracontinuous operation a output power iso «length of rby rod gets changed. So it ly 1 wats = Applications Roby lasers are used at several places such as welding persion, laser ranging sytem, earth rotational rate Sensors ete (li) Na: YAG Laser : (Neodynium Yattrium ‘Aluminium Garnet Laser) ‘The Nd: YAG is a solid state material. It has good thermal and optical properties. So in many places instead of ruby laser Nd: Yag lasers are used. Principle of operation ‘The photons from the flash tube excites the neodymium atoms to, higher energy levels. When they are stroked by another photons from the flash tube it causes the stimulated emission, Theo by several reflections in optical cavity, the laser beam is formed. Advantages Na: YAG material has good optical and thermal properties. Large number of spikes of about 1 sec can be obtained, Disadvantages egpr g Since the output spikes are not. related to coherence of laser beam is poor. oo 2. Power outpitis less (typically 2 x 10° watts.) 3. Power efficiency is less (0.1 %) *F Applications ' caput YAG is standard solid state material this laser can Blase of miby laser, for example laser welding ‘operation, soldein ion, ove '8 operation, continuous high power operations (SPPU - New Syllabus we. academic year 22:29) (Pe-1 (06) gases or vapours. These lasers ate casified a, @ PPP ger g veern A Gi) yw 2.14.3 Gas Lasers (Optical Sources)... Gas lasers have an active medium made uy, OF On oF oy ‘Atomic gas lasers which is He-Ne laser Molecular gas lasers which is CO2 laser Ton gas lasers that are Argon laser ‘There arc different types of gas lasers. These ae He - Ne (Helium - Neon) laser He - Ne laseris a simple and inexpensive type of, gives a very much narrow laser beam witha go u Principle of operation Initaly the discharge in the plasma tube takes place, he filament produces continuous supply of elections. Tp ionization of the He ~ Ne gas mixture takes place because gf this stimulated emission the laser beam comes out from ose of the ends. Advantages ‘A continuous laser beam is formed. “This laser is having broad range of wavelength. ‘No need of a flash tube. ‘The laser light is very much sharp. Low cost. Disadvantages “The output power of laser beam is lov. For higher currents the laser action will not take place. Applications Used in interferometry. Used as a source in holography. Ttis used for semiconductor wafer inspection. Carbon dioxide (C02) laser ‘The CO, lasers are having the wavelength ranging from 9 im to 11 jim, It works in both continuous and pulsed mode In the continuous operation it produces the wattage upto 1 W_ and in the pulsed mode it produces the output upto 100 kilowatts. Ithas the higher Gutput and higher efficiency. ‘The laser output forthe this laser depends on te rotational or vibrational motions of the CO molecules. The CO, molecule thas three types of vibrational modes viz. (2) Symmetric stretching mode. (b) Bending or deformation mode. (© Asymmetric stretching mode. Advantages of CO. lasers Higher output power can be obtained. Efficiency is high (around 40%) CO, lasers are mechanically durable. H Venture [Bbrecn.tio Pubtcations..A SACHINSHAsamunication (SPPU-Sem @-&TC) = pisadvantages wiser output powers, a single lined laser beam is not pained. 5 ee syeanic CO, Jasers are bulky in mate and they * toes noisy operation. 4 Higher output power CO, lasers requites & cooling system, | The cost ofthese lasers is high. @ Applications Because of higher power CO lasers are used for several applicetions such a5: ‘Cuting and welding of metals. 2. Spectroscopy. Range finding systems. 4. Radar systems, ‘Heat treating operations. ‘Medical fields such as surgery. ‘Material scribing etc. Note: Generally these lasers are used for operations. If the output wattage requirement of ne high the pulsed operation of this laser is preferred instead of the continuous operation. * (iii) Excimer tasers “These are special types of lasers which emits the wavelength in the ultraviolet region. These lasers are related to the dia - stomic molecules. viz. Bg, and Xe. These atoms repels each other when they are preseot at the ground state. But when these atoms are excited. The state of ‘toms will be modified and now these atom produces a force of azraction between them. At this stage, these two atoms can be bound together to form as excited state dimer, which is called as excimer. f If these atoms are the atoms of inert gases, then they will reach at the more higher energy levels during popalation jnversion process. Now when the stimulated emission is done at this stage, these atoms will emit the wavelength in the We 2.14.4 Liquid Lasers '* Liquid lasers are also known as dye lasers. This © The active midterial used in the liquid laser is ka shodamine 6G Shown in Fig. 214.2. fsa type of laser in which liquids are used as an active medium. own as a dye and the commonly used dyes are sodium fluorescein, molecule breaks, At this stage rene fo Waveleng in leaves ‘The degradation of gas takes place after some operations. ‘Upto certain extent the variation inthe beam direction takes place, 4, A cooling system s required for ths laser. 5. They are costly. © Applications “These lasers are used for several operations such as 1, Material processing without causing vaporization 2, For removal of polymer films from metal substrate, 3. Inspectroscopy. 4, Tn photo chemistry. 5. For patering of semiconductor integrated circuits. 6. Immedical fields such 35 neurosurgery. For atmospheric monitoring. 8, _ For the isotope separations. is given out ‘Advantages : ‘They have high intemal gan, Range of wavelengths is available 3. The divergence of aser beam is smal, 4 Theres no need to coat the outpu miror’s refteciviy. *@ Disadvantages 1, Ithas timited coherent length. 2 3. thodamine B and De power supply Output Flash lamp a Al Bfevster window HR mirtor Fig. 2142: Liquid laser Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venture (gPPU - New Syllabus w.ed academic year 22-23) (P8-108)Fier Optic Communication (SPPU-Sem 8-£8C) 1 Working of Liquid Laser 4+ The active medium in this laser type is organic dye andthe solvent used for dissolving the dye i either water, alcohol, or etlylene glycol. The dye is pumped to the capillary tube from the storge tank. This dye leaves the tubes with alah tmp. ‘+The ouput beam then passes through a Brewster window to the output coupler which is 50% reflective mieor. 1+ The output wavelength can vary to a wide range and the ‘maxim output possible i 618 um. 5 Application of Liquid Laser “These lasers are commonly used for medical purposes as a reseazch tool FP Advantages of Liquid Lasers (1) The efficiency is greater by 255. @) The wavelengths that are produced can be of vaied ranges. @)_ The diameter of the beam isles. (6) The beam divergence ranges between 08 milliradians and 2 nillradins, which is comparatively lesser than other lasers © Disadvantages of Liquid Lasers (1) These lasers are expensive. @) Tuning a laser to one frequency requires the use of a filter which makes i more expensive than other laser types ©) itis difficult to determine which element is responsible for laces. Ya 2.14.5 Semiconductor Lasers 1s The semiconductor laser is 2 type of laser that is small in appearance and size. ©The opecation of this laser is similar to LED but the characteristics of the output beam are of last ight ©The manufacturing of semiconductor used in semiconductor diode is done uniquely. Shown on Fig. 2.143. 1 Worl ‘+ -The active material used in @ semiconductor lasec is gallium arsenide and therefore, the laser is also Known as Gallium Arseaide Laser. ‘© The working of a semiconductor laser is similar to the PN ode in forward biased condition. The PN material is ‘connected tothe DC pawer supply withthe help ofthe metal contacts, ‘+The semiconductor laser is also known asthe Injection Laser because the cutent is injected into the junction between P and N material. 19 of Semiconductor Laser (Optical Sources) ..Page no. (2-21) CES Laser up a @ ° ® o ® ° Fig. 2.143 : SemiConductor laser Application of Semiconductor Lasers “Tis laser isa transmitter of éiptal data naturally asthe laser can be pulse st fferent ates and pulse widths “These lasers find applications in opie cable communication. ‘Advantages of Semiconductor Lasers ‘They find many applications due to their small size and appearance, ‘These lasers are economical “Thete is no use of miro. “The power consumption is iow. Disadvantages of Semiconductor Lasers ‘The divergence of the beam is more than 125 to 400 silliradians which is greater than other ase types. “The output beam has an unusual shepe as the mesium wsed is shoe and eectangula. ‘The working of this Taser type is dependent’ onthe temperate. 2.14.6 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCEL or VCSEL) ‘The Vertical Cavity Surface-Bmiting Laser (VCEL or VCSEL, or Vertical Cavity Surfsce-Emiting Laser) is 2 semieonductor whose laser is emited perpendicular tothe top ‘surface. It diffe from an edge-fired laser, which emits the laser from the edge. VCSEL is a brealshrough light emitting device in optical communications, as well as a new form of optoelectronic technology with enormous development prospects ‘The edge emiting laser emits in a direction parallel to the substrates suface and peependiclar to the cleavage surface, ‘whereas the surface emiting laser emits in a direction perpendicular to the subsites surface, as shown in Fig. 2.144. Tis advantages over edge-emiting lasers include: easy to- dimensional planar and optoelectonic integration; civeslar beams are easy t0 achieve effective coupling with opticat fibers; and cicular beams are easy to achieve effective coupling with optical fibers. (SPU - New Syllabus w.es academic year 22-23) (PB-106) [Bl reentieoPubicaons.. SACHIN SHAH VentreFibor Optic Communication (SPPU-Somn 8-ERTC) >a frre {=< tosolating fr [STi hot epra yenatic cir + 114s possible to exeate by Tongs ‘communication systems active + The cea size is extremely small, allowing for high packaging density and low threshold is requized atice chip growth, allowing for on-chip tests; + Ik operates ina single longinwinal mode aver a large temperanure and current + The most common emission wavelengths of VCSEL are in the range of 750-980 nm (often around 850 an), as obtained with the GaAS/AIGaAS material system, However, longer wavelengths of eg, 1.3 ym, 1.55 jm or even beyond 2 um (as required for, e.g. gas Sensing) can be obtained with di titres (GalnNAs quantum wells on GaAs) and from device based on indium phosphide (InAIGaAsP of fn?) Characteristics of Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser + Since VCSELs emits beam from the surface, ie. top of the chip, it can be tested and analyzed on-wafer before it carves {to any devices, This wil reduce the fabrication cost © The mechanism and stricture of VerticalCavity Surface- Emitting Laser make them able (0 use in two-dimensional arrays, unlike conventional edge-emittng lasers which can be used only in one dimensional + The light beam in a conventional edge-emitting laser has a high divergence angle and is difficult 10 couple into the ‘optical fiber Whereas VCSEL has a circular light-beam, tis is very easy for coupling into optical fibers, and it also has a lower divergence angle of the output beam. By regulating the thickness of the reflector layers, one can adjust the wavelength of the vertical cavity surface emitting laser. * The surface-normal emission and almost identical geometry of the photodetector provide easy alignment and packaging, VCSEL Basic Structure The structure of VCSEL is depicted inthe graphic below. Itis made up of distributed Bragg reflectors (DBR) that are developed altemately with high and low refractive index dielectic materials to form continuous growth of single or ‘multiple quantum well active regions * In order to get the highest stimulated radiation efficiency and enter the oscillating field, 35 quantum wells are typically arranged towards the maximum ofthe standing wave Geld {SPPU - New Syllabus w.e academic year 22-23) (P8-100) (Optical Sources) ...Page 0. (2:22) “+The laser beam is pt from she transparent window om the top, and metal layer is enated on the bottom 10 improve the ‘optical feedback of the DBR below. otal tin Mcrocaty Phase sting SE zaps? anno, ES San Contant Samancan ee 28.5 poles N ele A= 600m srt cetera LIS: VESFL Structure + In fact, a powerful cnrent converging stuctre: must be lized (0 complete the low-theeshold current operation, similae to a general bae type semiconductor laser, and optical feepting confinement must be confinement andl cure done at the same time. ‘©The semiconductor multilayer mode mirror DBR of the VCSEL is made of GaAS/AIAS, which is etched into an air- post (mesa) structure, as seen inthe above image ‘+The AIAS layer is oxidized in high-temperature water vapor to form an insulating AlxOy layer with a considerably lower rofiactive index, resulting in a structure that restricts light and carters venically © The high reflectivity, low loss DBR, and position of the active region in the cavity are all important factors in VCSEL design Advantages of VCSEL |. The outgoing beam is citcular with a modest divergence angle, making it simple to couple with optical bers and cater optical components while also being very efficient. 2 Ithas dhe ability to perform high-speed modulation and can be used’ in longedistance, high-speed optical fiber communication systems. 5. Because the active area is tiny, single longitudinal mode and low threshold operation are simple to produce. ‘4. The electro-optical conversion efficiency could be larger than 50%, implying a longer gadget lite 5. Itis simple to implement a Wvo-dimensional aray, apply itto 8 parallel optical logié processing system, achieve high- speed, large-capacity data processing, and use it in igh power devices, 6. The chip can be tested and the product sereened before it is packaged, lowering the product's cost significantly 7. Itean be employed in laminated optical integrated ianical technology. with micromeet [El rocn.veo Publications. SACHIN SHAH Venturevor Optic COMMUNES ion (SPPU-Som SES. ic) per OPI «Applications VcseLs have many wich are briefly discussed in 1, Optical Communications oundevip time, VCSELS can swell in the gigahert2 TAME ctuis makes them useful as tanstillers ie and for Frenspace optical ‘communications, For short-range communications, $50-am VCSEL are used in combination with multimode fibers. A rate of eg 10 Goits can be reached over a distance ofa applications, the most important of the following: + Due to the short resonator ‘be modulated with frequencies for optical fiber data few hundred meters. Computer Mice : An application area which was developed letee, but has acquired a large market volume, is that of computer mice. A lager mouse with 2 VCSEL as light source can have a high tracking precision combined with a low dectrcty consumption, as is important for battery-powered devices. Gas Sensing : Another prominent field of application is gas consing with wavelength-tunable infrared VCSELS. Such devices are built eg. as MEMS VCSELs, having a separate output coupling mirror the positon of which can be tuned via thermal expansion, electrostatic forces, ora piezoelectric element. In this area, VCSELs partially compete with distributed feedback lasers (DFB lasers), but offer a smaller drive current, 2 wider toning range and a higher modulation speed. 4. Optical oxygen sensors ae of particular importance, because an absorption line at 760 nm is in reach of GaAs-based VCSEL, whereas longer-wavelength VCSELs which could be used for detecting water vapor, methane, or carbon dioxide need some further development before widespread use S. Optical Clocks : VCSELs can also be used in miniature optical clocks, where the laser beam probes an atomic transition in cesium vapor. Such clocks could becoi ‘ould become part of. compact GPS 4 3 — 6 Laser Pumping : Duc to their high output powers, VCSEL sreys cn on eget 9h with diode stacks), e. ei w @ Q @) @) 6) © o Population Inversion In case of laser to cause the amplification two necessary. i COnditiog nS are (a) The input light wave (photons) excited atoms before eee Strike the emission Spontaneous (&) In the total structure dhe number of excited shold be more than that of atoms present atthe pens 5 level. ‘The process in which the number of excited at larger than that of the atoms present at ground aac «population inversion”. called optical feedback ‘The Fabry Perot Resonator cavity coasists of two ft partially reflecting mirrors fecing towards cach athe, An optical feedback is. established between the mirrors in longitudinal direction. Due to the optical feedback: the cavity acts like oscilla ‘The losses at certain resonant frequencies are compensated because, this cavity has a gain inechanism, ‘The sides of cavity have rough edges, so that there is no unwanted light emission in thet direction. The oscillations of light rays takes place inside the cavity: that means the light reflects back and forth inside the cavity. ‘The wavelengths of light which are intege- multiple of length of cavity gets added and comes out from the right miror a, shown in Fig. 2.15.1 ‘The other wavelengths gets cancelled because they ges interfered destructively. N N ic xv Fat partly eetctng aires Fig. 2181 feedback, so that it ‘The resonant cavity provides selective if Fabry Perot acts as oscillator. A typical dimensions of Resonator are shown in Fig. 2.15. ‘The longitudinal size is approsimately 250 side is about 5 to 15 jum end transvess to 500 pum, later se side is about (SPPU- ( New Syllabus west academic yoar 22-23) (P8-106) 0.11002 um. [El rech-tieo Pubticatons...A SACHIN SHAH Verte